Submarine communications cable

364: 746: 1535:, and even shark bites. Based on surveying breaks in the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, it was found that between 1959 and 1996, fewer than 9% were due to natural events. In response to this threat to the communications network, the practice of cable burial has developed. The average incidence of cable faults was 3.7 per 1,000 km (620 mi) per year from 1959 to 1979. That rate was reduced to 0.44 faults per 1,000 km per year after 1985, due to widespread burial of cable starting in 1980. Still, cable breaks are by no means a thing of the past, with more than 50 repairs a year in the Atlantic alone, and significant breaks in 120: 33: 1035: 1408: 1320:(WDM), which allows for multiple optical carrier channels to be transmitted through a single fiber, each carrying its own information. WDM is limited by the optical bandwidth of the amplifiers used to transmit data through the cable and by the spacing between the frequencies of the optical carriers; however this minimum spacing is also limited, with the minimum spacing often being 50 GHz (0.4 nm). The use of WDM can reduce the maximum length of the cable although this can be overcome by designing equipment with this in mind. 4595: 1520: 1210: 632: 615:

obvious uses for the cables in maintaining administrative communications with governors throughout its empire, as well as in engaging other nations diplomatically and communicating with its military units in wartime. The geographic location of British territory was also an advantage as it included both Ireland on the east side of the Atlantic Ocean and Newfoundland in North America on the west side, making for the shortest route across the ocean, which reduced costs significantly.

1163: 1356:) used for handling the signals in the cable via software control. The ROADM is used to improve the reliability of the cable by allowing it to operate even if it has faults. This equipment is located inside a cable landing station (CLS). C-OTDR (Coherent Optical Time Domain Reflectometry) is used in submarine cables to detect the location of cable faults. The wet plant of a submarine cable comprises the cable itself, branching units, repeaters and possibly OADMs ( 5666: 5676: 565: 1491:, but this is only a local network. To be a viable alternative, a fiber-optic cable would have to be able to withstand temperatures of −80 °C (−112 °F) as well as massive strain from ice flowing up to 10 metres (33 ft) per year. Thus, plugging into the larger Internet backbone with the high bandwidth afforded by fiber-optic cable is still an as-yet infeasible economic and technical challenge in the Antarctic. 5655: 4585: 5686: 1150: 1593:

surface. In especially deep water, the cable may not be strong enough to lift as a single unit, so a special grapple that cuts the cable soon after it has been hooked is used and only one length of cable is brought to the surface at a time, whereupon a new section is spliced in. The repaired cable is longer than the original, so the excess is deliberately laid in a "U" shape on the

1189:(EDFA). Each repeater contains separate equipment for each fiber. These comprise signal reforming, error measurement and controls. A solid-state laser dispatches the signal into the next length of fiber. The solid-state laser excites a short length of doped fiber that itself acts as a laser amplifier. As the light passes through the fiber, it is amplified. This system also permits 1238:. One reason for this development was that the capacity of cable systems had become so large that it was not possible to completely back up a cable system with satellite capacity, so it became necessary to provide sufficient terrestrial backup capability. Not all telecommunications organizations wish to take advantage of this capability, so modern cable systems may have dual 1420:. Two privately financed, non-consortium cables were constructed in the late 1990s, which preceded a massive, speculative rush to construct privately financed cables that peaked in more than $ 22 billion worth of investment between 1999 and 2001. This was followed by the bankruptcy and reorganization of cable operators such as 655:. A spin-off from Eastern Telegraph Company was a second sister company, the Eastern Extension, China and Australasia Telegraph Company, commonly known simply as "the Extension." In 1872, Australia was linked by cable to Bombay via Singapore and China and in 1876, the cable linked the British Empire from London to New Zealand. 1218:

specialized fiber-optic cable laying vessels. These included laboratories in the ships for splicing cable and testing its electrical properties. Such field monitoring is important because the glass of fiber-optic cable is less malleable than the copper cable that had been formerly used. The ships are equipped with

503:, the cable being completed successfully in September of that year. Problems soon developed with eleven breaks occurring by 1860 due to storms, tidal and sand movements, and wear on rocks. A report to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1860 set out the problems to assist in future cable-laying operations. 545:, who persuaded British industrialists to fund and lay one in 1858. However, the technology of the day was not capable of supporting the project; it was plagued with problems from the outset, and was in operation for only a month. Subsequent attempts in 1865 and 1866 with the world's largest steamship, the 1328:

which limits the amplification to +18 dBm per fiber. In WDM configurations the limitation due to crossphase modulation becomes predominant instead. Optical pre-amplifiers are often used to negate the thermal noise of the receiver. Pumping the pre-amplifier with a 980 nm laser leads to a noise of

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Optical post amplifiers, used to increase the strength of the signal generated by the optical transmitter often use a diode-pumped erbium-doped fiber laser. The diode is often a high power 980 or 1480 nm laser diode. This setup allows for an amplification of up to +24dBm in an affordable manner.

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Switching and all-by-sea routing commonly increases the distance and thus the round trip latency by more than 50%. For example, the round trip delay (RTD) or latency of the fastest transatlantic connections is under 60 ms, close to the theoretical optimum for an all-sea route. While in theory, a

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that can be used in live environments very quickly. Presently, SSTDR can collect a complete data set in 20 ms. Spread spectrum signals are sent down the wire and then the reflected signal is observed. It is then correlated with the copy of the sent signal and algorithms are applied to the shape

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Repeaters are powered by a constant direct current passed down the conductor near the centre of the cable, so all repeaters in a cable are in series. Power feed equipment is installed at the terminal stations. Typically both ends share the current generation with one end providing a positive voltage

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and private data traffic. Modern cables are typically about 25 mm (1 in) in diameter and weigh around 1.4 tonnes per kilometre (2.5 short tons per mile; 2.2 long tons per mile) for the deep-sea sections which comprise the majority of the run, although larger and heavier cables are used for

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Entanglement of marine animals in cables is one of the main causes of cable damage. Whales and sperm whales are the main animals that entangle themselves in cables and damage them. The encounter between these animals and cables can cause injury and sometimes death. Studies carried out between 1877

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around 2007. Each fiber can carry 30 wavelengths at a time. SDM or spatial division multiplexing submarine cables have at least 12 fiber pairs which is an increase from the maximum of 8 pairs found in conventional submarine cables, and submarine cables with up to 24 fiber pairs have been deployed.

686:(COMPAC), with 80 telephone channel capacity, opened for traffic from Sydney to Vancouver, and in 1967, the South East Asia Commonwealth (SEACOM) system, with 160 telephone channel capacity, opened for traffic. This system used microwave radio from Sydney to Cairns (Queensland), cable running from 618:

A few facts put this dominance of the industry in perspective. In 1896, there were 30 cable-laying ships in the world, 24 of which were owned by British companies. In 1892, British companies owned and operated two-thirds of the world's cables and by 1923, their share was still 42.7 percent. During

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Another way to increase the reach of a cable is by using unpowered repeaters called remote optical pre-amplifiers (ROPAs); these still make a cable count as unrepeatered since the repeaters do not require electrical power but they do require a pump laser light to be transmitted alongside the data

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point exists roughly halfway along the cable under normal operation. The amplifiers or repeaters derive their power from the potential difference across them. The voltage passed down the cable is often anywhere from 3000 to 15,000VDC at a current of up to 1,100mA, with the current increasing with

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Areas with a high density of submarine cables have the advantage of being safer from fishing. At the expense of benthic and sedimentary zones, marine fauna is better protected in these maritime regions, thanks to limitations and bans. Studies have shown a positive effect on the fauna surrounding

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The type of optical fiber used in unrepeated and very long cables is often PCSF (pure silica core) due to its low loss of 0.172 dB per kilometer when carrying a 1550 nm wavelength laser light. The large chromatic dispersion of PCSF means that its use requires transmission and receiving

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The submarine cables were an economic benefit to trading companies, because owners of ships could communicate with captains when they reached their destination and give directions as to where to go next to pick up cargo based on reported pricing and supply information. The British government had

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are used depending on the situation. If the sea bed in question is sandy, a grapple with rigid prongs is used to plough under the surface and catch the cable. If the cable is on a rocky sea surface, the grapple is more flexible, with hooks along its length so that it can adjust to the changing

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can be used to extend the reach or the capacity of an unrepeatered cable, by launching 2 frequencies into a single fiber; one carrying data signals at 1550 nm, and the other pumping them at 1450 nm. Launching a pump frequency (pump laser light) at a power of just one watt leads to an

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Underwater noise and waves can modify the behavior of certain underwater species, such as migratory behavior, disrupting communication or reproduction. Available information is that underwater noise generated by submarine cable engineering operations has limited acoustic footprint and limited

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According to several studies, the biota of the benthic zone is only slightly affected by the presence of cables. However, the presence of cables can trigger behavioral disturbances in living organisms. The main observation is that the presence of cables provides a hard substrate for anemones

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Underwater cables, which cannot be kept under constant surveillance, have tempted intelligence-gathering organizations since the late 19th century. Frequently at the beginning of wars, nations have cut the cables of the other sides to redirect the information flow into cables that were being

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whereby fast switching equipment is used to transfer services between network paths with little to no effect on higher-level protocols if a path becomes inoperable. As more paths become available to use between two points, it is less likely that one or two simultaneous failures will prevent

761:, which surrounded a multi-stranded copper wire at the core. The portions closest to each shore landing had additional protective armour wires. Gutta-percha, a natural polymer similar to rubber, had nearly ideal properties for insulating submarine cables, with the exception of a rather high 1368:

Currently 99% of the data traffic that is crossing oceans is carried by undersea cables. The reliability of submarine cables is high, especially when (as noted above) multiple paths are available in the event of a cable break. Also, the total carrying capacity of submarine cables is in the

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The rising demand for these fiber-optic cables outpaced the capacity of providers such as AT&T. Having to shift traffic to satellites resulted in lower-quality signals. To address this issue, AT&T had to improve its cable-laying abilities. It invested $ 100 million in producing two

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The optic fiber used in undersea cables is chosen for its exceptional clarity, permitting runs of more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) between repeaters to minimize the number of amplifiers and the distortion they cause. Unrepeated cables are cheaper than repeated cables and their maximum

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British officials believed that depending on telegraph lines that passed through non-British territory posed a security risk, as lines could be cut and messages could be interrupted during wartime. They sought the creation of a worldwide network within the empire, which became known as the

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The installation and maintenance of cables requires the use of machinery and equipment that can trigger sound waves or electromagnetic waves that can disturb animals that use waves to find their bearings in space or to communicate. Underwater sound waves depend on the equipment used, the

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amplifiers ever designed. Later ones were transistorized. Many of these cables are still usable, but have been abandoned because their capacity is too small to be commercially viable. Some have been used as scientific instruments to measure earthquake waves and other geomagnetic events.

1178:, which went into operation in 1988. A fiber-optic cable comprises multiple pairs of fibers. Each pair has one fiber in each direction. TAT-8 had two operational pairs and one backup pair. Except for very short lines, fiber-optic submarine cables include repeaters at regular intervals. 794:

core, at first to furnish other makers of finished cable, that began to compete with the gutta-percha cores. The company later expanded into complete cable manufacture and cable laying, including the building of the first cable ship specifically designed to lay transatlantic cables.

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in some countries (where back-up capability is required) and only single landing points in other countries where back-up capability is either not required, the capacity to the country is small enough to be backed up by other means, or having backup is regarded as too expensive.

1746:, fishing activity can damage the cables. Fishermen using fishing techniques that involve scraping the seabed, or dragging equipment such as trawls or cages, can damage the cables, resulting in the loss of liquids and the chemical and toxic materials that make up the cables. 584:

led to business for the cable companies from news agencies, trading and shipping companies, and the British government. Many of Britain's colonies had significant populations of European settlers, making news about them of interest to the general public in the home country.

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Preliminary analyses can assess the level of sediment toxicity and select a cable route that avoids the remobilization and dispersion of sediment pollutants. And new, more modern techniques will make it possible to use less polluting materials for cable construction.

810:. In the 1920s, the American military experimented with rubber-insulated cables as an alternative to gutta-percha, since American interests controlled significant supplies of rubber but did not have easy access to gutta-percha manufacturers. The 1926 development by 730:) to completely cross the Pacific from the US mainland to Japan. The US portion of NPC was manufactured in Portland, Oregon, from 1989 to 1991 at STC Submarine Systems, and later Alcatel Submarine Networks. The system was laid by Cable & Wireless Marine on the 1009:

Thomson had produced a mathematical analysis of propagation of electrical signals into telegraph cables based on their capacitance and resistance, but since long submarine cables operated at slow rates, he did not include the effects of inductance. By the 1890s,

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Fishing, aging cables and marine species that collide with or become entangled in cables can damage cables and spread toxic and harmful substances into the sea. However, the impact of submarine cables is limited compared with other sources of ocean pollution.

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carried by the cable; the pump light and the data are often transmitted in physically separate fibers. The ROPA contains a doped fiber that uses the pump light (often a 1480 nm laser light) to amplify the data signals carried on the rest of the fibers.

1569:. It appeared that the cables had been dragged along by the ship's nets, and then cut once they were pulled up onto the deck to release the nets. The Soviet Union's stance on the investigation was that it was unjustified, but the United States cited the 1324:

Using an erbium-ytterbium doped fiber instead allows for a gain of +33dBm, however again the amount of power that can be fed into the fiber is limited. In single carrier configurations the dominating limitation is self phase modulation induced by the

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showed that retardation could not be overcome by a higher voltage. His recommendation was a larger cable. Because of the excessive voltages recommended by Whitehouse, Cyrus West Field's first transatlantic cable never worked reliably, and eventually

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was much expanded starting in the 1990s. For example, between 1998 and 2003, approximately 70% of undersea fiber-optic cable was laid in the Pacific. This is in part a response to the emerging significance of Asian markets in the global economy.

1399:, for example, uses the submarine cable network for data transfer from conflict zones to command staff in the United States. Interruption of the cable network during intense operations could have direct consequences for the military on the ground. 1206:

transmission distance is limited, although this has increased over the years; in 2014 unrepeated cables of up to 380 kilometres (240 mi) in length were in service; however these require unpowered repeaters to be positioned every 100 km.

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itself. In theory, using this partial land route could result in round trip times below 40 ms (which is the speed of light minimum time), and not counting switching. Along routes with less land in the way, round trip times can approach

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However, these disturbances are not very persistent over time, and can stabilize within a few days. Cable operators are trying to implement measures to route cables in such a way as to avoid areas with sensitive and vulnerable ecosystems.

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The presence of cables in the oceans can be a danger to marine life. With the proliferation of cable installations and the increasing demand for inter-connectivity that today's society demands, the environmental impact is increasing.

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is the ecological region at the bottom of the sea where benthos, clams and crabs live, and where the surface sediments, which are deposits of matter and particles in the water that provide a habitat for marine species, are located.

2643:. From this page: In 1966, after ten years of service, the 1,608 tubes in the repeaters had not suffered a single failure. In fact, after more than 100 million tube-hours over all, AT&T undersea repeaters were without failure. 1734:

and 1955 reported 16 cable ruptures caused by whale entanglement, 13 of them by sperm whales. Between 1907 and 2006, 39 such events were recorded. Cable burial techniques are gradually being introduced to prevent such incidents.

580:. The British had both supply side and demand side advantages. In terms of supply, Britain had entrepreneurs willing to put forth enormous amounts of capital necessary to build, lay and maintain these cables. In terms of demand, 3196: 3145: 647:. In 1870, Bombay was linked to London via submarine cable in a combined operation by four cable companies, at the behest of the British Government. In 1872, these four companies were combined to form the mammoth globe-spanning 773:

had developed a machine in 1837 for covering wires with silk or cotton thread that he developed into a wire wrapping capability for submarine cable with a factory in 1857 that became W.T. Henley's Telegraph Works Co., Ltd. The

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Investments in cables present a commercial risk because cables cover 6,200 km of ocean floor, cross submarine mountain ranges and rifts. Because of this most companies only purchase capacity after the cable is finished.

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Almost all fiber-optic cables from TAT-8 in 1988 until approximately 1997 were constructed by consortia of operators. For example, TAT-8 counted 35 participants including most major international carriers at the time such as

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The open cable concept allows for the design of a submarine cable independently of the transponders that will be used to transmit data through the cable. SLTE (Submarine Line Terminal Equipment) has transponders and a ROADM

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Seabed ecosystems can be disturbed by the installation and maintenance of cables. The effects of cable installation are generally limited to specific areas. The intensity of disturbance depends on the installation method.

679:. Japan was connected into the system in 1906. Service beyond Midway Atoll was abandoned in 1941 due to World War II, but the remainder stayed in operation until 1951 when the FCC gave permission to cease operations. 1254:

As of 2012, operators had "successfully demonstrated long-term, error-free transmission at 100 Gbps across Atlantic Ocean" routes of up to 6,000 km (3,700 mi), meaning a typical cable can move tens of

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as frequently reported) cut the five cables linking Germany with France, Spain and the Azores, and through them, North America. Thereafter, the only way Germany could communicate was by wireless, and that meant that

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While laying a transatlantic telephone cable was seriously considered from the 1920s, the technology required for economically feasible telecommunications was not developed until the 1940s. A first attempt to lay a

1392:(ACMA) has created protection zones that restrict activities that could potentially damage cables linking Australia to the rest of the world. The ACMA also regulates all projects to install new submarine cables. 1222:

that increase maneuverability. This capability is important because fiber-optic cable must be laid straight from the stern, which was another factor that copper-cable-laying ships did not have to contend with.

398:, without any other protection, and was not successful. However, the experiment served to secure renewal of the concession, and in September 1851, a protected core, or true, cable was laid by the reconstituted 3841:

Carter, L. Brunett,D. Drew, S. Marie, G. Hagadorn, L. Barlett-McNeil, D. Irvine, N. (2009). ‘Submarines Cables ond the Oceans- Connecting the World. UNEP_WCMC Biodiversity Series No. 31. ICPC/UNEP/UNEP-WCMC.

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After decades of heavy investment in already developed markets such as the transatlantic and transpacific routes, efforts increased in the 21st century to expand the submarine cable network to serve the

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played a major role; this was a first. At the start of the campaign there was a telegraph link at Bucharest connected to London. In the winter of 1854 the French extended the telegraph link to the

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As a result of these cables' cost and usefulness, they are highly valued not only by the corporations building and operating them for profit, but also by national governments. For instance, the

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https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Regional-Presence/AsiaPacific/SiteAssets/Pages/Events/2017/Submarine%20Cable/submarine-cables-for-Pacific-Islands-Countries/Ciena%20Subsea%20PITA%20Aug2017%20v2.pdf

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https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Regional-Presence/AsiaPacific/SiteAssets/Pages/Events/2017/Submarine%20Cable/submarine-cables-for-Pacific-Islands-Countries/Ciena%20Subsea%20PITA%20Aug2017%20v2.pdf

1088:. A high-voltage direct current on the inner conductor powered repeaters (two-way amplifiers placed at intervals along the cable). The first-generation repeaters remain among the most reliable 2879: 323:

and Wheatstone soon discovered the merits of gutta-percha as an insulator, and in 1845, the latter suggested that it should be employed to cover the wire which was proposed to be laid from

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There is also a risk of releasing pollutants buried in sediments. When sediments are re-suspended due to the installation of cables, toxic substances such as hydrocarbons may be released.

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Sediment can be damaged by cable installation by trenching with water jets or ploughing. This can lead to reworking of the sediments, altering the substrate of which they are composed.

1653:, when British and German forces systematically attempted to destroy the others' worldwide communications systems by cutting their cables with surface ships or submarines. During the 1717:

attachment. These organisms are found in large number around cables that run through soft sediments, which are not normally suitable for these organisms. This is also the case for

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had observed that electric signals were slowed in passing through an insulated wire or core laid underground, and outlined the cause to be induction, using the analogy of a long

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Butler, R.; A. D. Chave; F. K. Duennebier; D. R. Yoerger; R. Petitt; D. Harris; F.B. Wooding; A. D. Bowen; J. Bailey; J. Jolly; E. Hobart; J. A. Hildebrand; A. H. Dodeman.

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Early long-distance submarine telegraph cables exhibited formidable electrical problems. Unlike modern cables, the technology of the 19th century did not allow for in-line

3000: 593:, and conversely prepared strategies to quickly interrupt enemy communications. Britain's very first action after declaring war on Germany in World War I was to have the 1570: 1259:

per second overseas. Speeds improved rapidly in the previous few years, with 40 Gbit/s having been offered on that route only three years earlier in August 2009.

1889: 1554:. For example, in February 1959, a series of 12 breaks occurred in five American trans-Atlantic communications cables. In response, a United States naval vessel, the 129: 1565:. A review of the ship's log indicated it had been in the region of each of the cables when they broke. Broken sections of cable were also found on the deck of the 1874: 2853: 3124:

https://web.archive.org/web/20220413060821/https://web.asn.com/media/data/files_user/72/SDM1/How_to_Open_Cable_The_Guidelines_and_the_Gotchas_-_04-07-2019_R1.pdf

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is the only continent not yet reached by a submarine telecommunications cable. Phone, video, and e-mail traffic must be relayed to the rest of the world via

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was introduced in the 1930s. Even then, the material was only available to the military and the first submarine cable using it was not laid until 1945 during

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equipment designed with this in mind; this property can also be used to reduce interference when transmitting multiple channels through a single fiber using

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at a point where the cable descended over a steep drop. The unfortunate whale got its tail entangled in loops of cable and drowned. The cable repair ship

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Rivera Hartling, Elizabeth; Pilipetskii, Alexei; Evans, Darwin; Mateo, Eduardo; Salsi, Massimiliano; Pecci, Pascal; Mehta, Priyanth (February 14, 2021).

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Rivera Hartling, Elizabeth; Pilipetskii, Alexei; Evans, Darwin; Mateo, Eduardo; Salsi, Massimiliano; Pecci, Pascal; Mehta, Priyanth (February 2021).

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for detecting the faint telegraph signals. Thomson became wealthy on the royalties of these, and several related inventions. Thomson was elevated to

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The Embassy of the United States of America. (1959, March 24). U.S. note to Soviet Union on breaks in trans-Atlantic cables. The New York Times, 10.

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The first trans-Pacific telephone cable was laid from Hawaii to Japan in 1964, with an extension from Guam to The Philippines. Also in 1964, the

1721:. Although little observed, the presence of cables can also change the water temperature and therefore disturb the surrounding natural habitat. 1202:

decreasing voltage; the current at 10,000VDC is up to 1,650mA. Hence the total amount of power sent into the cable is often up to 16.5 kW.

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WDM or wavelength division multiplexing was first implemented in submarine fiber optic cables from the 1990s to the 2000s, followed by DWDM or

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at most 3.5 dB, with a noise of 5 dB usually obtained with a 1480 nm laser. The noise has to be filtered using optical filters.

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Throughout the 1860s and 1870s, British cable expanded eastward, into the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. An 1863 cable to Bombay (now

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The type of modulation employed in a submarine cable can have a major impact in its capacity. SDM is combined with DWDM to improve capacity.

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in the wire induces an opposite charge in the water as it travels along. In 1831, Faraday described this effect in what is now referred to as

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Winkler, Jonathan Reed. Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008)

3957: 1389: 1230:(SBUs), more than one destination could be served by a single cable system. Modern cable systems now usually have their fibers arranged in a 457: 434: 3245: 2819: 5638: 5610: 5605: 4630: 1939: 927:(or water) surrounding it. Faraday had noticed that when a wire is charged from a battery (for example when pressing a telegraph key), the 3862:"A review of potential impacts of submarine power cables on the marine environment: Knowledge gaps, recommendations and future directions" 3649: 3207: 2953: 4294:

Account of how U.S. government discovered strategic significance of communications lines, including submarine cables, during World War I.

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https://topconference.com/wp-content/uploads/1Towards-Maximizing-Data-Throughput-on-Subsea-Fiber-Optic-Cables-Geoff-Bennett-Infinera.pdf

623:, Britain's telegraph communications were almost completely uninterrupted, while it was able to quickly cut Germany's cables worldwide. 1762:, surrounded by several protective layers of plastic, wire or synthetic materials. Cables can also be composed of dielectric fluids or 272:

to cover the wire and prevent the electric current from leaking into the water was necessary for the success of a long submarine line.

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Advances in Information and Communication: Proceedings of the 2020 Future of Information and Communication Conference (FICC), Volume 1

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had dismissed the problems and insisted that a transatlantic cable was feasible. When he subsequently became chief electrician of the

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of 1884 to which Russia had signed (prior to the formation of the Soviet Union) as evidence of violation of international protocol.

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Transatlantic cables of the 19th century consisted of an outer layer of iron and later steel wire, wrapping India rubber, wrapping

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signals across stretches of ocean and sea. The first submarine communications cables were laid beginning in the 1850s and carried

355:, submerged 3 km (2 mi) of wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully. 3731:"Analyzing the Internet Collapse: Multiple fiber cuts to undersea cables show the fragility of the Internet at its choke points" 1536: 5725: 5632: 1443:

Most cables in the 20th century crossed the Atlantic Ocean, to connect the United States and Europe. However, capacity in the

1074: 335:, then an officer in the army of Prussia, laid the first successful underwater cable using gutta percha insulation, across the 1487:

links that have limited availability and capacity. Bases on the continent itself are able to communicate with one another via

5720: 5627: 5617: 5597: 5399: 3984: 3967: 3522: 3229: 3181: 2746: 2570: 1344: 4287: 3598: 3472: 2929: 2336: 1381:. However, a typical multi-terabit, transoceanic submarine cable system costs several hundred million dollars to construct. 4329: 1886: 4764: 3860:

Taormina, Bastien; Bald, Juan; Want, Andrew; Thouzeau, Gérard; Lejart, Morgane; Desroy, Nicolas; Carlier, Antoine (2018).

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Ash, Stewart, "The development of submarine cables", ch. 1 in, Burnett, Douglas R.; Beckman, Robert; Davenport, Tara M.,

1636:. The crews of these vessels developed many new techniques and devices to repair and improve cable laying, such as the " 5394: 4129: 4110: 3135:

https://comfutures2020.ieee-comfutures.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/101/2020/02/ComFutures2020-Ses1-SubseaCom-Kovsh.pdf

1834: 1464:, which is 75% owned by East African and South African investors. The project was delayed by a month due to increased 1193:, which dramatically increases the capacity of the fiber. EDFA amplifiers were first used in submarine cables in 1995. 837:

gave pests a route to eat their way in. Damaged armouring, which was not uncommon, also provided an entrance. Cases of

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The first trans-Pacific cables providing telegraph service were completed in 1902 and 1903, linking the US mainland to

188: 5488: 4494: 4336: 4027: 2505: 2423: 2129: 1992: 1429: 963: 683: 3011: 2149: 745: 5273: 4821: 4623: 4474: 3498: 2905:"Light Reading Europe – Optical Networking – Hibernia Offers Cross-Atlantic 40G – Telecom News Wire" 1317: 1190: 1113: 635:

Eastern Telegraph Company network in 1901. Dotted lines across the Pacific indicate planned cables laid in 1902–03.

134: 5384: 4056: 1544: 1540: 1267:(GCP) between London and New York City is only 5,600 km (3,500 mi), this requires several land masses ( 1085: 4352: 4148: – includes a register of submarine cables worldwide (though not always updated as often as one might hope) 3698: 3171: 675:

in 1903. Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Fiji were also linked in 1902 with the trans-Pacific segment of the

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Many early cables suffered from attack by sea life. The insulation could be eaten, for instance, by species of

241: 4307: 2654: 1612:, was home to a half dozen such vessels for most of the 20th century including long-lived vessels such as the 290:

Another insulating gum which could be melted by heat and readily applied to wire made its appearance in 1842.

5710: 5404: 3399: 2477:"History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications—British Submarine Cable Manufacturing Companies" 1605: 1461: 1066: 932: 893: 536: 165: 3627: 1186: 5679: 5440: 5337: 4880: 4675: 4647: 2791: 1637: 1504: 1357: 1116:, adapted submarine communications cable technology to create the world's first submarine oil pipeline in 5669: 5176: 4616: 4489: 2228:

Headrick, D.R., & Griset, P. (2001). "Submarine Telegraph Cables: Business and Politics, 1838–1939".

1055:" telephone cable—one with loading coils added at regular intervals—failed in the early 1930s due to the 787: 399: 2964: 2242: 1588:

A cable repair ship will be sent to the location to drop a marker buoy near the break. Several types of

1411:

A map of active and anticipated submarine communications cables servicing the African continent in 2020.

919:(1853) on cores immersed in water, and particularly on the lengthy cable between England and The Hague. 861:

was only able to winch up the cable with difficulty, weighed down as it was with the dead whale's body.

5528: 5450: 5389: 5096: 3576: 3208:

https://www.fujitsu.com/global/documents/about/resources/publications/fstj/archives/vol35-1/paper05.pdf

2954:

https://www.fujitsu.com/global/documents/about/resources/publications/fstj/archives/vol42-4/paper07.pdf

1630: 1015: 959: 352: 184: 164:

traffic, establishing the first instant telecommunications links between continents, such as the first

1943: 1550:

The propensity for fishing trawler nets to cause cable faults may well have been exploited during the

966:. Whitehouse believed that, with enough voltage, any cable could be driven. Thomson believed that his 5300: 5261: 5106: 5006: 4935: 4868: 4695: 4469: 3933: 3657: 1581: 1296: 834: 252:

proclaimed his faith in it as early as 1840, and in 1842, he submerged a wire, insulated with tarred

192: 4157:

Kingfisher Information Service – Cable Awareness; UK Fisherman's Submarine Cable Awareness site

1127:

Active fiber-optic cables may be useful in detecting seismic events which alter cable polarization.

576:

From the 1850s until 1911, British submarine cable systems dominated the most important market, the

5659: 4901: 4836: 4789: 4749: 4589: 4464: 3829: 2365: 2243:"The Telegraph – Calcutta (Kolkata) | Frontpage | Third cable cut, but India's safe" 1662: 1555: 1227: 783: 233: 37: 3448: 2282: 1824: 5498: 5483: 5327: 5278: 5201: 5101: 4779: 4665: 4660: 4459: 4372: 3389:

Lindstrom, A. (1999, January 1). Taming the terrors of the deep. America's Network, 103(1), 5–16.

2828: 1077:, in Canada. It was inaugurated on September 25, 1956, initially carrying 36 telephone channels. 995: 648: 264:, and telegraphed through it. The following autumn, Wheatstone performed a similar experiment in 3799: 2784:

Very Compact and High Voltage Power Feeding Equipment (PFE) for Advanced Submarine Cable Network

119: 5420: 5206: 5021: 4966: 4961: 4774: 4739: 4151: 3157: 2386: 1018:, which included the effects of inductance and which were essential to extending the theory of 750: 348: 284: 269: 4178: 3784: 2544: 2413: 1604:

A number of ports near important cable routes became homes to specialized cable repair ships.

1388:

considers its submarine cable systems to be "vital to the national economy". Accordingly, the

994:

of the cable, which permitted design of the equipment for accurate telegraphy. The effects of

782:, furnished cores to Henley's as well as eventually making and laying finished cable. In 1870 5322: 5126: 5091: 5011: 4991: 4913: 4801: 4722: 2818:

Tranvouez, Nicolas; Brandon, Eric; Fullenbaum, Marc; Bousselet, Philippe; Brylski, Isabelle.

2454: 1829: 1786:

characteristics of the seabed area where the cables are located, and the relief of the area.

1670: 1385: 1378: 1272: 1226:

Originally, submarine cables were simple point-to-point connections. With the development of

948: 935:. As the two charges attract each other, the exciting charge is retarded. The core acts as a 881: 770: 4655: 3697:

Shapiro, S.; Murray, J.G.; Gleason, R.F.; Barnes, S.R.; Eales, B.A.; Woodward, P.R. (1987).

3295: 2476: 2283:"Pacific Cable (SF, Hawaii, Guam, Phil) opens, President TR sends message July 4 in History" 1766:

fluids, which act as electrical insulators. These substances can be harmful to marine life.

5236: 5196: 5166: 4923: 4858: 4680: 4263: 4208: 3873: 3322: 3096: 3055: 2693: 2599: 1276: 1246:

A further redundant-path development over and above the self-healing rings approach is the

1234:

to increase their redundancy, with the submarine sections following different paths on the

924: 577: 332: 4057:"The cloud under the sea: The invisible seafaring industry that keeps the internet afloat" 3426: 3270: 8: 5246: 5186: 4945: 4907: 4705: 4690: 4561: 4484: 2988:"STF Mag Feature: Next Generation Transponder Technology to Align with Subsea SDM Cables" 2904: 1809: 1666: 1576:

Shore stations can locate a break in a cable by electrical measurements, such as through

1437: 1417: 1395:

Submarine cables are important to the modern military as well as private enterprise. The

1332: 1239: 983: 569: 552:, used a more advanced technology and produced the first successful transatlantic cable. 301: 32: 4267: 4212: 4184: 4017: 3877: 3326: 3100: 3059: 2697: 2631: 2603: 2085: 1034: 845:

have been recorded. In one case in 1873, a whale damaged the Persian Gulf Cable between

5473: 5430: 5361: 5231: 5161: 5136: 5071: 4918: 4639: 4365: 4232: 3908: 2880:"Submarine Cable Networks – Hibernia Atlantic Trials the First 100G Transatlantic" 2858: 2717: 2169: 2030: 1918: 1658: 1264: 991: 723: 376: 312: 237: 3730: 2976:

https://sumitomoelectric.com/sites/default/files/2023-04/download_documents/E96-07.pdf

2679: 5513: 5435: 5349: 5332: 5295: 5141: 4971: 4940: 4806: 4700: 4599: 4566: 4438: 4224: 4125: 4106: 4023: 3963: 3938: 3889: 3795: 3568: 3225: 3177: 2742: 2721: 2709: 2684: 2566: 2501: 2429: 2419: 2212: 2191: 2125: 1988: 1858: 1625: 1532: 1231: 1182: 1019: 999: 955: 524: 277: 203: 157: 5181: 4302: 3802:, pg 621: various drawing and cutaways of cable repair ship equipment and operations 2165: 2034: 319:, and he believed that it would be useful in the fabrication of surgical apparatus. 206:

traffic. These early cables used copper wires in their cores, but modern cables use

5518: 5478: 5458: 5425: 5354: 5312: 5226: 5081: 5066: 5041: 5016: 4976: 4826: 4685: 4670: 4271: 4236: 4216: 3928: 3920: 3881: 3560: 3449:"'Visionary' fund for early stage European infrastructure backed by nations and EU" 3330: 3104: 3063: 2701: 2607: 2527: 2161: 2022: 1519: 1453: 1440:' Global Network (TGN) is the only wholly owned fiber network circling the planet. 1102: 1056: 1011: 901: 818: 695: 546: 542: 500: 403: 3476: 3335: 3310: 2680:"Optical polarization–based seismic and water wave sensing on transoceanic cables" 2455:"History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communications—CS Hooper/Silvertown" 975:

to the ocean when Whitehouse increased the voltage beyond the cable design limit.

556:

later went on to lay the first cable reaching to India from Aden, Yemen, in 1870.

5146: 5001: 4769: 4744: 4732: 4417: 4407: 4291: 4284: 4188: 3773: 3590: 3025:"Google, SubCom, to deploy space-division multiplexing on Dunant submarine cable" 3012:

https://2023.apricot.net/assets/files/APPS314/sdm-a-new-subsea-par_1677480490.pdf

2933: 2328: 2268: 1893: 1665:(NSA) succeeded in placing wire taps on Soviet underwater communication lines in 1508: 1421: 1247: 1174:

were developed. The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was

1117: 939:

distributed along the length of the cable which, coupled with the resistance and

928: 920: 908: 807: 594: 384: 375:

In August 1850, having earlier obtained a concession from the French government,

368: 320: 296: 261: 104: 3696: 3499:"The global internet is powered by vast undersea cables. But they're vulnerable" 2781:

Kaneko, Tomoyuki; Chiba, Yoshinori; Kunimi, Kaneaki; Nakamura, Tomotaka (2010).

631: 5344: 5216: 5191: 5151: 5121: 4996: 4831: 4784: 4759: 4717: 4571: 4556: 4525: 4347: 4298:

Animations from Alcatel showing how submarine cables are installed and repaired

4195:

Medford, L. V.; Meloni, A.; Lanzerotti, L. J.; Gregori, G. P. (April 2, 1981).

3885: 1589: 1309: 1209: 1198: 1110: 967: 581: 477: 446: 340: 273: 257: 245: 4342: 2652: 1407: 978:

Thomson designed a complex electric-field generator that minimized current by

5704: 5493: 5266: 5256: 5171: 5061: 5056: 5046: 5031: 4853: 4712: 4530: 4504: 4353:

Positions and Route information of Submarine Cables in the Seas Around the UK

4228: 4076:

Communications Under the Seas:The Evolving Cable Network and Its Implications

3942: 3893: 3861: 3757: 3679: 3572: 3366:"How the Internet works: Submarine fiber, brains in jars, and coaxial cables" 3109: 3084: 3068: 3043: 2066:

The company is referred to as the English Channel Submarine Telegraph Company

2026: 1759: 1523:

An animation showing a method used to repair submarine communications cables.

1444: 1292: 1280: 1171: 1081: 972: 916: 811: 791: 707: 207: 141: 113: 85: 3844:

http://www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/31.aspx

2705: 1456:. For instance, in July 2009, an underwater fiber-optic cable line plugged 541:

The first attempt at laying a transatlantic telegraph cable was promoted by

523:

coast. In April 1855 the British laid an underwater cable from Varna to the

5371: 5211: 5156: 5086: 5051: 4986: 4885: 4875: 4727: 4412: 4196: 3959:

Submarine Power Cables: Design, Installation, Repair, Environmental Aspects

2713: 1984: 1911:"[Heroes of the Telegraph – Chapter III. – Samuel Morse]" 1706: 1702: 1288: 1219: 1162: 1121: 1106: 1038:

Submarine communication cables crossing the Scottish shore at Scad Head on

892:

combined to distort the telegraph pulses in the line, reducing the cable's

803: 799: 758: 719: 676: 644: 590: 480:

which later became the first vessel with permanent cable-laying equipment.

469: 395: 315:. Twenty years earlier, Montgomerie had seen whips made of gutta-percha in 291: 249: 211: 47: 4276: 4251: 1069:

system. Between 1955 and 1956, cable was laid between Gallanach Bay, near

923:

showed that the effect was caused by capacitance between the wire and the

527:

so that news of the Crimean War could reach London in a handful of hours.

5571: 5221: 5131: 5116: 5076: 5036: 4895: 4520: 3564: 1804: 1763: 1686: 1650: 1609: 1598: 1460:

into the broader Internet. The company that provided this new cable was

1457: 1425: 1396: 1325: 1284: 1089: 1039: 1023: 987: 954:

Early cable designs failed to analyse these effects correctly. Famously,

885: 766: 672: 652: 620: 512: 465: 438: 422: 265: 124: 3924: 2531: 2518:

Blake, J. T.; Boggs, C. R. (1926). "The Absorption of Water by Rubber".

814:

of deproteinized rubber improved the impermeability of cables to water.

5576: 5283: 4981: 4890: 4846: 4816: 4794: 4422: 1799: 1613: 1480: 940: 912: 889: 779: 762: 732: 516: 442: 176: 161: 4039:

A Retrospective Technology Assessment: The Transatlantic Cable of 1866

3400:"SEACOM - South Africa - East Africa - South Asia - Fiber Optic Cable" 2612: 2587: 2173: 798:

Gutta-percha and rubber were not replaced as a cable insulation until

413:

In 1853, more successful cables were laid, linking Great Britain with

5561: 5026: 4841: 4608: 4535: 4443: 4388: 4220: 3705: 2965:

https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/tut/T-TUT-HOME-2022-1-PDF-E.pdf

1484: 1304: 979: 936: 873: 825: 715: 703: 626: 520: 461: 426: 316: 199: 172: 75: 66: 4343:

Map and Satellite views of US landing sites for transatlantic cables

4320: 3826:

Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I

3082: 3041: 2630:. International Submarine Cable Protection Committee. Archived from 2209:

Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I

1153: 853:. The whale was apparently attempting to use the cable to clean off 371:

of the British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Co. Limited (c. 1862).

5556: 5546: 5463: 5288: 5111: 4402: 4348:

Map and Satellite views of US landing sites for transpacific cables

2082:

Royal Institution of Great Britain: Proceedings: Vol. II, 1854–1858

1718: 1654: 1551: 1528: 1433: 1374: 1370: 1256: 1052: 897: 870: 854: 727: 602: 564: 496: 492: 305: 215: 3403: 3298:. Australian Communications and Media Authority. February 5, 2010. 1336:

increase in reach of 45 km or a 6-fold increase in capacity.

5551: 5536: 4754: 3909:"Beyond seablindness: a new agenda for maritime security studies" 3619: 2854:"New Fiber-Optic Cable Will Expand Calls Abroad, and Defy Sharks" 1268: 877: 846: 842: 608: 430: 418: 414: 388: 344: 308: 281: 4930: 2433: 5581: 5541: 4863: 4197:"Geomagnetic induction on a transatlantic communications cable" 4036: 2817: 2418:. London: C. Lockwood and son. pp. 125, 157–160, 337–339. 1743: 1594: 1500: 1465: 1300: 1235: 1043: 944: 850: 691: 687: 664: 640: 488: 456:

in Belgium, by the Submarine Telegraph Company. Meanwhile, the

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Submarine Telegraphs: Their History, Construction, and Working

2415:

Submarine telegraphs: Their History, Construction, and Working

749:

Landing of an Italy-USA cable (4,704 nautical miles long), on

222: 187:, Australia, in 1871 in anticipation of the completion of the 5566: 5503: 4811: 3764:

Spread Spectrum Sensors for Location of Arcs on Live Wires."

1629:. The latter two were contracted to recover victims from the 1488: 1175: 1062: 838: 711: 336: 324: 56: 4357: 3815:. New York, N.Y.: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc.. p. 113 3246:"Undersea Cables Transport 99 Percent of International Data" 2387:"Machine used for covering wires with silk and cotton, 1837" 2107:

Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

1875:"How Submarine Cables are Made, Laid, Operated and Repaired" 437:

completed the first successful Irish link on May 23 between

248:

began to be thought of as a possible triumph of the future.

40:

of the shore-end of a modern submarine communications cable.

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can be used to repair cables that lie in shallower waters.

1571:

Convention for the Protection of Submarine Telegraph Cables

1070: 830: 699: 668: 253: 180: 3762:

Spread Spectrum Sensors for Location of Arcs on Live Wires

2588:"The Bicentennial of Francis Ronalds's Electric Telegraph" 4551: 3311:"Undersea cables and the future of submarine competition" 2780: 2364:. Engineering and Technology History WIKI. Archived from 4179:

History of the Atlantic Cable & Submarine Telegraphy

4145: 3907:

Bueger, Christian; Edmunds, Timothy (November 1, 2017).

3859: 3350:

Dunn, John (March 1987), "Talking the Light Fantastic",

1780: 1373:

per second, while satellites typically offer only 1,000

990:

for his contributions in this area, chiefly an accurate

4166: 4073: 3085:"Design, Acceptance and Capacity of Subsea Open Cables" 3044:"Design, Acceptance and Capacity of Subsea Open Cables" 2150:"Imperial Cable Communications and Strategy, 1870–1914" 1942:. Inventors.about.com. October 30, 2009. Archived from 884:

of their tremendous length but the cables' distributed

568:

Operators in the submarine telegraph cable room at the

4152:

Timeline of Submarine Communications Cables, 1850–2010

2764:"The Incredible International Submarine Cable Systems" 2013:

Guarnieri, M. (2014). "The Conquest of the Atlantic".

776:

India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Works Company

658: 2563:

Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph

1820:

List of international submarine communications cables

4326:

Map gallery of submarine cable maps by TeleGeography

4091: 2188:

In Spies We Trust: The Story of Western Intelligence

1135: 452:. The same ship was used for the link from Dover to 27:

Transoceanic communication line placed on the seabed

4100: 778:, established by the Silver family and giving that 559: 4181: – Wire Rope and the Submarine Cable Industry 4119: 4103:The Undersea Network (Sign, Storage, Transmission) 2358:"Milestones:TPC-1 Transpacific Cable System, 1964" 2119: 1649:monitored. The most ambitious efforts occurred in 1287:) to be traversed, as well as the extremely tidal 627:Cable to India, Singapore, East Asia and Australia 2821:Unrepeatered Systems: State of the Art Capability 2517: 2211:, pages 5–6, 289, Harvard University Press, 2008 1363: 1181:Modern optical fiber repeaters use a solid-state 244:in 1839, the idea of a submarine line across the 171:Submarine cables first connected all the world's 5702: 4310:– Ocean News & Technology magazine Dec. 2014 4162:Orange's Fishermen's/Submarine Cable Information 2498:Submarine Cables: The Handbook of Law and Policy 2143: 2141: 1815:List of domestic submarine communications cables 530: 3760:, Safavi, Mehdi, and Lo, Chet. "Feasibility of 3641: 3496: 3427:"Cable makes big promises for African Internet" 3424: 3268: 2008: 2006: 2004: 1585:and timing of the signals to locate the break. 1561:, detained and investigated the Soviet trawler 1002:on submarine cables also motivated many of the 4249: 4015: 3680:"Sharks Want to Bite Google's Undersea Cables" 2735:Faulkner, D. W.; Harmer, Alan (May 10, 1999). 2734: 2147: 1213:Diagram of an optical submarine cable repeater 962:, he became involved in a public dispute with 726:was the first regenerative system (i.e., with 458:Electric & International Telegraph Company 435:British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company 4624: 4373: 3906: 3271:"Google's Submarine Cable Plans Get Official" 2549:Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers 2138: 1742:Although submarine cables are located on the 1390:Australian Communications and Media Authority 572:'s Central Telegraph Office in London c. 1898 472:, the Netherlands. These cables were laid by 4146:The International Cable Protection Committee 4087:. United States Underseas Cable Corporation. 3728: 2001: 1014:had produced the modern general form of the 168:which became operational on 16 August 1858. 5639:Global telecommunications regulation bodies 4045: 3523:"Harnessing submarine cables to save lives" 2122:The Secret World: A History of Intelligence 1940:"Timeline – Biography of Samuel Morse" 1857:, pp. 136–140, John Wiley & Sons, 2003 1855:The Worldwide History of Telecommunications 1692: 1354:Reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer 381:English Channel Submarine Telegraph Company 223:Early history: telegraph and coaxial cables 5675: 4631: 4617: 4380: 4366: 4082: 3349: 1402: 1166:World map showing submarine cables in 2015 1029: 943:of the cable, limits the speed at which a 506: 394:. It was simply a copper wire coated with 358: 227: 4275: 3962:. Springer Science & Business Media. 3934:1983/a9bb7d69-6274-4515-8db4-886079ca3668 3932: 3334: 3108: 3067: 2611: 2407: 2405: 2403: 2190:, page 43, Oxford University Press, 2013 2124:. Penguin Books Limited. p. ccxiii. 2012: 1669:. In modern times, the widespread use of 1643: 1578:spread-spectrum time-domain reflectometry 287:, as far back as the early 19th century. 198:Subsequent generations of cables carried 4074:Bernard Finn; Daqing Yang, eds. (2009). 4037:Vary T. Coates and Bernard Finn (1979). 3866:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2851: 2245:. Telegraphindia.com. February 3, 2008. 1518: 1406: 1208: 1161: 1033: 1026:required for high-speed data and voice. 744: 630: 563: 362: 123:Submarine cables are laid using special 118: 31: 2882:. Submarinenetworks.com. Archived from 2585: 2560: 2304:"History of Canada-Australia Relations" 2266:"Landing the New Zealand cable", pg 3, 1974: 1972: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1964: 1962: 1960: 1758:Submarine cables are made of copper or 1701:Cables are often laid in the so-called 1676: 1345:dense wavelength division mulltiplexing 1086:frequency-multiplexed voiceband signals 1080:In the 1960s, transoceanic cables were 487:was used to lay a telegraph cable from 14: 5703: 4638: 4054: 3955: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3647: 3547:Conti, Juan Pablo (December 5, 2009), 3363: 2813: 2811: 2761: 2520:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry 2474: 2452: 2411: 2400: 2329:"The Commercial Pacific Cable Company" 2306:. Government of Canada. Archived from 2076:Brett, John Watkins (March 18, 1857). 1737: 1673:minimizes the threat of wire tapping. 1075:Clarenville, Newfoundland and Labrador 982:the cable, and a sensitive light-beam 718:, then overland by microwave radio to 410:, which was towed across the Channel. 4612: 4361: 3546: 3308: 3296:"Submarine telecommunications cables" 3269:Gardiner, Bryan (February 25, 2008). 3176:. Academic Press. November 26, 2015. 3158:"The Open Road to Submarine Capacity" 3022: 2845: 2075: 2069: 1978: 1781:Sound waves and electromagnetic waves 1499:Several projects are underway in the 1303:and through fairly built up areas to 880:were used to attempt to overcome the 864: 643:), India, provided a crucial link to 195:and thence to the rest of Australia. 156:between land-based stations to carry 5685: 4321:Submarine Cable Map by TeleGeography 3677: 3173:Undersea Fiber Communication Systems 2738:Core Networks and Network Management 2678:Zhan, Zhongwen (February 26, 2021). 2677: 2500:, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2014 2015:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine 1957: 1197:and the other a negative voltage. A 1065:(Transatlantic No. 1) was the first 3848: 2852:Bradsher, Keith (August 15, 1990). 2808: 659:Submarine cables across the Pacific 219:shallow-water sections near shore. 24: 4167:Oregon Fisherman's Cable Committee 4009: 3956:Worzyk, Thomas (August 11, 2009). 3441: 2762:Morris, Michael (April 19, 2009). 2565:. London: Imperial College Press. 2551:, vol. 2, no. 5, pp. 311–313, 1873 2545:"On Accidents to Submarine Cables" 2475:Glover, Bill (December 22, 2019). 1979:Haigh, Kenneth Richardson (1968). 1835:Transatlantic communications cable 1109:, London, in conjunction with the 300:tree, was introduced to Europe by 189:Australian Overland Telegraph Line 25: 5737: 4303:Work begins to repair severed net 4139: 3729:John Borland (February 5, 2008). 3497:James Griffiths (July 26, 2019). 3425:McCarthy, Diane (July 27, 2009). 3315:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3023:Hardy, Stephen (April 10, 2019). 2453:Glover, Bill (February 7, 2019). 2285:. Brainyhistory.com. July 4, 1903 1156:of sea cables (regularly updated) 1136:Optical telecommunications cables 1130: 915:. The same effect was noticed by 900:for telegraph operation to 10–12 684:Commonwealth Pacific Cable System 5684: 5674: 5665: 5664: 5653: 5274:Free-space optical communication 4593: 4583: 4328:, showing evolution since 2000. 4308:Flexibility in Undersea Networks 3982: 3794:, no.4, pp.618–622, April 1930, 3648:Tanner, John C. (June 1, 2001). 3591:"Characteristics of the project" 3437:from the original on 2009-11-25. 3284:from the original on 2012-04-28. 2667:from the original on 2008-02-26. 2655:"The Hawaii-2 Observatory (H2O)" 1981:Cable Ships and Submarine Cables 1318:wavelength division multiplexing 1191:wavelength-division multiplexing 1148: 560:British dominance of early cable 460:completed two cables across the 5716:Submarine communications cables 4085:Cableships and Submarine Cables 4055:Dzieza, Josh (April 16, 2024). 3976: 3949: 3900: 3835: 3818: 3805: 3778: 3750: 3741: 3722: 3690: 3671: 3630:from the original on 2024-03-07 3612: 3601:from the original on 2023-12-08 3583: 3540: 3515: 3490: 3465: 3418: 3392: 3383: 3357: 3343: 3302: 3288: 3262: 3238: 3224:. Springer. February 24, 2020. 3212: 3201: 3190: 3164: 3150: 3139: 3128: 3117: 3089:Journal of Lightwave Technology 3076: 3048:Journal of Lightwave Technology 3035: 3016: 3005: 2994: 2980: 2969: 2958: 2947: 2922: 2911:from the original on 2012-07-29 2897: 2872: 2774: 2755: 2728: 2671: 2646: 2620: 2586:Ronalds, B.F. (February 2016). 2579: 2554: 2538: 2511: 2490: 2468: 2446: 2379: 2350: 2339:from the original on 2016-09-27 2321: 2296: 2275: 2260: 2249:from the original on 2010-09-03 2235: 2222: 2201: 2180: 2148:Kennedy, P. M. (October 1971). 2113: 2099: 1887:"The internet's undersea world" 1728: 1514: 740: 383:laid the first line across the 3475:. May 15, 2013. Archived from 3309:Clark, Bryan (June 15, 2016). 2628:"Learn About Submarine Cables" 2060: 2041: 1932: 1903: 1880: 1868: 1847: 1377:per second and display higher 1364:Importance of submarine cables 582:Britain's vast colonial empire 150:submarine communications cable 13: 1: 5726:History of telecommunications 4387: 4092:Norman L. Middlemiss (2000). 3785:"When the ocean floor quakes" 3699:"Threats to Submarine Cables" 3336:10.1080/00963402.2016.1195636 2166:10.1093/ehr/lxxxvi.cccxli.728 2154:The English Historical Review 1840: 1475: 1358:Optical add-drop multiplexers 1096: 1067:transatlantic telephone cable 841:biting cables and attacks by 537:Transatlantic telegraph cable 531:Transatlantic telegraph cable 166:transatlantic telegraph cable 5721:Telecommunications equipment 5660:Telecommunication portal 5441:Telecommunications equipment 4590:Telecommunication portal 4101:Nicole Starosielski (2015). 3650:"2,000 Meters Under the Sea" 3553:Engineering & Technology 3364:Dormon, Bob (May 26, 2016). 2084:(transcript). Archived from 2078:"On the Submarine Telegraph" 1753: 1685:Submarine cables can impact 1436:, and Asia Global Crossing. 1187:erbium-doped fiber amplifier 1114:National Physical Laboratory 790:to manufacture his patented 294:, the adhesive juice of the 214:, which includes telephone, 7: 5177:Alexander Stepanovich Popov 4172: 4120:John Steele Gordon (2000). 4022:. Crosby Lockward and Son. 2932:. Gcmap.com. Archived from 2230:The Business History Review 2120:Christopher Andrew (2018). 1793: 1312:minimums in the long term. 1279:and the isthmus connecting 780:name to a section of London 400:Submarine Telegraph Company 10: 5742: 4881:Telecommunications history 3886:10.1016/j.rser.2018.07.026 3772:December 31, 2010, at the 3686:– via www.wired.com. 3656:. bnet.com. Archived from 2790:. SubOptic. Archived from 2389:. The Science Museum Group 1750:cable installation zones. 960:Atlantic Telegraph Company 933:Faraday's law of induction 765:constant which made cable 724:North Pacific Cable system 534: 313:British East India Company 185:Darwin, Northern Territory 127:ships, such as the modern 5648: 5590: 5527: 5489:Public Switched Telephone 5449: 5413: 5370: 5311: 5301:telecommunication circuit 5262:Fiber-optic communication 5245: 5007:Francis Blake (telephone) 4954: 4802:Optical telecommunication 4646: 4580: 4544: 4513: 4465:Communications satellites 4452: 4431: 4395: 4187: – Wired article by 4185:Mother Earth Mother Board 4105:. Duke University Press. 3549:"Frozen out of broadband" 3473:"Background | Marguerite" 1896: – annotated image, 1582:time-domain reflectometry 1494: 1228:submarine branching units 1147: 1142: 753:, New York, January 1925. 649:Eastern Telegraph Company 193:Adelaide, South Australia 18:Submarine telegraph cable 5400:Orbital angular-momentum 4837:Satellite communications 4676:Communications satellite 4122:A thread under the Ocean 3830:Harvard University Press 3453:European Investment Bank 3110:10.1109/JLT.2020.3045389 3069:10.1109/JLT.2020.3045389 2412:Bright, Charles (1898). 2027:10.1109/MIE.2014.2299492 1693:Alteration of the seabed 1663:National Security Agency 1531:, anchors, earthquakes, 1527:Cables can be broken by 896:, severely limiting the 788:Hooper's Telegraph Works 5279:Molecular communication 5102:Gardiner Greene Hubbard 4931:Undersea telegraph line 4666:Cable protection system 4460:Cable protection system 4314: 4250:Hunt, Bruce J. (2004). 4016:Charles Bright (1898). 3824:Jonathan Reed Winkler, 2706:10.1126/science.abe6648 2207:Jonathan Reed Winkler, 2186:Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, 1403:Investment and finances 1291:and a land route along 1030:Transatlantic telephony 1016:telegrapher's equations 1004:early polar expeditions 996:atmospheric electricity 507:Crimean War (1853–1856) 483:In 1858, the steamship 359:First commercial cables 228:First successful trials 152:is a cable laid on the 5421:Communication protocol 5207:Charles Sumner Tainter 5022:Walter Houser Brattain 4967:Edwin Howard Armstrong 4775:Information revolution 4191:about submarine cables 4096:. Shield Publications. 4041:. San Francisco Press. 3811:Clarke, A. C. (1959). 2561:Ronalds, B.F. (2016). 2050:The Practical Magazine 1825:Loaded submarine cable 1644:Intelligence gathering 1524: 1412: 1214: 1167: 1047: 754: 751:Rockaway Beach, Queens 636: 573: 387:, using the converted 372: 349:Charles Vincent Walker 311:in the service of the 191:in 1872 connecting to 145: 116: 5395:Polarization-division 5127:Narinder Singh Kapany 5092:Erna Schneider Hoover 5012:Jagadish Chandra Bose 4992:Alexander Graham Bell 4723:online video platform 4600:Telephones portal 3913:International Affairs 3620:"Project description" 2990:. September 27, 2022. 2930:"Great Circle Mapper" 2048:"C William Siemens". 1830:Submarine power cable 1689:in a number of ways. 1671:end-to-end encryption 1522: 1503:including 12,650 km " 1410: 1386:Australian government 1212: 1165: 1037: 882:electrical resistance 771:William Thomas Henley 748: 634: 567: 366: 353:South Eastern Railway 351:, electrician to the 240:had introduced their 122: 35: 5711:Coastal construction 5237:Vladimir K. Zworykin 5197:Almon Brown Strowger 5167:Charles Grafton Page 4822:Prepaid mobile phone 4750:Electrical telegraph 4562:Telephone newspapers 4046:Bern Dibner (1959). 3813:Voice Across the Sea 3766:IEEE Sensors Journal 3565:10.1049/et.2009.2106 2907:. Lightreading.com. 2479:. The Atlantic Cable 2457:. The Atlantic Cable 1853:Anton A. Huurdeman, 1677:Environmental impact 1418:AT&T Corporation 1277:Prince Edward Island 1251:end-to-end service. 947:travels through the 876:in the cable. Large 835:steel wire armouring 578:North Atlantic Ocean 210:technology to carry 5187:Johann Philipp Reis 4946:Wireless revolution 4908:The Telephone Cases 4765:Hydraulic telegraph 4485:Mobile phone signal 4277:10.1051/epn:2004602 4268:2004ENews..35..186H 4213:1981Natur.290..392M 4083:K.R. Haigh (1968). 3878:2018RSERv..96..380T 3327:2016BuAtS..72d.234C 3160:. January 26, 2021. 3101:2021JLwT...39..742R 3060:2021JLwT...39..742R 2698:2021Sci...371..931Z 2604:2016PhT....69b..26R 2532:10.1021/ie50195a002 1810:Cable landing point 1738:The risk of fishing 1705:of the seabed. The 1667:Operation Ivy Bells 1631:sinking of the RMS 1580:(SSTDR), a type of 1438:Tata Communications 1333:Raman amplification 1295:' north shore from 984:mirror galvanometer 302:William Montgomerie 285:electrical engineer 204:data communications 5385:Frequency-division 5362:Telephone exchange 5232:Charles Wheatstone 5162:Jun-ichi Nishizawa 5137:Innocenzo Manzetti 5072:Reginald Fessenden 4807:Optical telegraphy 4640:Telecommunications 4475:Free-space optical 4290:2008-05-10 at the 4124:. World of Books. 4048:The Atlantic Cable 3768:. December, 2005. 3678:McMillan, Robert. 3529:. October 18, 2017 2859:The New York Times 2335:. Atlantic Cable. 2333:atlantic-cable.com 2272:, 19 February 1876 1892:2010-12-23 at the 1659:United States Navy 1533:turbidity currents 1525: 1413: 1265:great circle route 1215: 1172:fiber-optic cables 1168: 1048: 1020:transmission lines 992:mathematical model 907:As early as 1816, 865:Bandwidth problems 755: 637: 574: 402:from a government 377:John Watkins Brett 373: 276:had been tried by 260:, in the water of 238:Charles Wheatstone 146: 117: 5698: 5697: 5436:Store and forward 5431:Data transmission 5345:Network switching 5296:Transmission line 5142:Guglielmo Marconi 5107:Internet pioneers 4972:Mohamed M. Atalla 4941:Whistled language 4606: 4605: 4439:Answering machine 4207:(5805): 392–393. 4050:. Burndy Library. 3969:978-3-642-01270-9 3925:10.1093/ia/iix174 3788:Popular Mechanics 3735:Technology Review 3654:America's Network 3231:978-3-030-39445-5 3183:978-0-12-804395-0 2748:978-90-5199-497-1 2692:(6532): 931–936. 2613:10.1063/PT.3.3079 2572:978-1-78326-917-4 2232:, 75(3), 543–578. 1626:CS Mackay-Bennett 1507:" and 14,500 km 1468:along the coast. 1232:self-healing ring 1183:optical amplifier 1160: 1159: 1084:that transmitted 1000:geomagnetic field 956:E.O.W. Whitehouse 833:laid between the 792:vulcanized rubber 611:could listen in. 525:Crimean peninsula 515:various forms of 278:Moritz von Jacobi 242:working telegraph 183:was connected to 158:telecommunication 97:or aluminium tube 16:(Redirected from 5733: 5688: 5687: 5678: 5677: 5668: 5667: 5658: 5657: 5656: 5529:Notable networks 5519:Wireless network 5459:Cellular network 5451:Types of network 5426:Computer network 5313:Network topology 5227:Thomas A. Watson 5082:Oliver Heaviside 5067:Philo Farnsworth 5042:Daniel Davis Jr. 5017:Charles Bourseul 4977:John Logie Baird 4686:Data compression 4681:Computer network 4633: 4626: 4619: 4610: 4609: 4598: 4597: 4596: 4588: 4587: 4586: 4552:Fax transmission 4500:Submarine cables 4382: 4375: 4368: 4359: 4358: 4330:2008 map in the 4281: 4279: 4256:Europhysics News 4246: 4244: 4243: 4221:10.1038/290392a0 4135: 4116: 4097: 4088: 4079: 4070: 4068: 4067: 4051: 4042: 4033: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3999: 3994:. United Nations 3989: 3980: 3974: 3973: 3953: 3947: 3946: 3936: 3919:(6): 1293–1311. 3904: 3898: 3897: 3857: 3846: 3839: 3833: 3828:(Cambridge, MA: 3822: 3816: 3809: 3803: 3782: 3776: 3754: 3748: 3745: 3739: 3738: 3726: 3720: 3719: 3717: 3716: 3710: 3704:. Archived from 3703: 3694: 3688: 3687: 3675: 3669: 3668: 3666: 3665: 3645: 3639: 3638: 3636: 3635: 3616: 3610: 3609: 3607: 3606: 3587: 3581: 3580: 3575:, archived from 3544: 3538: 3537: 3535: 3534: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3510: 3509: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3485: 3484: 3469: 3463: 3462: 3460: 3459: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3422: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3411: 3402:. Archived from 3396: 3390: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3378: 3377: 3361: 3355: 3354: 3347: 3341: 3340: 3338: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3292: 3286: 3285: 3275: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3256: 3242: 3236: 3235: 3216: 3210: 3205: 3199: 3194: 3188: 3187: 3168: 3162: 3161: 3154: 3148: 3143: 3137: 3132: 3126: 3121: 3115: 3114: 3112: 3080: 3074: 3073: 3071: 3039: 3033: 3032: 3020: 3014: 3009: 3003: 2998: 2992: 2991: 2984: 2978: 2973: 2967: 2962: 2956: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2942: 2941: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2917: 2916: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2891: 2876: 2870: 2869: 2867: 2866: 2849: 2843: 2842: 2840: 2839: 2833: 2827:. 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Archived from 1907: 1901: 1884: 1878: 1872: 1866: 1851: 1617:Cyrus West Field 1529:fishing trawlers 1454:developing world 1152: 1151: 1140: 1139: 1103:Siemens Brothers 1057:Great Depression 1012:Oliver Heaviside 902:words per minute 696:Papua New Guinea 543:Cyrus West Field 138: 111: 102: 92: 83: 73: 64: 54: 45: 21: 5741: 5740: 5736: 5735: 5734: 5732: 5731: 5730: 5701: 5700: 5699: 5694: 5654: 5652: 5644: 5586: 5523: 5445: 5409: 5366: 5315: 5307: 5248: 5241: 5147:Robert Metcalfe 5002:Tim Berners-Lee 4950: 4770:Information Age 4642: 4637: 4607: 4602: 4594: 4592: 4584: 4582: 4576: 4557:Telephone calls 4540: 4509: 4448: 4427: 4418:Satellite phone 4408:Cable telephony 4391: 4386: 4337:2014 map on CNN 4317: 4292:Wayback Machine 4241: 4239: 4189:Neal Stephenson 4175: 4142: 4132: 4113: 4065: 4063: 4030: 4012: 4010:Further reading 4007: 4006: 3997: 3995: 3987: 3983:Hale, Richard. 3981: 3977: 3970: 3954: 3950: 3905: 3901: 3858: 3849: 3840: 3836: 3823: 3819: 3810: 3806: 3783: 3779: 3774:Wayback Machine 3755: 3751: 3746: 3742: 3727: 3723: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3695: 3691: 3676: 3672: 3663: 3661: 3646: 3642: 3633: 3631: 3624:Far North Fiber 3618: 3617: 3613: 3604: 3602: 3589: 3588: 3584: 3545: 3541: 3532: 3530: 3521: 3520: 3516: 3507: 3505: 3495: 3491: 3482: 3480: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3457: 3455: 3447: 3446: 3442: 3423: 3419: 3409: 3407: 3398: 3397: 3393: 3388: 3384: 3375: 3373: 3362: 3358: 3348: 3344: 3307: 3303: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3273: 3267: 3263: 3254: 3252: 3244: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3218: 3217: 3213: 3206: 3202: 3195: 3191: 3184: 3170: 3169: 3165: 3156: 3155: 3151: 3144: 3140: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3118: 3081: 3077: 3040: 3036: 3021: 3017: 3010: 3006: 2999: 2995: 2986: 2985: 2981: 2974: 2970: 2963: 2959: 2952: 2948: 2939: 2937: 2928: 2927: 2923: 2914: 2912: 2903: 2902: 2898: 2889: 2887: 2878: 2877: 2873: 2864: 2862: 2850: 2846: 2837: 2835: 2831: 2824: 2816: 2809: 2800: 2798: 2794: 2787: 2779: 2775: 2760: 2756: 2749: 2733: 2729: 2676: 2672: 2664: 2657: 2651: 2647: 2637: 2635: 2626: 2625: 2621: 2584: 2580: 2573: 2559: 2555: 2543: 2539: 2516: 2512: 2495: 2491: 2482: 2480: 2473: 2469: 2460: 2458: 2451: 2447: 2438: 2436: 2426: 2410: 2401: 2392: 2390: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2371: 2369: 2356: 2355: 2351: 2342: 2340: 2327: 2326: 2322: 2313: 2311: 2302: 2301: 2297: 2288: 2286: 2281: 2280: 2276: 2265: 2261: 2252: 2250: 2241: 2240: 2236: 2227: 2223: 2206: 2202: 2185: 2181: 2146: 2139: 2132: 2118: 2114: 2105: 2104: 2100: 2091: 2089: 2074: 2070: 2065: 2061: 2047: 2046: 2042: 2021:(1): 53–56/67. 2011: 2002: 1995: 1977: 1958: 1949: 1947: 1938: 1937: 1933: 1924: 1922: 1909: 1908: 1904: 1894:Wayback Machine 1885: 1881: 1873: 1869: 1852: 1848: 1843: 1796: 1783: 1756: 1740: 1731: 1695: 1679: 1646: 1517: 1509:Far North Fiber 1497: 1478: 1422:Global Crossing 1405: 1366: 1149: 1138: 1133: 1118:Operation Pluto 1099: 1073:, Scotland and 1032: 973:short circuited 964:William Thomson 929:electric charge 921:Michael Faraday 909:Francis Ronalds 867: 823:(shipworm) and 808:English Channel 743: 722:. In 1991, the 661: 629: 562: 539: 533: 509: 425:, and crossing 385:English Channel 369:telegraph stamp 361: 333:William Siemens 321:Michael Faraday 297:Palaquium gutta 262:New York Harbor 230: 225: 132: 109: 107: 105:Petroleum jelly 100: 98: 90: 88: 81: 79: 71: 69: 62: 60: 52: 50: 43: 41: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5739: 5729: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5696: 5695: 5693: 5692: 5682: 5672: 5662: 5649: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5642: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5614: 5613: 5608: 5600: 5594: 5592: 5588: 5587: 5585: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5533: 5531: 5525: 5524: 5522: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5455: 5453: 5447: 5446: 5444: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5417: 5415: 5411: 5410: 5408: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5387: 5382: 5380:Space-division 5376: 5374: 5368: 5367: 5365: 5364: 5359: 5358: 5357: 5352: 5342: 5341: 5340: 5330: 5325: 5319: 5317: 5309: 5308: 5306: 5305: 5304: 5303: 5293: 5292: 5291: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5270: 5269: 5259: 5253: 5251: 5243: 5242: 5240: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5217:Camille Tissot 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5192:Claude Shannon 5189: 5184: 5182:Tivadar Puskás 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5152:Antonio Meucci 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5122:Charles K. Kao 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5097:Harold Hopkins 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4997:Emile Berliner 4994: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4958: 4956: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4936:Videotelephony 4933: 4928: 4927: 4926: 4921: 4911: 4904: 4899: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4872: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4851: 4850: 4849: 4839: 4834: 4832:Radiotelephone 4829: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4798: 4797: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4736: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4718:Internet video 4710: 4709: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4652: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4636: 4635: 4628: 4621: 4613: 4604: 4603: 4581: 4578: 4577: 4575: 4574: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4554: 4548: 4546: 4542: 4541: 4539: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4526:Misdialed call 4523: 4517: 4515: 4511: 4510: 4508: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4456: 4454: 4450: 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5708: 5706: 5691: 5683: 5681: 5673: 5671: 5663: 5661: 5651: 5650: 5647: 5640: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5603: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5595: 5593: 5589: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5530: 5526: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5452: 5448: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5418: 5416: 5412: 5406: 5405:Code-division 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5390:Time-division 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5369: 5363: 5360: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5347: 5346: 5343: 5339: 5336: 5335: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5320: 5318: 5316:and switching 5314: 5310: 5302: 5299: 5298: 5297: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5286: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5268: 5267:optical fiber 5265: 5264: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5257:Coaxial cable 5255: 5254: 5252: 5250: 5244: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5172:Radia Perlman 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5062:Lee de Forest 5060: 5058: 5057:Thomas Edison 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5047:Donald Davies 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5032:Claude Chappe 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4953: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4916: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4909: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4876:Smoke signals 4874: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4856: 4855: 4854:Semiconductor 4852: 4848: 4845: 4844: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4796: 4793: 4792: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4715: 4714: 4713:Digital media 4711: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4688: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4634: 4629: 4627: 4622: 4620: 4615: 4614: 4611: 4601: 4591: 4579: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4549: 4547: 4543: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4531:Nuisance call 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4518: 4516: 4512: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4470:Fibre-optical 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3797: 3793: 3789: 3786: 3781: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3756:Smith, Paul, 3753: 3744: 3736: 3732: 3725: 3711:on 2004-10-15 3707: 3700: 3693: 3685: 3681: 3674: 3660:on 2012-07-08 3659: 3655: 3651: 3644: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3615: 3600: 3596: 3595:Polar Express 3592: 3586: 3579:on 2012-03-16 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3559:(21): 34–36, 3558: 3554: 3550: 3543: 3528: 3524: 3518: 3504: 3500: 3493: 3479:on 2020-08-13 3478: 3474: 3468: 3454: 3450: 3444: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3421: 3415:SEACOM (2010) 3406:on 2010-02-08 3405: 3401: 3395: 3386: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3353: 3346: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3305: 3297: 3291: 3283: 3279: 3272: 3265: 3251: 3247: 3241: 3233: 3227: 3223: 3222: 3215: 3209: 3204: 3198: 3193: 3185: 3179: 3175: 3174: 3167: 3159: 3153: 3147: 3142: 3136: 3131: 3125: 3120: 3111: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3079: 3070: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3038: 3030: 3026: 3019: 3013: 3008: 3002: 2997: 2989: 2983: 2977: 2972: 2966: 2961: 2955: 2950: 2936:on 2012-07-25 2935: 2931: 2925: 2910: 2906: 2900: 2886:on 2012-06-22 2885: 2881: 2875: 2861: 2860: 2855: 2848: 2834:on 2020-08-08 2830: 2823: 2822: 2814: 2812: 2797:on 2020-08-08 2793: 2786: 2785: 2777: 2769: 2768:Network World 2765: 2758: 2750: 2744: 2741:. IOS Press. 2740: 2739: 2731: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2686: 2681: 2674: 2663: 2656: 2649: 2634:on 2007-12-13 2633: 2629: 2623: 2614: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2592:Physics Today 2589: 2582: 2574: 2568: 2564: 2557: 2550: 2546: 2541: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2514: 2507: 2506:9789004260320 2503: 2499: 2493: 2478: 2471: 2456: 2449: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2425:9781108069489 2421: 2417: 2416: 2408: 2406: 2404: 2388: 2382: 2368:on 2016-09-27 2367: 2363: 2359: 2353: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2324: 2310:on 2014-07-20 2309: 2305: 2299: 2284: 2278: 2271: 2270: 2263: 2248: 2244: 2238: 2231: 2225: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2204: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2183: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2144: 2142: 2133: 2131:9780241305225 2127: 2123: 2116: 2109:. p. 26. 2108: 2102: 2088:on 2013-05-17 2087: 2083: 2079: 2072: 2063: 2055: 2051: 2044: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2009: 2007: 2005: 1996: 1994:9780229973637 1990: 1986: 1982: 1975: 1973: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1946:on 2012-07-09 1945: 1941: 1935: 1921:on 2008-12-01 1920: 1916: 1912: 1906: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1888: 1883: 1876: 1871: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1850: 1846: 1836: 1833: 1831: 1828: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1797: 1791: 1787: 1778: 1774: 1771: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1751: 1747: 1745: 1735: 1726: 1722: 1720: 1714: 1711: 1708: 1704: 1699: 1690: 1688: 1683: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1641: 1639: 1635: 1634: 1628: 1627: 1622: 1618: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1602: 1600: 1596: 1591: 1586: 1583: 1579: 1574: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1559: 1553: 1548: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1521: 1512: 1510: 1506: 1505:Polar Express 1502: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1473: 1469: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1449: 1446: 1445:Pacific Ocean 1441: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1409: 1400: 1398: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1382: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1361: 1359: 1355: 1349: 1346: 1341: 1337: 1334: 1330: 1327: 1321: 1319: 1313: 1311: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1293:Massachusetts 1290: 1286: 1282: 1281:New Brunswick 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1260: 1258: 1252: 1249: 1244: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1224: 1221: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1200: 1199:virtual earth 1194: 1192: 1188: 1185:, usually an 1184: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1164: 1155: 1146: 1141: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1094: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1045: 1041: 1036: 1027: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1007: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 976: 974: 969: 965: 961: 957: 952: 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 917:Latimer Clark 914: 910: 905: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 872: 862: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 827: 822: 821: 815: 813: 812:John T. Blake 809: 805: 801: 796: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 772: 768: 764: 760: 752: 747: 738: 736: 735:Cable Venture 734: 729: 725: 721: 717: 714:, Malaysia), 713: 709: 708:Kota Kinabalu 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 680: 678: 674: 670: 666: 656: 654: 650: 646: 642: 633: 624: 622: 616: 612: 610: 605: 604: 599: 598: 592: 586: 583: 579: 571: 566: 557: 555: 554:Great Eastern 551: 550: 549:Great Eastern 544: 538: 528: 526: 522: 518: 514: 504: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 481: 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 411: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 390: 386: 382: 378: 370: 365: 356: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 307: 303: 299: 298: 293: 288: 286: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 234:William Cooke 220: 217: 213: 209: 208:optical fiber 205: 201: 196: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 169: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 143: 142:Orange Marine 139: 136: 131: 126: 121: 115: 106: 96: 87: 86:Polycarbonate 78:water barrier 77: 68: 58: 49: 39: 38:cross section 34: 30: 19: 5372:Multiplexing 5247:Transmission 5212:Nikola Tesla 5202:Henry Sutton 5157:Samuel Morse 5087:Robert Hooke 5052:Amos Dolbear 4987:John Bardeen 4906: 4886:Telautograph 4790:Mobile phone 4745:Edholm's law 4728:social media 4661:Broadcasting 4567:Théâtrophone 4545:Applications 4499: 4453:Connectivity 4413:Mobile phone 4331: 4259: 4255: 4252:"Lord Cable" 4240:. Retrieved 4204: 4200: 4121: 4102: 4093: 4084: 4078:. MIT Press. 4075: 4064:. Retrieved 4060: 4047: 4038: 4018: 3996:. Retrieved 3991: 3978: 3958: 3951: 3916: 3912: 3902: 3869: 3865: 3837: 3825: 3820: 3812: 3807: 3791: 3787: 3780: 3765: 3752: 3743: 3734: 3724: 3713:. Retrieved 3706:the original 3692: 3683: 3673: 3662:. Retrieved 3658:the original 3653: 3643: 3632:. Retrieved 3623: 3614: 3603:. Retrieved 3594: 3585: 3577:the original 3556: 3552: 3542: 3531:. Retrieved 3526: 3517: 3506:. Retrieved 3502: 3492: 3481:. Retrieved 3477:the original 3467: 3456:. Retrieved 3452: 3443: 3430: 3420: 3408:. Retrieved 3404:the original 3394: 3385: 3374:. Retrieved 3372:. Condé Nast 3370:Ars Technica 3369: 3359: 3352:The Rotarian 3351: 3345: 3318: 3314: 3304: 3290: 3277: 3264: 3253:. Retrieved 3249: 3240: 3220: 3214: 3203: 3192: 3172: 3166: 3152: 3141: 3130: 3119: 3092: 3088: 3078: 3051: 3047: 3037: 3028: 3018: 3007: 2996: 2982: 2971: 2960: 2949: 2938:. Retrieved 2934:the original 2924: 2913:. 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Retrieved 1919:the original 1914: 1905: 1898:The Guardian 1897: 1882: 1870: 1854: 1849: 1788: 1784: 1775: 1772: 1768: 1757: 1748: 1741: 1732: 1729:Entanglement 1723: 1715: 1712: 1707:benthic zone 1703:benthic zone 1700: 1696: 1684: 1680: 1647: 1632: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1603: 1587: 1575: 1566: 1562: 1557: 1549: 1526: 1515:Cable repair 1498: 1479: 1470: 1450: 1442: 1414: 1394: 1383: 1367: 1350: 1342: 1338: 1331: 1322: 1314: 1289:Bay of Fundy 1273:Newfoundland 1261: 1253: 1248:mesh network 1245: 1225: 1216: 1204: 1195: 1180: 1169: 1126: 1122:World War II 1107:New Charlton 1100: 1079: 1061: 1049: 1008: 977: 953: 906: 868: 858: 824: 819: 816: 804:World War II 800:polyethylene 797: 786:established 759:gutta-percha 756: 741:Construction 731: 720:Kuala Lumpur 710:(capital of 681: 677:All Red Line 667:in 1902 and 662: 645:Saudi Arabia 638: 617: 613: 601: 600:(not the CS 596: 591:All Red Line 587: 575: 553: 548: 540: 510: 499:and then to 484: 482: 473: 470:Scheveningen 450:William Hutt 449: 412: 407: 396:gutta-percha 391: 374: 295: 292:Gutta-percha 289: 274:India rubber 258:India rubber 250:Samuel Morse 231: 212:digital data 197: 170: 149: 147: 128: 48:Polyethylene 29: 5572:NPL network 5284:Radio waves 5222:Alfred Vail 5132:Hedy Lamarr 5117:Dawon Kahng 5077:Elisha Gray 5037:Yogen Dalal 4962:Nasir Ahmed 4896:Teleprinter 4760:Heliographs 4572:Video calls 4521:Missed call 4432:Accessories 3872:: 380–391. 1805:Cable layer 1764:hydrocarbon 1687:marine life 1651:World War I 1610:Nova Scotia 1599:submersible 1567:Novorosiysk 1563:Novorosiysk 1558:Roy O. Hale 1543:, 2009 and 1458:East Africa 1426:360networks 1397:US military 1326:Kerr effect 1285:Nova Scotia 1236:ocean floor 1090:vacuum tube 1024:frequencies 988:Lord Kelvin 886:capacitance 859:Amber Witch 806:across the 767:capacitance 673:Philippines 653:John Pender 651:, owned by 621:World War I 595:cable ship 513:Crimean War 466:Orford Ness 439:Portpatrick 423:Netherlands 347:. In 1849, 266:Swansea Bay 133: [ 125:cable layer 67:steel wires 65:– Stranded 5705:Categories 5618:Antarctica 5577:Toasternet 5499:Television 4982:Paul Baran 4914:Television 4898:(teletype) 4891:Telegraphy 4869:transistor 4847:Phryctoria 4817:Photophone 4795:Smartphone 4785:Mass media 4423:Photophone 4262:(6): 186. 4242:2022-07-21 4094:Cableships 4066:2024-04-16 3998:2024-08-22 3992:www.un.org 3715:2010-04-25 3664:2009-08-09 3634:2024-03-21 3605:2024-03-21 3533:2021-04-16 3508:2021-04-16 3483:2021-04-16 3458:2021-04-16 3410:2010-04-25 3376:2020-11-28 3255:2016-11-16 2940:2012-08-15 2915:2012-08-15 2890:2012-08-15 2865:2020-01-14 2838:2020-08-08 2801:2020-08-08 2638:2007-12-30 2483:2020-01-27 2461:2020-01-27 2439:2020-01-27 2393:2020-01-24 2372:2016-09-24 2343:2016-09-24 2314:2014-07-28 2289:2010-04-25 2253:2010-04-25 2217:0674033906 2196:0199580979 2092:2013-05-17 1983:. London: 1950:2010-04-25 1925:2008-02-05 1863:0471205052 1841:References 1800:Bathometer 1790:duration. 1481:Antarctica 1476:Antarctica 1297:Gloucester 1097:Other uses 980:resonating 941:inductance 913:Leyden jar 890:inductance 874:amplifiers 763:dielectric 517:telegraphy 445:using the 443:Donaghadee 421:, and the 331:. In 1847 177:Antarctica 173:continents 162:telegraphy 5602:Americas 5591:Locations 5562:Internet2 5323:Bandwidth 5027:Vint Cerf 4924:streaming 4902:Telephone 4842:Semaphore 4733:streaming 4536:Phone tag 4444:Caller ID 4389:Telephony 4229:1476-4687 4061:The Verge 3943:0020-5850 3894:1364-0321 3800:0032-4558 3573:1750-9645 3029:Lightwave 2722:232050549 1754:Pollution 1485:satellite 1305:Manhattan 1220:thrusters 1101:In 1942, 1053:pupinized 949:conductor 937:capacitor 898:data rate 894:bandwidth 855:barnacles 826:Xylophaga 728:repeaters 716:Singapore 704:Hong Kong 521:Black Sea 462:North Sea 427:The Belts 317:Singapore 270:insulator 268:. 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