191:
155:
801:
773:
120:
3411:
423:
785:
38:
4471:
461:, are thought to be responsible for spreading at mid-ocean ridges. Ridge push refers to the gravitational sliding of the ocean plate that is raised above the hotter asthenosphere, thus creating a body force causing sliding of the plate downslope. In slab pull the weight of a tectonic plate being subducted (pulled) below an overlying plate at a subduction zone drags the rest of the plate along behind it. The slab pull mechanism is considered to be contributing more than the ridge push.
3476:
1084:
5359:
5380:
3488:
1042:
1056:
442:
556:
107:, which is a spreading center that bisects the North and South Atlantic basins; hence the origin of the name 'mid-ocean ridge'. Most oceanic spreading centers are not in the middle of their hosting ocean basis but regardless, are traditionally called mid-ocean ridges. Mid-ocean ridges around the globe are linked by plate tectonic boundaries and the trace of the ridges across the ocean floor appears similar to the seam of a
4460:
5369:
1070:
516:) sea level to rise over very long timescales (millions of years). Increased seafloor spreading means that the mid-ocean ridge will then expand and form a broader ridge with decreased average depth, taking up more space in the ocean basin. This displaces the overlying ocean and causes sea levels to rise.
590:
Fast spreading rates will expand the mid-ocean ridge causing basalt reactions with seawater to happen more rapidly. The magnesium/calcium ratio will be lower because more magnesium ions are being removed from seawater and consumed by the rock, and more calcium ions are being removed from the rock and
326:
that lack connecting transform faults. The depth of the axis changes in a systematic way with shallower depths between offsets such as transform faults and overlapping spreading centers dividing the axis into segments. One hypothesis for different along-axis depths is variations in magma supply to
700:
concluded that there was an enormous mountain chain with a rift valley at its crest, running up the middle of the
Atlantic Ocean. Scientists named it the 'Mid-Atlantic Ridge'. Other research showed that the ridge crest was seismically active and fresh lavas were found in the rift valley. Also,
765:
It is estimated that along Earth's mid-ocean ridges every year 2.7 km (1.0 sq mi) of new seafloor is formed by this process. With a crustal thickness of 7 km (4.3 mi), this amounts to about 19 km (4.6 cu mi) of new ocean crust formed every year.
748:
Following the discovery of the worldwide extent of the mid-ocean ridge in the 1950s, geologists faced a new task: explaining how such an enormous geological structure could have formed. In the 1960s, geologists discovered and began to propose mechanisms for
757:
theory to be expanded so that it included the movement of oceanic crust as well as the continents. Plate tectonics was a suitable explanation for seafloor spreading, and the acceptance of plate tectonics by the majority of geologists resulted in a major
347:
at and near rifts along the ridge axes. The rocks making up the crust below the seafloor are youngest along the axis of the ridge and age with increasing distance from that axis. New magma of basalt composition emerges at and near the axis because of
227:
on a mid-ocean ridge, the depth of the seafloor is approximately 2,600 meters (8,500 ft). On the ridge flanks, the depth of the seafloor (or the height of a location on a mid-ocean ridge above a base-level) is correlated with its age (age of the
624:
Experiments show that most modern high-Mg calcite organisms would have been low-Mg calcite in past calcite seas, meaning that the Mg/Ca ratio in an organism's skeleton varies with the Mg/Ca ratio of the seawater in which it was grown.
704:
At first, the ridge was thought to be a feature specific to the
Atlantic Ocean. However, as surveys of the ocean floor continued around the world, it was discovered that every ocean contains parts of the mid-ocean ridge system. The
500:, pointing to action by the ridge push body force on these plates. Computer modeling of the plates and mantle motions suggest that plate motion and mantle convection are not connected, and the main plate driving force is slab pull.
263:
of appropriate iron-titanium oxides, magnetic field directions parallel to the Earth's magnetic field are recorded in those oxides. The orientations of the field preserved in the oceanic crust comprise a record of directions of the
717:
early in the twentieth century. Although the first-discovered section of the ridge system runs down the middle of the
Atlantic Ocean, it was found that most mid-ocean ridges are located away from the center of other ocean basins.
816:
343:. The oceanic crust is in a constant state of 'renewal' at the mid-ocean ridges by the processes of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics. New magma steadily emerges onto the ocean floor and intrudes into the existing
258:
is the rate at which an ocean basin widens due to seafloor spreading. Rates can be computed by mapping marine magnetic anomalies that span mid-ocean ridges. As crystallized basalt extruded at a ridge axis cools below
395:
fueled by magmatic and volcanic heat are a common feature at oceanic spreading centers. A feature of the elevated ridges is their relatively high heat flow values, of about 1–10 μcal/cms, or roughly 0.04–0.4 W/m.
628:
The mineralogy of reef-building and sediment-producing organisms is thus regulated by chemical reactions occurring along the mid-ocean ridge, the rate of which is controlled by the rate of sea-floor spreading.
1964:
Spiess, F. N.; Macdonald, K. C.; Atwater, T.; Ballard, R.; Carranza, A.; Cordoba, D.; Cox, C.; Garcia, V. M. D.; Francheteau, J. (1980-03-28). "East
Pacific Rise: Hot Springs and Geophysical Experiments".
252:(the colder, denser part of the mantle that, together with the crust, comprises the oceanic plates) thickens, and the density increases. Thus older seafloor is underlain by denser material and is deeper.
240:
A good approximation is that the depth of the seafloor at a location on a spreading mid-ocean ridge is proportional to the square root of the age of the seafloor. The overall shape of ridges results from
275:
Spreading rates range from approximately 10–200 mm/yr. Slow-spreading ridges such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge have spread much less far (showing a steeper profile) than faster ridges such as the
733:
in 1912. He stated: "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the
Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot
2803:
Coggon, R. M.; Teagle, D. A. H.; Smith-Duque, C. E.; Alt, J. C.; Cooper, M. J. (2010-02-26). "Reconstructing Past
Seawater Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca from Mid-Ocean Ridge Flank Calcium Carbonate Veins".
179:
534:). Over very long timescales, however, it is the result of changes in the volume of the ocean basins which are, in turn, affected by rates of seafloor spreading along the mid-ocean ridges.
480:
to pull the tectonic plate along. Moreover, mantle upwelling that causes magma to form beneath the ocean ridges appears to involve only its upper 400 km (250 mi), as deduced from
287:
of up to 1,000 m (3,300 ft). By contrast, fast-spreading ridges (greater than 90 mm/yr) such as the East
Pacific Rise lack rift valleys. The spreading rate of the
484:
and observations of the seismic discontinuity in the upper mantle at about 400 km (250 mi). On the other hand, some of the world's largest tectonic plates such as the
2937:
Ries, Justin B. (2004-11-01). "Effect of ambient Mg/Ca ratio on Mg fractionation in calcareous marine invertebrates: A record of the oceanic Mg/Ca ratio over the
Phanerozoic".
737:
from depth". However, Wegener did not pursue this observation in his later works and his theory was dismissed by geologists because there was no mechanism to explain how
248:: close to the ridge axis, there is a hot, low-density mantle supporting the oceanic crust. As the oceanic plate cools, away from the ridge axis, the oceanic mantle
279:(gentle profile) for the same amount of time and cooling and consequent bathymetric deepening. Slow-spreading ridges (less than 40 mm/yr) generally have large
3030:
The history of science and technology : a browser's guide to the great discoveries, inventions, and the people who made them, from the dawn of time to today
327:
the spreading center. Ultra-slow spreading ridges form both magmatic and amagmatic (currently lack volcanic activity) ridge segments without transform faults.
2116:
Larson, R.L., W.C. Pitman, X. Golovchenko, S.D. Cande, JF. Dewey, W.F. Haxby, and J.L. La
Brecque, Bedrock Geology of the World, W.H. Freeman, New York, 1985.
1560:
Macdonald, Ken C. (1977). "Near-bottom magnetic anomalies, asymmetric spreading, oblique spreading, and tectonics of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near lat 37°N".
591:
released into seawater. Hydrothermal activity at the ridge crest is efficient in removing magnesium. A lower Mg/Ca ratio favors the precipitation of low-Mg
464:
A process previously proposed to contribute to plate motion and the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is the "mantle conveyor" due to deep
541:(144–65 Ma) is partly attributed to plate tectonics because thermal expansion and the absence of ice sheets only account for some of the extra sea level.
5099:
2664:
Muller, R. D.; Sdrolias, M.; Gaina, C.; Steinberger, B.; Heine, C. (2008-03-07). "Long-Term Sea-Level
Fluctuations Driven by Ocean Basin Dynamics".
784:
3241:
272:
in the ocean crust can be used as an indicator of age; given the crustal age and distance from the ridge axis, spreading rates can be calculated.
5089:
4148:
318:
oriented at right angles to the axis. The flanks of mid-ocean ridges are in many places marked by the inactive scars of transform faults called
3525:
3013:
2260:
1306:
61:. It typically has a depth of about 2,600 meters (8,500 ft) and rises about 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) above the deepest portion of an
587:, an isotope that accompanies volcanism from the mantle, is emitted by hydrothermal vents and can be detected in plumes within the ocean.
3322:
1603:
Macdonald, K. C. (1982). "Mid-Ocean Ridges: Fine Scale Tectonic, Volcanic and Hydrothermal Processes Within the Plate Boundary Zone".
411:
in the underlying mantle lithosphere cools and becomes more rigid. The crust and the relatively rigid peridotite below it make up the
1323:
Sclater, John G.; Anderson, Roger N.; Bell, M. Lee (1971-11-10). "Elevation of ridges and evolution of the central eastern Pacific".
146:, the longest continental mountain range), and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km (49,700 mi) long.
2862:
Morse, John W.; Wang, Qiwei; Tsio, Mai Yin (1997). "Influences of temperature and Mg:Ca ratio on CaCO3 precipitates from seawater".
772:
1127:
237:
214:
5005:
1156:
609:
Slow spreading at mid-ocean ridges has the opposite effect and will result in a higher Mg/Ca ratio favoring the precipitation of
299:
on the East Pacific Rise. Ridges that spread at rates <20 mm/yr are referred to as ultraslow spreading ridges (e.g., the
2765:
Stanley, S.M. and Hardie, L.A., 1999. Hypercalcification: paleontology links plate tectonics and geochemistry to sedimentology.
1369:
Parsons, Barry; Sclater, John G. (1977-02-10). "An analysis of the variation of ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age".
73:. The rate of seafloor spreading determines the morphology of the crest of the mid-ocean ridge and its width in an ocean basin.
5410:
5372:
4420:
4188:
2024:
Martin, William; Baross, John; Kelley, Deborah; Russell, Michael J. (2008-11-01). "Hydrothermal vents and the origin of life".
449:
The oceanic lithosphere is formed at an oceanic ridge, while the lithosphere is subducted back into the asthenosphere at ocean
800:
2648:
2291:
1948:
1923:
1855:
5420:
4652:
685:
190:
111:. The mid-ocean ridge system thus is the longest mountain range on Earth, reaching about 65,000 km (40,000 mi).
4141:
4542:
1792:
Macdonald, Ken C.; Fox, P. J. (1983). "Overlapping spreading centres: new accretion geometry on the East Pacific Rise".
445:
Oceanic crust is formed at an oceanic ridge, while the lithosphere is subducted back into the asthenosphere at trenches.
154:
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4674:
4562:
3518:
3390:
881:
5094:
4365:
2989:
2750:
2604:
2366:
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1282:
1235:
399:
Most crust in the ocean basins is less than 200 million years old, which is much younger than the 4.54 billion year
4552:
4512:
1108:
595:
142:
in the world. The continuous mountain range is 65,000 km (40,400 mi) long (several times longer than the
283:, sometimes as wide as 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi), and very rugged terrain at the ridge crest that can have
5282:
4268:
905: – Mid-oceanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean between the North American and Eurasian plates(Mid-Arctic Ridge)
17:
3295:
2883:
5425:
5362:
4955:
4134:
3315:
3038:
2559:
2538:
Pitman, Walter C. (1978-09-01). "Relationship between eustacy and stratigraphic sequences of passive margins".
2236:
958:
678:, when the ocean floor was surveyed in more detail, that the full extent of mid-ocean ridges became known. The
268:
with time. Because the field has reversed directions at known intervals throughout its history, the pattern of
1581:
5415:
3511:
1733:
Dick, Henry J. B.; Lin, Jian; Schouten, Hans (November 2003). "An ultraslow-spreading class of ocean ridge".
815:
323:
3198:
2274:
Harff, Jan; Meschede, Martin; Petersen, Sven; Thiede, Jörn (2014). "Driving Forces: Slab Pull, Ridge Push".
4410:
2909:
692:, traversed the Atlantic Ocean, recording echo sounder data on the depth of the ocean floor. A team led by
643:
136:
5435:
3177:
Jacoby, W. R. (January 1981). "Modern concepts of earth dynamics anticipated by Alfred Wegener in 1912".
2126:
MĂĽller, R. Dietmar; Roest, Walter R.; Royer, Jean-Yves; Gahagan, Lisa M.; Sclater, John G. (1997-02-10).
1138:
4470:
656:
in the nineteenth century. Soundings from lines dropped to the seafloor were analyzed by oceanographers
198:
4607:
3644:
2076:
884: – Mid-ocean ridge in the South Atlantic between the South American Plate and the Antarctic Plate
5142:
4547:
4507:
3308:
3212:
265:
233:
218:
664:
and revealed a prominent rise in the seafloor that ran down the Atlantic basin from north to south.
5430:
5272:
4647:
4637:
4577:
4213:
4183:
2346:
706:
1687:
Wilson, Douglas S. (1996). "Fastest known spreading on the Miocene Cocos-Pacific Plate Boundary".
899: – Mid-oceanic ridge at a divergent tectonic plate boundary on the floor of the Pacific Ocean
859:
5405:
5309:
5292:
5129:
4622:
4487:
4425:
4415:
4308:
3435:
3385:
2734:
2728:
2588:
2582:
937: – A mid-ocean ridge on the bed of the south-west Indian Ocean and south-east Atlantic Ocean
908:
832:
661:
54:
31:
2724:
5304:
5242:
4669:
4355:
3455:
3400:
3395:
1011:
934:
928:
878: – Divergent plate boundary off the coast of the Pacific Northwest region of North America
657:
308:
5137:
5119:
4627:
4522:
4157:
3547:
653:
269:
183:
2220:
1428:
5324:
5157:
4860:
4717:
4582:
4293:
4114:
3950:
3410:
3345:
3186:
3141:
3086:
2946:
2871:
2812:
2673:
2547:
2486:
2439:
2396:
2183:
2139:
1974:
1801:
1742:
1696:
1651:
1612:
1569:
1510:
1459:
1424:
1378:
1332:
1103:
914:
680:
489:
485:
469:
388:
288:
119:
2910:"Hypercalcification: Paleontology Links Plate Tectonics and Geochemistry to Sedimentology"
872: – Tectonic spreading center off the northern coast of California and southern Oregon
8:
5319:
5204:
5199:
4925:
4597:
4557:
4273:
3839:
3672:
3440:
2228:
999:
689:
412:
403:. This fact reflects the process of lithosphere recycling into the Earth's mantle during
380:
361:
349:
3190:
3145:
3090:
2950:
2875:
2816:
2677:
2551:
2490:
2443:
2400:
2187:
2143:
1978:
1805:
1746:
1700:
1655:
1624:
1616:
1573:
1514:
1463:
1382:
1336:
1177:
5262:
4975:
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4930:
4830:
4815:
4712:
3460:
3445:
3380:
3375:
3264:
3154:
3129:
3110:
3007:
2844:
2705:
2610:
2515:
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2320:
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2196:
2171:
2057:
2006:
1896:
1825:
1774:
1542:
1483:
1300:
1241:
1227:
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1005:
940:
875:
750:
531:
513:
509:
481:
202:
167:
104:
70:
66:
2430:
Richter, Frank M. (1973). "Convection and the large-scale circulation of the mantle".
2088:
1153: – Underwater vents or fissures in the Earth's surface from which magma can erupt
753:. The discovery of mid-ocean ridges and the process of seafloor spreading allowed for
583:, and other elements into the ocean, some of which are recycled into the ocean crust.
295:
region, it is 80–145 mm/yr. The highest known rate is over 200 mm/yr in the
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4905:
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3044:
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2502:
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2412:
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2287:
2242:
2232:
2201:
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2049:
2041:
1998:
1990:
1944:
1919:
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1851:
1817:
1766:
1758:
1712:
1669:
1664:
1639:
1585:
1534:
1526:
1475:
1436:
1394:
1348:
1288:
1278:
1245:
1231:
1218:
Macdonald, Ken C. (2019), "Mid-Ocean Ridge Tectonics, Volcanism, and Geomorphology",
1150:
896:
807:
730:
614:
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527:
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465:
392:
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353:
276:
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2709:
2283:
2010:
1900:
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2510:
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2447:
2404:
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2328:
2312:
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2147:
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2033:
1982:
1880:
1829:
1809:
1778:
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1704:
1659:
1620:
1577:
1518:
1487:
1467:
1432:
1386:
1340:
1223:
1075:
1061:
946:
224:
85:
3290:
2640:
1986:
1522:
862:- an east-west trending mid-ocean ridge east of the eponymous islands between the
5104:
5000:
4915:
4875:
4767:
4737:
4587:
4537:
4447:
4405:
4338:
4263:
4223:
4039:
3960:
3945:
3899:
3566:
3242:"Trends and rhythms in global seafloor generation rate: SEAFLOOR GENERATION RATE"
3028:
1843:
1159:
hypothesis; explains relation of marine magnetic anomalies to seafloor spreading.
1117:
968:
920:
791:
742:
697:
550:
493:
436:
315:
108:
58:
2635:. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 879–887.
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2221:
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are in motion, yet only are being subducted in restricted locations such as the
37:
5214:
5209:
5114:
5109:
4945:
4885:
4880:
4612:
4502:
4323:
4258:
4233:
3884:
3581:
3480:
3450:
3360:
2316:
1450:
Vine, F. J.; Matthews, D. H. (1963). "Magnetic Anomalies Over Oceanic Ridges".
1415:
Davis, E.E; Lister, C. R. B. (1974). "Fundamentals of Ridge Crest Topography".
1132:
1089:
853:
759:
754:
734:
726:
710:
649:
519:
450:
139:
4459:
2473:
Coltice, Nicolas; Husson, Laurent; Faccenna, Claudio; Arnould, Maëlis (2019).
949: – Segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge north of Iceland in the Arctic Ocean
701:
crustal heat flow was higher here than elsewhere in the Atlantic Ocean basin.
5399:
5384:
5232:
5152:
5041:
4960:
4935:
4870:
4800:
4707:
4602:
4479:
4400:
4360:
4333:
4243:
4193:
3970:
3804:
3503:
3492:
3163:
3106:
2999:
2966:
2891:
2832:
2693:
2567:
2506:
2459:
2416:
2205:
2045:
1994:
1821:
1762:
1716:
1673:
1589:
1530:
1479:
1398:
1352:
1292:
1135:– first crewed submersible study of the rift valley of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
1122:
1097:
1047:
1023:
668:
618:
567:
system. Hydrothermal vents at spreading centers introduce various amounts of
473:
416:
344:
319:
242:
178:
97:
3048:
2824:
2685:
2451:
2408:
2246:
1884:
1390:
1344:
512:(i.e. the rate of expansion of the mid-ocean ridge) have caused the global (
131:
Ocean Ridge, a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every
5339:
5287:
5227:
5178:
5056:
5051:
5026:
5010:
4985:
4702:
4592:
4532:
4318:
4228:
4203:
3955:
3652:
3365:
2840:
2742:
2701:
2596:
2524:
2498:
2053:
2002:
1892:
1770:
1538:
917: – A north-south-trending mid-ocean ridge in the western Indian Ocean
902:
714:
675:
564:
407:. As the oceanic crust and lithosphere moves away from the ridge axis, the
400:
304:
300:
163:
2332:
1141:– discovery of black smokers hydrothermal systems on the East Pacific Rise
5329:
5061:
4990:
4855:
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4747:
4632:
4567:
4527:
4517:
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3734:
3729:
3692:
3430:
3425:
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3350:
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2083:, Petrology of the Ocean Floor, vol. 33, Elsevier, pp. 51–139,
1144:
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987:
952:
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863:
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603:
296:
280:
260:
249:
229:
159:
81:
62:
4126:
2037:
1871:
Michael, Peter; Cheadle, Michael (February 20, 2009). "Making a Crust".
1754:
1501:
Vine, F. J. (1966-12-16). "Spreading of the Ocean Floor: New Evidence".
544:
5147:
4995:
4970:
4865:
4845:
4772:
4757:
4742:
4732:
4697:
4617:
4437:
4432:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4283:
3935:
3854:
3682:
2631:
Miller, Kenneth G. (2009). "Sea Level Change, Last 250 Million Years".
887:
838:
538:
497:
454:
408:
404:
357:
340:
182:
A mid-ocean ridge, with magma rising from a chamber below, forming new
5379:
3487:
3475:
2387:
Richter, Frank M. (1973). "Dynamical models for sea floor spreading".
2152:
2127:
1708:
1083:
1041:
1026: – Ancient mid-ocean ridge between the Phoenix and Pacific plates
27:
Basaltic underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonic spreading
5219:
5081:
5066:
4980:
4825:
4664:
4659:
4442:
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4298:
4218:
4208:
4165:
4089:
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3930:
3889:
3799:
3756:
3619:
3598:
2958:
1813:
1471:
738:
610:
576:
458:
336:
194:
92:
at the linear weakness between the separating plates, and emerges as
1638:
Argus, Donald F.; Gordon, Richard G.; DeMets, Charles (2010-04-01).
441:
215:
Seafloor spreading § Seafloor global topography: cooling models
5314:
5036:
4895:
4787:
4777:
4722:
4198:
4049:
4013:
4003:
3894:
3576:
3538:
3300:
3098:
2782:
Lupton, J., 1998. Hydrothermal helium plumes in the Pacific Ocean.
1055:
584:
555:
477:
245:
77:
3774:
2172:"On the Relative Importance of the Driving Forces of Plate Motion"
990: – Extinct mid-ocean ridge in the far-northern Atlantic Ocean
5183:
5173:
4343:
4313:
3975:
3915:
3869:
3859:
3794:
3704:
3588:
3285:
2982:
Challenger at sea : a ship that revolutionized earth science
592:
580:
426:
Age of oceanic crust. Red is most recent, and blue is the oldest.
292:
284:
171:
1100: – Geological depression caused by the Afar Triple Junction
4890:
4303:
4099:
4084:
4079:
4044:
4018:
3998:
3920:
3874:
3864:
3779:
3751:
3741:
3719:
3662:
3634:
3629:
3603:
3291:
Mid-Oceanic ridge, like baseball seam (The Dynamic Earth, USGS)
2349:, in Engel, A. E. J.; James, Harold L.; Leonard, B. F. (eds.),
572:
376:
368:
3077:
Shand, S. J. (1949-01-01). "Rocks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge".
2663:
5252:
5071:
4850:
4805:
4074:
4064:
4054:
3925:
3844:
3824:
3789:
3784:
3746:
3724:
3709:
3699:
3677:
3657:
3624:
3593:
3561:
3534:
1963:
665:
143:
132:
89:
88:
upwelling in response to plate separation. The melt rises as
2472:
4684:
4094:
4008:
3714:
3687:
3667:
3571:
3296:
Ridge2000, Studying Mid-Ocean Ridges from Mantle to Microbe
2884:
10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0085:IOTAMC>2.3.CO;2
2273:
568:
93:
3130:"The Flow of Heat through the Floor of the Atlantic Ocean"
2802:
2560:
10.1130/0016-7606(1978)89<1389:RBEASS>2.0.CO;2
2311:(in English and English), vol. 18, pp. 559–606,
911: – Tectonic plate boundary in the South Pacific Ocean
721:
4059:
3829:
3033:. Hellemans, Alexander, 1946–. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
2633:
Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments
2023:
1938:
1582:
10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<541:NMAASO>2.0.CO;2
563:
Seafloor spreading on mid-ocean ridges is a global scale
127:
The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form
856: – Mid-ocean ridge west of British Columbia, Canada
236:
can be modeled by the cooling of a lithosphere plate or
3199:
10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<25:MCOEDA>2.0.CO;2
2125:
1113:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1028:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
973:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
963:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
892:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
849:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
468:(see image). However, some studies have shown that the
174:
of the ocean floors with the system of mid-ocean ridges
2278:(2014 ed.). Springer Netherlands. pp. 1–6.
1170:
545:
Impact on seawater chemistry and carbonate deposition
1037:
931: – Mid-ocean ridge in the southern Indian Ocean
890: – Submarine oceanic ridge in the Pacific Ocean
314:
The spreading center or axis commonly connects to a
2908:Hardie, Lawrence; Stanley, Steven (February 1999).
2353:, Geological Society of America, pp. 599–620,
1322:
996: – Major volcanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean
790:Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the
559:
Magnesium/calcium ratio changes at mid-ocean ridges
322:. At faster spreading rates the axes often display
2219:Turcotte, Donald Lawson; Schubert, Gerald (2002).
1913:
1014: – Spreading ridge during the Late Cretaceous
201:, Iceland. The island is a sub-aerial part of the
5100:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
1637:
981:
955: – Geographical region in the Atlantic basin
5397:
3064:Seismicity of the Earth and Associated Phenomena
3061:
2218:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1147: – Type of gap in a subducted oceanic plate
1111: – Links to Knowledge articles on landforms
644:Plate tectonics § Development of the theory
5090:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
3026:
2165:
2163:
1842:
1732:
943: – Atlantic Ocean tectonic plate boundary
671:confirmed this in the early twentieth century.
648:The first indications that a ridge bisects the
476:) is too plastic (flexible) to generate enough
3533:
2903:
2901:
2798:
2796:
2626:
2624:
2128:"Digital isochrons of the world's ocean floor"
1870:
1596:
1368:
1364:
1362:
1318:
1316:
1178:"What is the longest mountain range on earth?"
971: – Atlantic Ocean tectonic plate boundary
537:The 100 to 170 meters higher sea level of the
415:, which sits above the less rigid and viscous
103:The first discovered mid-ocean ridge was the
4142:
3519:
3316:
3235:
3233:
2907:
2861:
2580:
1605:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
1268:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1196:
503:
41:Mid-ocean ridge cross-section (cut-away view)
2932:
2930:
2759:
2733:. San Diego : Academic Press. pp.
2169:
2160:
2132:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
2077:"Chapter 2 The World's Oceanic Ridge System"
1791:
1728:
1726:
1449:
1410:
1408:
367:The crystallized magma forms a new crust of
360:upwelling solid mantle material exceeds the
3239:
2898:
2793:
2621:
1414:
1359:
1313:
1008: – Mid-ocean ridge in the Labrador Sea
826:
745:, and the theory became largely forgotten.
652:basin came from the results of the British
4149:
4135:
3526:
3512:
3323:
3309:
3286:An explanation of relevant tectonic forces
3230:
3127:
3012:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2259:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1916:Petrology of igneous and metamorphic rocks
1305:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1251:
4156:
3240:Cogné, Jean-Pascal; Humler, Eric (2006).
3153:
2927:
2725:"Sea Level Variations over Geologic Time"
2514:
2195:
2151:
1939:Blatt, Harvey & Robert Tracy (1996).
1723:
1663:
1602:
1559:
1405:
1217:
965:Ridge (between Greenland and Spitsbergen)
778:Oceanic ridge and deep sea vent chemistry
2074:
1128:Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor
554:
440:
421:
189:
177:
153:
123:World distribution of mid-oceanic ridges
118:
36:
30:For broader coverage of this topic, see
2784:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
2429:
2386:
722:Impact of discovery: seafloor spreading
14:
5398:
4421:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
3176:
3128:Day, A.; Bullard, E. C. (1961-12-01).
3062:Gutenberg, B.; Richter, C. F. (1954).
2722:
2630:
2537:
2306:
1686:
1562:Geological Society of America Bulletin
1272:
4130:
3507:
3304:
3076:
3066:. Princeton Univ. Press. p. 309.
2170:Forsyth, D.; Uyeda, S. (1975-10-01).
430:
5368:
3330:
3249:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
2936:
2581:Church, J.A.; Gregory, J.M. (2001).
2344:
2227:(2nd ed.). Cambridge. pp.
1640:"Geologically current plate motions"
1500:
841: – Rift portion in Gulf of Aden
821:A demonstration of magnetic striping
709:traced the mid-ocean ridge from the
522:can be attributed to other factors (
2979:
1625:10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.001103
1417:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
24:
5248:National Oceanographic Data Center
4675:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
4563:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
3155:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1961.tb06820.x
2276:Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences
2197:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1975.tb00631.x
1228:10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.11065-6
613:and high-Mg calcite polymorphs of
25:
5447:
5095:Global Sea Level Observing System
3279:
3134:Geophysical Journal International
2309:Radioactivity and Earth Movements
2176:Geophysical Journal International
1644:Geophysical Journal International
291:is ~ 25 mm/yr, while in the
5378:
5367:
5358:
5357:
4553:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
4469:
4458:
3486:
3474:
3409:
2075:Hekinian, R., ed. (1982-01-01),
1665:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04491.x
1082:
1068:
1054:
1040:
847: – Pacific volcanic hotspot
814:
799:
783:
771:
686:Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory
375:for mid-ocean ridge basalt, and
335:Mid-ocean ridges exhibit active
186:that spreads away from the ridge
114:
5283:Ocean thermal energy conversion
5006:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
3205:
3170:
3121:
3070:
3055:
3020:
2973:
2855:
2776:
2716:
2657:
2574:
2531:
2466:
2432:Journal of Geophysical Research
2423:
2380:
2338:
2300:
2284:10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_105-1
2267:
2212:
2119:
2110:
2068:
2017:
1957:
1932:
1907:
1864:
1836:
1785:
1680:
1631:
1371:Journal of Geophysical Research
1325:Journal of Geophysical Research
1002: – Ancient mid-ocean ridge
2980:HsĂĽ, Kenneth J. (2014-07-14).
2730:Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences
2584:Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences
2475:"What drives tectonic plates?"
1850:. London: Chapman & Hall.
1553:
1494:
1443:
1222:, Elsevier, pp. 405–419,
1220:Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences
1020: – Former mid-ocean ridge
982:List of ancient oceanic ridges
882:South American–Antarctic Ridge
383:. Mid-ocean ridge basalt is a
232:where depth is measured). The
149:
100:and lithosphere upon cooling.
13:
1:
5411:Coastal and oceanic landforms
2641:10.1007/978-1-4020-4411-3_206
2307:Holmes, A. (1 January 1931),
2089:10.1016/S0422-9894(08)70944-9
1987:10.1126/science.207.4438.1421
1918:(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
1523:10.1126/science.154.3755.1405
1163:
324:overlapping spreading centers
208:
4543:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
4513:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
4269:Luke's variational principle
2081:Elsevier Oceanography Series
1689:Geophysical Research Letters
1437:10.1016/0012-821X(74)90180-0
1273:Searle, Roger (2013-09-19).
923: – Tectonic plate ridge
637:
330:
7:
5421:Oceanographical terminology
3217:National Geographic Society
2359:10.1130/petrologic.1962.599
2026:Nature Reviews Microbiology
1914:Hyndman, Donald W. (1985).
1033:
10:
5452:
4608:Ocean dynamical thermostat
4456:
4112:
2317:10.1144/TRANSGLAS.18.3.559
860:Galapagos Spreading Center
830:
641:
632:
548:
504:Impact on global sea level
434:
212:
29:
5353:
5192:
5166:
5143:Ocean acoustic tomography
5128:
5080:
5019:
4956:Mohorovičić discontinuity
4914:
4786:
4683:
4548:General circulation model
4478:
4184:Benjamin–Feir instability
4164:
4108:
4027:
3989:
3908:
3813:
3765:
3643:
3612:
3554:
3545:
3469:
3418:
3407:
3338:
3140:(Supplement_1): 282–292.
2984:. Princeton, New Jersey.
2347:"History of Ocean Basins"
1943:(2nd ed.). Freeman.
1109:List of oceanic landforms
961: – Russian zoologist
741:could plow through ocean
219:Seafloor depth versus age
5273:Ocean surface topography
4648:Thermohaline circulation
4638:Subsurface ocean current
4578:Hydrothermal circulation
4411:Wave–current interaction
4189:Boussinesq approximation
3391:South American-Antarctic
3027:Bunch, Bryan H. (2004).
827:List of mid-ocean ridges
762:in geological thinking.
707:German Meteor expedition
199:Ăžingvellir National Park
71:divergent plate boundary
65:. This feature is where
55:seafloor mountain system
5310:Sea surface temperature
5293:Outline of oceanography
4488:Atmospheric circulation
4426:shallow water equations
4416:Waves and shallow water
4309:Significant wave height
2825:10.1126/science.1182252
2686:10.1126/science.1151540
2452:10.1029/JB078i035p08735
2409:10.1029/RG011i002p00223
1885:10.1126/science.1169556
1429:1974E&PSL..21..405D
1391:10.1029/jb082i005p00803
1345:10.1029/jb076i032p07888
909:Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
729:proposed the theory of
674:It was not until after
662:Charles Wyville Thomson
364:temperature and melts.
32:Undersea mountain range
5305:Sea surface microlayer
4670:Wind generated current
3079:The Journal of Geology
2743:10.1006/rwos.2001.0255
2597:10.1006/rwos.2001.0268
2499:10.1126/sciadv.aax4295
1012:Pacific-Farallon Ridge
935:Southwest Indian Ridge
929:Southeast Indian Ridge
658:Matthew Fontaine Maury
560:
446:
427:
309:Southwest Indian Ridge
266:Earth's magnetic field
205:
187:
175:
124:
76:The production of new
42:
5426:Physical oceanography
5138:Deep scattering layer
5120:World Geodetic System
4628:Princeton Ocean Model
4508:Coriolis–Stokes force
4158:Physical oceanography
2790:(C8), pp.15853-15868.
2723:Kominz, M.A. (2001).
2389:Reviews of Geophysics
654:Challenger expedition
558:
444:
435:Further information:
425:
389:incompatible elements
350:decompression melting
270:geomagnetic reversals
193:
181:
157:
122:
40:
5416:Geological processes
5158:Underwater acoustics
4718:Perigean spring tide
4583:Langmuir circulation
4294:Rossby-gravity waves
4115:Geographical feature
3951:Volcanic crater lake
3261:10.1029/2005GC001148
3213:"seafloor spreading"
2345:Hess, H. H. (1962),
1848:Igneous petrogenesis
1157:Vine-Matthews-Morely
1104:Geography of Iceland
915:Central Indian Ridge
490:South American plate
486:North American Plate
289:North Atlantic Ocean
170:(1977), showing the
69:takes place along a
5320:Science On a Sphere
4926:Convergent boundary
4598:Modular Ocean Model
4558:Geostrophic current
4274:Mild-slope equation
3191:1981Geo.....9...25J
3146:1961GeoJ....4..282B
3091:1949JG.....57...89S
2951:2004Geo....32..981R
2876:1997Geo....25...85M
2817:2010Sci...327.1114C
2811:(5969): 1114–1117.
2678:2008Sci...319.1357M
2672:(5868): 1357–1362.
2552:1978GSAB...89.1389P
2491:2019SciA....5.4295C
2444:1973JGR....78.8735R
2401:1973RvGSP..11..223R
2188:1975GeoJ...43..163F
2144:1997JGR...102.3211M
2038:10.1038/nrmicro1991
1979:1980Sci...207.1421S
1973:(4438): 1421–1433.
1806:1983Natur.302...55M
1755:10.1038/nature02128
1747:2003Natur.426..405D
1701:1996GeoRL..23.3003W
1656:2010GeoJI.181....1D
1617:1982AREPS..10..155M
1574:1977GSAB...88..541M
1515:1966Sci...154.1405V
1509:(3755): 1405–1415.
1464:1963Natur.199..947V
1383:1977JGR....82..803P
1337:1971JGR....76.7888S
1000:Kula-Farallon Ridge
690:Columbia University
526:, ice melting, and
508:Increased rates of
494:Lesser Antilles Arc
413:oceanic lithosphere
381:lower oceanic crust
184:oceanic lithosphere
5436:Volcanic landforms
4976:Seafloor spreading
4966:Outer trench swell
4931:Divergent boundary
4831:Continental margin
4816:Carbonate platform
4713:Lunitidal interval
3481:Geology portal
2351:Petrologic Studies
1018:Pacific-Kula Ridge
1006:Mid-Labrador Ridge
975:(south of Iceland)
941:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
876:Juan de Fuca Ridge
751:seafloor spreading
561:
532:dynamic topography
510:seafloor spreading
482:seismic tomography
447:
431:Driving mechanisms
428:
393:Hydrothermal vents
352:in the underlying
238:mantle half-space.
234:depth-age relation
206:
203:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
188:
176:
168:Heinrich C. Berann
125:
105:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
67:seafloor spreading
43:
5393:
5392:
5385:Oceans portal
5345:World Ocean Atlas
5335:Underwater glider
5278:Ocean temperature
4941:Hydrothermal vent
4906:Submarine volcano
4841:Continental shelf
4821:Coastal geography
4811:Bathymetric chart
4693:Amphidromic point
4381:Wave nonlinearity
4239:Infragravity wave
4124:
4123:
4035:Artificial island
3941:Submarine volcano
3850:Continental shelf
3817:coastal landforms
3613:Continental plain
3548:List of landforms
3501:
3500:
3493:Oceans portal
3436:Antarctic-Phoenix
3386:Pacific-Antarctic
2650:978-1-4020-4551-6
2438:(35): 8735–8745.
2293:978-94-007-6644-0
2153:10.1029/96JB01781
2138:(B2): 3211–3214.
1950:978-0-7167-2438-4
1925:978-0-07-031658-4
1879:(5917): 1017–18.
1857:978-0-412-53310-5
1741:(6965): 405–412.
1709:10.1029/96GL02893
1695:(21): 3003–3006.
1458:(4897): 947–949.
1331:(32): 7888–7915.
1151:Submarine volcano
897:East Pacific Rise
808:magnetic striping
731:continental drift
615:calcium carbonate
600:calcium carbonate
539:Cretaceous Period
528:mantle convection
524:thermal expansion
453:. Two processes,
385:tholeiitic basalt
277:East Pacific Rise
16:(Redirected from
5443:
5383:
5382:
5371:
5370:
5361:
5360:
5300:Pelagic sediment
5238:Marine pollution
5032:Deep ocean water
4901:Submarine canyon
4836:Continental rise
4728:Rule of twelfths
4643:Sverdrup balance
4573:Humboldt Current
4498:Boundary current
4473:
4462:
4279:Radiation stress
4249:Iribarren number
4224:Equatorial waves
4179:Ballantine scale
4174:Airy wave theory
4151:
4144:
4137:
4128:
4127:
4070:Land reclamation
3966:Volcanic plateau
3528:
3521:
3514:
3505:
3504:
3491:
3490:
3479:
3478:
3456:Pacific-Farallon
3413:
3401:Southwest Indian
3396:Southeast Indian
3332:Mid-ocean ridges
3325:
3318:
3311:
3302:
3301:
3273:
3272:
3246:
3237:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3157:
3125:
3119:
3118:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3059:
3053:
3052:
3024:
3018:
3017:
3011:
3003:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2959:10.1130/g20851.1
2934:
2925:
2924:
2914:
2905:
2896:
2895:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2800:
2791:
2780:
2774:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2720:
2714:
2713:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2628:
2619:
2618:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2546:(9): 1389–1403.
2535:
2529:
2528:
2518:
2485:(10): eaax4295.
2479:Science Advances
2470:
2464:
2463:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2384:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2304:
2298:
2297:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2258:
2250:
2226:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2199:
2167:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2123:
2117:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2105:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2021:
2015:
2014:
1961:
1955:
1954:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1814:10.1038/302055a0
1789:
1783:
1782:
1730:
1721:
1720:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1667:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1472:10.1038/199947a0
1447:
1441:
1440:
1412:
1403:
1402:
1366:
1357:
1356:
1320:
1311:
1310:
1304:
1296:
1275:Mid-ocean ridges
1270:
1249:
1248:
1215:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1174:
1114:
1092:
1087:
1086:
1078:
1076:Geography portal
1073:
1072:
1071:
1064:
1062:Volcanoes portal
1059:
1058:
1050:
1045:
1044:
1029:
974:
964:
947:Kolbeinsey Ridge
893:
866:and Cocos plates
850:
818:
803:
787:
775:
684:, a ship of the
379:below it in the
225:spreading center
135:, making it the
21:
5451:
5450:
5446:
5445:
5444:
5442:
5441:
5440:
5431:Plate tectonics
5396:
5395:
5394:
5389:
5377:
5349:
5188:
5162:
5124:
5105:Sea-level curve
5076:
5015:
5001:Transform fault
4951:Mid-ocean ridge
4917:
4910:
4876:Oceanic plateau
4782:
4768:Tidal resonance
4738:Theory of tides
4679:
4588:Longshore drift
4538:Ekman transport
4474:
4468:
4467:
4466:
4465:
4464:
4463:
4454:
4406:Wave turbulence
4339:Trochoidal wave
4264:Longshore drift
4160:
4155:
4125:
4120:
4117:
4104:
4040:Artificial reef
4023:
3985:
3961:Volcanic island
3946:Volcanic crater
3904:
3900:Volcanic island
3880:Mid-ocean ridge
3816:
3809:
3761:
3639:
3608:
3550:
3541:
3532:
3502:
3497:
3485:
3473:
3465:
3414:
3405:
3334:
3329:
3282:
3277:
3276:
3244:
3238:
3231:
3222:
3220:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3175:
3171:
3126:
3122:
3075:
3071:
3060:
3056:
3041:
3025:
3021:
3005:
3004:
2992:
2978:
2974:
2935:
2928:
2912:
2906:
2899:
2860:
2856:
2801:
2794:
2781:
2777:
2764:
2760:
2753:
2721:
2717:
2662:
2658:
2651:
2629:
2622:
2607:
2579:
2575:
2536:
2532:
2471:
2467:
2428:
2424:
2385:
2381:
2373:
2371:
2369:
2343:
2339:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2272:
2268:
2252:
2251:
2239:
2217:
2213:
2168:
2161:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2111:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2073:
2069:
2032:(11): 805–814.
2022:
2018:
1962:
1958:
1951:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1912:
1908:
1869:
1865:
1858:
1844:Marjorie Wilson
1841:
1837:
1800:(5903): 55–58.
1790:
1786:
1731:
1724:
1685:
1681:
1636:
1632:
1601:
1597:
1558:
1554:
1499:
1495:
1448:
1444:
1413:
1406:
1367:
1360:
1321:
1314:
1298:
1297:
1285:
1271:
1252:
1238:
1216:
1197:
1187:
1185:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1118:Ocean chemistry
1112:
1088:
1081:
1074:
1069:
1067:
1060:
1053:
1046:
1039:
1036:
1027:
984:
972:
969:Reykjanes Ridge
962:
921:Carlsberg Ridge
891:
848:
835:
831:Main category:
829:
822:
819:
810:
804:
795:
792:plate tectonics
788:
779:
776:
724:
646:
640:
635:
553:
551:Ocean chemistry
547:
520:Sealevel change
506:
439:
437:Plate tectonics
433:
333:
316:transform fault
221:
211:
152:
117:
96:, creating new
59:plate tectonics
47:mid-ocean ridge
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Submarine ridge
15:
12:
11:
5:
5449:
5439:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5406:Oceanic ridges
5391:
5390:
5388:
5387:
5375:
5365:
5354:
5351:
5350:
5348:
5347:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5325:Stratification
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5296:
5295:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5217:
5215:Color of water
5212:
5210:Benthic lander
5207:
5202:
5196:
5194:
5190:
5189:
5187:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5170:
5168:
5164:
5163:
5161:
5160:
5155:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5134:
5132:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5122:
5117:
5115:Sea level rise
5112:
5110:Sea level drop
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5086:
5084:
5078:
5077:
5075:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5023:
5021:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4946:Marine geology
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4922:
4920:
4912:
4911:
4909:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4886:Passive margin
4883:
4881:Oceanic trench
4878:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4792:
4790:
4784:
4783:
4781:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4689:
4687:
4681:
4680:
4678:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4656:
4655:
4645:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4613:Ocean dynamics
4610:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4503:Coriolis force
4500:
4495:
4490:
4484:
4482:
4476:
4475:
4457:
4455:
4453:
4452:
4451:
4450:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4429:
4428:
4423:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4352:
4351:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4324:Stokes problem
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4259:Kinematic wave
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4170:
4168:
4162:
4161:
4154:
4153:
4146:
4139:
4131:
4122:
4121:
4119:
4118:
4109:
4106:
4105:
4103:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4031:
4029:
4025:
4024:
4022:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3995:
3993:
3987:
3986:
3984:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3885:Oceanic trench
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3821:
3819:
3811:
3810:
3808:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3771:
3769:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3738:
3737:
3732:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3696:
3695:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3649:
3647:
3641:
3640:
3638:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3585:
3584:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3558:
3556:
3552:
3551:
3546:
3543:
3542:
3531:
3530:
3523:
3516:
3508:
3499:
3498:
3496:
3495:
3483:
3470:
3467:
3466:
3464:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3451:Osbourn Trough
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3422:
3420:
3416:
3415:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3346:Central Indian
3342:
3340:
3336:
3335:
3328:
3327:
3320:
3313:
3305:
3299:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3281:
3280:External links
3278:
3275:
3274:
3229:
3204:
3169:
3120:
3099:10.1086/625580
3069:
3054:
3039:
3019:
2990:
2972:
2926:
2897:
2854:
2792:
2775:
2758:
2751:
2715:
2656:
2649:
2620:
2605:
2573:
2530:
2465:
2422:
2395:(2): 223–287.
2379:
2367:
2337:
2299:
2292:
2266:
2237:
2211:
2182:(1): 163–200.
2159:
2118:
2109:
2097:
2067:
2016:
1956:
1949:
1931:
1924:
1906:
1863:
1856:
1835:
1784:
1722:
1679:
1630:
1611:(1): 155–190.
1595:
1552:
1493:
1442:
1423:(4): 405–413.
1404:
1377:(5): 803–827.
1358:
1312:
1283:
1250:
1236:
1195:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1160:
1154:
1148:
1142:
1136:
1133:Project FAMOUS
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1106:
1101:
1094:
1093:
1090:Geology portal
1079:
1065:
1051:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1030:
1021:
1015:
1009:
1003:
997:
991:
983:
980:
979:
978:
977:
976:
966:
956:
950:
938:
932:
926:
925:
924:
912:
906:
900:
894:
885:
879:
873:
867:
857:
854:Explorer Ridge
851:
842:
833:Oceanic ridges
828:
825:
824:
823:
820:
813:
811:
805:
798:
796:
789:
782:
780:
777:
770:
760:paradigm shift
727:Alfred Wegener
723:
720:
711:South Atlantic
650:Atlantic Ocean
642:Main article:
639:
636:
634:
631:
619:aragonite seas
549:Main article:
546:
543:
505:
502:
432:
429:
387:and is low in
354:Earth's mantle
332:
329:
320:fracture zones
256:Spreading rate
210:
207:
151:
148:
140:mountain range
116:
113:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5448:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5404:
5403:
5401:
5386:
5381:
5376:
5374:
5366:
5364:
5356:
5355:
5352:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5294:
5291:
5290:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5233:Marine energy
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5223:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5200:Acidification
5198:
5197:
5195:
5191:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5171:
5169:
5165:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5153:SOFAR channel
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5131:
5127:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5087:
5085:
5083:
5079:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5024:
5022:
5018:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4961:Oceanic crust
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4936:Fracture zone
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4923:
4921:
4919:
4913:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4871:Oceanic basin
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4801:Abyssal plain
4799:
4797:
4794:
4793:
4791:
4789:
4785:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4708:Internal tide
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4690:
4688:
4686:
4682:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4654:
4651:
4650:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4603:Ocean current
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4485:
4483:
4481:
4477:
4472:
4461:
4449:
4446:
4445:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4418:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4401:Wave shoaling
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4361:Ursell number
4359:
4357:
4354:
4350:
4347:
4346:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4244:Internal wave
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4194:Breaking wave
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4152:
4147:
4145:
4140:
4138:
4133:
4132:
4129:
4116:
4111:
4110:
4107:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4030:
4026:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3996:
3994:
3992:
3988:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3971:Volcanic plug
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3907:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3822:
3820:
3818:
3812:
3806:
3805:Tunnel valley
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3772:
3770:
3768:
3764:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
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2098:9780444419675
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2020:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
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1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1960:
1952:
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1935:
1927:
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1319:
1317:
1308:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1284:9781107017528
1280:
1276:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1237:9780128130827
1233:
1229:
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1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1123:Oceanic crust
1121:
1119:
1116:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1098:Afar Triangle
1096:
1095:
1091:
1085:
1080:
1077:
1066:
1063:
1057:
1052:
1049:
1048:Oceans portal
1043:
1038:
1025:
1024:Phoenix Ridge
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
989:
986:
985:
970:
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957:
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948:
945:
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942:
939:
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927:
922:
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918:
916:
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904:
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895:
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883:
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868:
865:
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837:
836:
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786:
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769:
768:
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763:
761:
756:
752:
746:
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736:
732:
728:
719:
716:
712:
708:
702:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
682:
677:
672:
670:
669:echo sounders
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
645:
630:
626:
622:
620:
616:
612:
607:
605:
601:
597:
594:
588:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
557:
552:
542:
540:
535:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
515:
511:
501:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
474:asthenosphere
471:
467:
462:
460:
456:
452:
443:
438:
424:
420:
418:
417:asthenosphere
414:
410:
406:
402:
397:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
346:
342:
338:
328:
325:
321:
317:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
273:
271:
267:
262:
257:
253:
251:
247:
244:
239:
235:
231:
226:
220:
216:
204:
200:
196:
192:
185:
180:
173:
169:
166:, painted by
165:
161:
156:
147:
145:
141:
138:
134:
130:
121:
115:Global system
112:
110:
106:
101:
99:
98:oceanic crust
95:
91:
87:
84:results from
83:
79:
74:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
39:
33:
19:
5340:Water column
5288:Oceanography
5263:Observations
5258:Explorations
5228:Marginal sea
5221:
5179:OSTM/Jason-2
5011:Volcanic arc
4986:Slab suction
4950:
4703:Head of tide
4593:Loop Current
4533:Ekman spiral
4319:Stokes drift
4229:Gravity wave
4204:Cnoidal wave
3956:Volcanic dam
3879:
3653:Alluvial fan
3461:Pacific-Kula
3446:Mid-Labrador
3381:Mid-Atlantic
3376:Juan de Fuca
3356:East Pacific
3331:
3252:
3248:
3221:. Retrieved
3219:. 2015-06-08
3216:
3207:
3185:(1): 25–27.
3182:
3178:
3172:
3137:
3133:
3123:
3085:(1): 89–92.
3082:
3078:
3072:
3063:
3057:
3029:
3022:
2981:
2975:
2942:
2938:
2920:
2916:
2867:
2863:
2857:
2808:
2804:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2773:(2), pp.1–7.
2770:
2766:
2761:
2729:
2718:
2669:
2665:
2659:
2632:
2583:
2576:
2543:
2540:GSA Bulletin
2539:
2533:
2482:
2478:
2468:
2435:
2431:
2425:
2392:
2388:
2382:
2372:, retrieved
2350:
2340:
2308:
2302:
2275:
2269:
2222:
2214:
2179:
2175:
2135:
2131:
2121:
2112:
2102:, retrieved
2080:
2070:
2029:
2025:
2019:
1970:
1966:
1959:
1940:
1934:
1915:
1909:
1876:
1872:
1866:
1847:
1838:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1738:
1734:
1692:
1688:
1682:
1647:
1643:
1633:
1608:
1604:
1598:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1455:
1451:
1445:
1420:
1416:
1374:
1370:
1328:
1324:
1277:. New York.
1274:
1219:
1186:. Retrieved
1181:
1172:
1139:RISE project
903:Gakkel Ridge
764:
747:
725:
715:Indian Ocean
703:
698:Bruce Heezen
679:
676:World War II
673:
647:
627:
623:
608:
604:calcite seas
589:
565:ion-exchange
562:
536:
518:
507:
470:upper mantle
463:
448:
401:age of Earth
398:
372:
366:
334:
313:
305:Arctic Ocean
301:Gakkel Ridge
281:rift valleys
274:
261:Curie points
255:
254:
222:
164:Bruce Heezen
128:
126:
102:
80:and oceanic
75:
50:
46:
44:
5330:Thermocline
5047:Mesopelagic
5020:Ocean zones
4991:Slab window
4856:Hydrography
4796:Abyssal fan
4763:Tidal range
4753:Tidal power
4748:Tidal force
4633:Rip current
4568:Gulf Stream
4528:Ekman layer
4518:Downwelling
4493:Baroclinity
4480:Circulation
4376:Wave height
4366:Wave action
4349:megatsunami
4329:Stokes wave
4289:Rossby wave
4254:Kelvin wave
4234:Green's law
3815:Oceanic and
3555:Mountainous
2945:(11): 981.
2587:. pp.
2223:Geodynamics
1650:(1): 1–80.
1182:Ocean Facts
1145:Slab window
994:Alpha Ridge
988:Aegir Ridge
953:Mohns Ridge
870:Gorda Ridge
845:Cocos Ridge
694:Marie Tharp
345:ocean crust
250:lithosphere
230:lithosphere
160:Marie Tharp
150:Description
82:lithosphere
63:ocean basin
5400:Categories
5268:Reanalysis
5167:Satellites
5148:Sofar bomb
4996:Subduction
4971:Ridge push
4866:Ocean bank
4846:Contourite
4773:Tide gauge
4758:Tidal race
4743:Tidal bore
4733:Slack tide
4698:Earth tide
4618:Ocean gyre
4438:Wind setup
4433:Wind fetch
4396:Wave setup
4391:Wave radar
4386:Wave power
4284:Rogue wave
4214:Dispersion
4113:See also:
4028:Artificial
3936:Lava field
3855:Coral reef
3683:Floodplain
3255:(3): n/a.
3223:2017-04-14
3040:0618221239
2374:2019-09-11
2238:0521661862
2104:2020-10-27
1568:(4): 541.
1188:17 October
1164:References
888:Chile Rise
839:Aden Ridge
739:continents
596:polymorphs
498:Scotia Arc
466:convection
455:ridge-push
409:peridotite
405:subduction
358:isentropic
341:seismicity
213:See also:
209:Morphology
57:formed by
5130:Acoustics
5082:Sea level
4981:Slab pull
4918:tectonics
4826:Cold seep
4788:Landforms
4665:Whirlpool
4660:Upwelling
4443:Wind wave
4371:Wave base
4299:Sea state
4219:Edge wave
4209:Cross sea
4090:Reservoir
3981:Wall rock
3931:Lava dome
3890:Peninsula
3800:Ice field
3757:Waterfall
3620:Ice sheet
3599:Tableland
3539:landforms
3269:128900649
3164:0956-540X
3115:131014204
3107:0022-1376
3008:cite book
3000:889252330
2967:0091-7613
2923:(2): 1–7.
2917:GSA Today
2892:0091-7613
2870:(1): 85.
2833:0036-8075
2767:GSA today
2735:2605–2613
2694:0036-8075
2615:129689280
2589:2599–2604
2568:0016-7606
2507:2375-2548
2460:2156-2202
2417:1944-9208
2333:Q61783012
2325:122872384
2255:cite book
2206:0956-540X
2046:1740-1526
1995:0036-8075
1941:Petrology
1822:1476-4687
1763:1476-4687
1717:1944-8007
1674:0956-540X
1590:0016-7606
1531:0036-8075
1480:0028-0836
1399:2156-2202
1353:2156-2202
1301:cite book
1293:842323181
1246:264225475
959:Knipovich
806:Seafloor
755:Wegener's
713:into the
638:Discovery
611:aragonite
577:manganese
530:creating
459:slab pull
371:known as
337:volcanism
331:Volcanism
195:Rift zone
5363:Category
5315:Seawater
5042:Littoral
5037:Deep sea
4896:Seamount
4778:Tideline
4723:Rip tide
4653:shutdown
4623:Overflow
4356:Undertow
4199:Clapotis
4050:Building
4014:Sandhill
4004:Dry lake
3909:Volcanic
3895:Seamount
3577:Mountain
3361:Explorer
3049:54024134
2849:22739139
2841:20133522
2710:23334128
2702:18323446
2525:31693727
2329:Wikidata
2247:48194722
2054:18820700
2011:28363398
2003:17779602
1901:43281390
1893:19229024
1846:(1993).
1771:14647373
1547:44362406
1539:17821553
1034:See also
585:Helium-3
514:eustatic
478:friction
451:trenches
307:and the
246:isostasy
109:baseball
78:seafloor
5373:Commons
5243:Mooring
5193:Related
5184:Jason-3
5174:Jason-1
5057:Pelagic
5052:Oceanic
5027:Benthic
4344:Tsunami
4314:Soliton
3991:Aeolian
3976:Volcano
3916:Caldera
3870:Isthmus
3860:Estuary
3840:Channel
3795:Glacier
3767:Glacial
3705:Meander
3673:Channel
3645:Fluvial
3589:Plateau
3339:Present
3187:Bibcode
3179:Geology
3142:Bibcode
3087:Bibcode
2947:Bibcode
2939:Geology
2872:Bibcode
2864:Geology
2813:Bibcode
2805:Science
2674:Bibcode
2666:Science
2548:Bibcode
2516:6821462
2487:Bibcode
2440:Bibcode
2397:Bibcode
2184:Bibcode
2140:Bibcode
2062:1709272
1975:Bibcode
1967:Science
1873:Science
1830:4358534
1802:Bibcode
1779:4376557
1743:Bibcode
1697:Bibcode
1652:Bibcode
1613:Bibcode
1570:Bibcode
1511:Bibcode
1503:Science
1488:4296143
1460:Bibcode
1425:Bibcode
1379:Bibcode
1333:Bibcode
633:History
593:calcite
581:silicon
362:solidus
303:in the
297:Miocene
293:Pacific
223:At the
158:Map of
137:longest
53:) is a
5062:Photic
4891:Seabed
4304:Seiche
4100:Tunnel
4085:Quarry
4080:Polder
4045:Bridge
4019:Tundra
3999:Desert
3921:Geyser
3875:Lagoon
3865:Island
3780:Cirque
3752:Valley
3742:Strait
3720:Rapids
3693:island
3663:Canyon
3635:Tundra
3630:Steppe
3604:Valley
3419:Former
3366:Gakkel
3267:
3162:
3113:
3105:
3047:
3037:
2998:
2988:
2965:
2890:
2847:
2839:
2831:
2749:
2708:
2700:
2692:
2647:
2613:
2603:
2566:
2523:
2513:
2505:
2458:
2415:
2365:
2331:
2323:
2290:
2245:
2235:
2204:
2095:
2060:
2052:
2044:
2009:
2001:
1993:
1947:
1922:
1899:
1891:
1854:
1828:
1820:
1794:Nature
1777:
1769:
1761:
1735:Nature
1715:
1672:
1588:
1545:
1537:
1529:
1486:
1478:
1452:Nature
1397:
1351:
1291:
1281:
1244:
1234:
1184:. NOAA
794:theory
573:sulfur
377:gabbro
369:basalt
356:. The
285:relief
217:, and
172:relief
86:mantle
5253:Ocean
5222:Alvin
5072:Swash
4916:Plate
4861:Knoll
4851:Guyot
4806:Atoll
4685:Tides
4448:model
4334:Swell
4166:Waves
4075:Levee
4065:Ditch
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