Phasmatodea - Knowledge

480: 492: 1704: 1753: 775: 620:(developmental stage). As the eye grows more complex, the mechanisms to adapt to dark/light changes are also enhanced: eyes in dark conditions evidence fewer screening pigments, which would block light, than during the daytime, and changes in the width of the retinal layer to adapt to changes in available light are significantly more pronounced in adults. The larger size of the adult insects' eyes makes them more prone to radiation damage. This explains why fully grown individuals are mostly nocturnal. Lessened sensitivity to light in the newly emerged insects helps them to escape from the 584: 1172: 287: 150: 1579: 677: 1562: 928: 1680:. During these encounters, the approach of a challenger causes the existing mate to manipulate the female's abdomen, which he has clasped by means of the clasping organ, or vomer, down upon itself to block the site of attachment. Occasionally, the consort will strike out at the competitor with the mid femora, which are equipped with an enlarged and hooked spine in both sexes that can draw the blood of the opponent when they are flexed against the body to puncture the 1594: 1151:. The insects eat the entire leaf blade. In the event of heavy outbreaks, entire stands of trees can be completely denuded. Continuous defoliation over several years often results in the death of the tree. Because these species cannot fly, infestations are typically contained to a radius of a few hundred yards. Nevertheless, the damage incurred to parks in the region is often costly. Control efforts in the case of infestations have typically involved chemical 1418: 1399: 1543: 1374: 1008: 604:(light-sensitive organs) are only known from the five groups Lanceocercata, Necrosciinae, Pseudophasmatidae, Palophidae and Phylliidae. Of these only the first three groups have females with ocelli, which like the wings seems to have re-evolved from ancestors that had lost them. Phasmids have an impressive visual system that allows them to perceive significant detail even in dim conditions, which suits their typically 128: 5038: 4189: 1031:(another instance of mimicry among Phasmatodea), eventually emerges from the nest and climbs the nearest tree to safety in the foliage. The eggs of stick insects have a coating of calcium oxalate which makes them survive unscathed in the digestive tract of birds. It has been suggested that birds may have a role in the dispersal of parthenogenetic stick insect species, especially to islands. 758: 1613: 471:, and do not require fertilized eggs for female offspring to be produced. In hotter climates, they may breed all year round; in more temperate regions, the females lay eggs in the autumn before dying, and the new generation hatches in the spring. Some species have wings and can disperse by flying, while others are more restricted. 1744:, sometimes form aggregations. These insects have been observed to congregate during the day in a concealed location, going their separate ways at nightfall to forage, and returning to their refuge before dawn. Such behavior has been little studied, and how the insects find their way back is unknown. 635:

Stick insects have two types of pads on their legs: sticky "toe pads" and non-stick "heel pads" a little further up their legs. The heel pads are covered in microscopic hairs which create strong friction at low pressure, enabling them to grip without having to be peeled energetically from the surface

1198:

Phasmida is the oldest and simplest name, first used by Leach in 1815 in "Brewster’s Edinburgh Encyclopaedia" volume 9, p. 119, and widely used in major entomological textbooks, dictionaries and many scientific papers and books on phasmids. As there is no compulsion to select the "grammatically

1727:

for longer and the female's chances of survival are enhanced. Also, evolution could have simply favored males that remained attached to their females longer, since females are often less abundant than males and represent a valuable prize, so for the lucky male, even the sacrifice of his own life to

791:

the encroaching predator by flashing bright colors that are normally hidden, and making a loud noise. When disturbed on a branch or foliage, some species, while dropping to the undergrowth to escape, will open their wings momentarily during free fall to display bright colors that disappear when the

1635:

by mimicking vegetation moving in the wind. These movements may also be important in allowing the insects to discriminate objects from the background by relative motion. Rocking movements by these generally sedentary insects may replace flying or running as a source of relative motion to help them

1250:

The order is divided into two, or sometimes three, suborders. The traditional division is into the suborder groups Anareolatae and Areolatae, which are distinguished according to whether the insect has sunken areola, or circular areas, on the underside of the apices of the middle and hind tibiae

1716:

Lengthy pairings have also been described in terms of a defensive alliance. When cleaved together, the pair is more unwieldy for predators to handle. Also, the chemical defenses (secretions, reflex bleeding, regurgitation) of the individual stick insect are enhanced when two are paired. Females

897:, has been shown to vary based on the insect's life stage or the particular population it is part of. This chemical spray variation also corresponds with regionally specific color forms in populations in Florida, with the different variants having distinct behaviors. The spray from one species, 883:

that enables the insect to release defensive secretions, including chemical compounds of varying effect: some produce distinct odors, and others can cause a stinging, burning sensation in the eyes and mouth of a predator. The spray often contains pungent-smelling

750:, a number of species perform a rocking motion where the body is swayed from side to side; this is thought to mimic the movement of leaves or twigs swaying in the breeze. Another method by which stick insects avoid predation and resemble twigs is by entering a 825:(fleshy structures sometimes attached to seeds) that attract ants. When the egg has been carried to the colony, the adult ant feeds the elaiosome to a larva while the phasmid egg is left to develop in the recesses of the nest in a protected environment. 1736:

in the species, where females are usually significantly larger than the males, may have evolved due to the fitness advantage accrued to males that can remain attached to the female, thereby blocking competitors, without severely impeding her movement.

891:, previously thought to be concentrated in the insect from its plant food sources. However, it now seems more likely that the insect manufactures its own defensive chemicals. Additionally, the chemistry of the defense spray from at least one species, 1618: 1617: 1614: 1279:. This division is, however, not fully supported by the molecular studies, which recover Agathemerodea as nested within Euphasmatodea rather than being the sister group of the latter group. Recent taxonomic treatments recognise two suborders, with 1619: 955:, meaning the females lay eggs without needing to mate with males to produce offspring. Eggs from virgin mothers are entirely female and hatch into nymphs that are exact copies of their mothers. Stick insect species that are the product of 1189:

The classification of the Phasmatodea is complex and the relationships between its members are poorly understood. Furthermore, there is much confusion over the ordinal name. Phasmida is preferred by many authors, though it is

1717:

survive attacks by predators significantly better when pairing, largely because the dorsal position of the male functions well as a shield. This could indicate that manipulation by females is taking place: if females accept

985:, from which the nymph emerges during hatching. The eggs vary in the length of time before they hatch which varies from 13 to more than 70 days, with the average around 20 to 30 days. Some species, particularly those from 1042:. Once emerged, a nymph will eat its cast skin. Adulthood is reached for most species after several months and many molts. The lifespan of Phasmatodea varies by species, but ranges from a few months to up to three years. 1616: 1696:. If he is discovered, the males will enter into combat wherein they lean backward, both clasped to the female's abdomen, and freely suspended, engage in rapid, sweeping blows with their forelegs in a manner similar to 944:: she will either flick her egg to the ground by a movement of the ovipositor or her entire abdomen, carefully place the eggs in the axils of the host plant, bury them in small pits in the soil, or stick the eggs to a 3686:

O'Dea, JD. Eine zusatzliche oder alternative Funktion der 'kryptischen' Schaukelbewegung bei Gottesanbeterinnen und Stabschrecken (Mantodea, Phasmatodea). Entomologische Zeitschrift, 101, Nr. 1/2, 15 Januar 1991,

997:

on the egg-laying adults or can be genetically determined. Diapause is broken by exposure to the cold of winter, causing the eggs to hatch during the following spring. Among species of economic importance such as

3061: 3796:

Boucher, Stephanie; Hirondelle Varady-Szabo (2005). "Effects of different diets on the survival, longevity and growth rate of the Annam stick insect, Medauroidea extradentata (Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae)".

1027:. The ants take the egg into their nest underground and can remove the capitulum to feed to their larvae without harming the phasmid embryo. There, the egg hatches and the young nymph, which initially 872:) respond by curling the abdomen upward and repeatedly swinging the legs together, grasping at the threat. If the menace is caught, the spines can, in humans, draw blood and inflict considerable pain. 1684:. Usually, a strong hold on the female's abdomen and blows to the intruder are enough to deter the unwanted competition, but occasionally the competitor has been observed to employ a sneaky tactic to 1155:; ground fires are effective at killing eggs but have obvious disadvantages. In New South Wales, research has investigated the feasibility of controlling stick insects using natural enemies such as 2914:

Willig, Michael R.; Rosser W. Garrison; Arlene J. Bauman (1986). "Population dynamics and natural history of a neotropical walking stick, Lamponius Portoricensis Rehn (Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae)".

2597:"Survey of the Color Forms of the Southern Twostriped Walkingstick (Phasmatodea: Areolatae: Pseudophasmatidae: Pseudophasmatinae: Anisomorphini), With Notes on Its Range, Habitats, and Behaviors" 754:, where the insect adopts a rigid, motionless posture that can be maintained for a long period. The nocturnal feeding habits of adults also help Phasmatodea to remain concealed from predators. 4060: 3652:

Archibald, SB; Bradler, S (2015). "Stem-group stick insects (Phasmatodea) in the early Eocene at McAbee, British Columbia, Canada, and Republic, Washington, United States of America".

734:

outgrowths that supplement their disguise. Remaining absolutely stationary enhances their inconspicuousness. Some species have the ability to change color as their surroundings shift (

3244:

Sven Bradler; James A. Robertson; Michael F. Whiting (2014). "A molecular phylogeny of Phasmatodea with emphasis on Necrosciinae, the most species-rich subfamily of stick insects".

501:, the world's second-longest insect. This species grows to a total length of 56.7 cm (22.3 in) (front legs fully extended) and body length of 35.7 cm (14.1 in). 1199:

correct" name , selection of a long established (and simple) name is reasonable, although the probability of persuading all colleagues to agree on the use of Phasmida is unlikely.

2544:

Dossey, Aaron; Spencer S. Walse; Arthur S. Edison (2008). "Developmental and Geographical Variation in the Chemical Defense of the Walkingstick Insect Anisomorpha buprestoides".

1338:

of Messel, Germany. In size and cryptic (leaflike) body form, it closely resembles extant species, suggesting that the behavior of the group has changed little since that time.

3370:

Ghirotto, Victor M.; Crispino, Edgar B.; Chiquetto-Machado, Pedro I.; Neves, Pedro A. B. A.; Engelking, Phillip W.; Ribeiro, Guilherme C. (May 2022). Labandeira, Conrad (ed.).

1528:

In the Iberian Peninsula there are currently described 13 species and several subspecies. Their life cycle is annual, living only during the hottest months (especially genera

1764:

Stick insects are often kept in captivity: almost 300 species have been reared in laboratories or as pets. The most commonly kept is the Indian (or laboratory) stick insect,

538:

is long in the winged species, since it houses the flight muscles, and is typically much shorter in the wingless forms. Where present, the first pair of wings is narrow and

3983:

Dean, Jeffery; Kindermann, Thomas; Schmitz, Josef; Schumm, Michael; Cruse, Holk (1999). "Control of Walking in the Stick Insect: From Behavior and Physiology to Modeling".

3560:

Brock, Paul (2018). "Missing stickman found: The first male of the parthenogenetic New Zealand Phasmid genus Acanthoxyla Uvarov, 1944 discovered in the United Kingdom".

720: 1615: 1023:

of some plant seeds that are sought-after food sources for ant larvae, and usually contribute to ensuring seed dispersal by ants, a form of ant-plant mutualism called

899: 919:), which contains distasteful compounds, to discourage predators. Another ploy is to regurgitate their stomach contents when harassed, repelling potential predators. 1631:, show rocking behavior in which the insect makes rhythmic, repetitive, side-to-side movements. The common interpretation of this behavior's function is it enhances 3081: 1085: 726: 707:

that prevent an attack from happening in the first place (primary defense), and defenses that are deployed after an attack has been initiated (secondary defense).

1947: 911:

constituents. Some species employ a shorter-range defensive secretion, where individuals bleed reflexively through the joints of their legs and the seams of the

792:

insect lands. Others will maintain their display for up to 20 minutes, hoping to frighten the predator and convey the appearance of a larger size. Some, such as

3143: 838: 1651: 856: 1641: 742: 1058:

herbivores there. Their role in the forest ecosystem is considered important by many scientists, who stress the significance of light gaps in maintaining

1498: 736: 3832:

Nadchatram, M. (1963). "The winged stick insect, Eurycnema versifasciata Serville (Phasmida, Phasmatidae), with special reference to its life history".

4973: 1107: 534:

Some phasmids have cylindrical stick-like shapes, while others have flattened, leaflike shapes. Many species are wingless, or have reduced wings. The

5571: 4915: 4895: 2732:

Morgan-Richards, M.; Trewick, S. A.; Stringer, I. N. A. N. (2010). "Geographic parthenogenesis and the common tea-tree stick insect of New Zealand".

1639:

Mating behavior in Phasmatodea is impressive because of the extraordinarily long duration of some pairings. A record among insects, the stick insect

4988: 3372:"The oldest Euphasmatodea (Insecta, Phasmatodea): modern morphology in an Early Cretaceous stick insect fossil from the Crato Formation of Brazil" 5457: 2509:

Dossey, Aaron; Spencer Walse; James R. Rocca; Arthur S. Edison (September 2006). "Single-Insect NMR: A New Tool To Probe Chemical Biodiversity".

1313: 982: 2935:"The worldwide status of stick insects (Insecta: Phasmida) as pests of agriculture and forestry, with a generalised theory of phasmid outbreaks" 5003: 1657: 2884: 4935: 4910: 1191: 505:

Phasmids vary greatly in size, with females typically growing larger than males of the same species. Males of the smallest species, such as

3881:"The worldwide status of phasmids (Insecta: Phasmida) as pests of agriculture and forestry, with a generalised theory of phasmid outbreaks" 2217: 4930: 4092: 1700:. Usually, when the intruder gains attachment to the female's abdomen, these conflicts result in the displacement of the original mate. 2628:

Prescott, T.; Bramham, J.; Zompro, O.; Maciver, S.K. (2010). "Actinidine and glucose from the defensive secretion of the stick insect

2058: 5431: 2156:"Post-embryonic photoreceptor development and dark/light adaptation in the stick insect Carausius morosus (Phasmida, Phasmatidae)" 1066:. The presence of phasmids lowers the net production of early successional plants by consuming them and then enriches the soil by 5470: 3941:

Osmond, Meredith (1998). "Chapter 8: Fishing and Hunting Implements". In Ross, Malcolm; Pawley, Andrew; Osmond, Meredith (eds.).

3031: 546:

is unique among insects. The body is often further modified to resemble vegetation, with ridges resembling leaf veins, bark-like

1239:(descended from a common ancestor) group from the Orthoptera. One is the instance among all species of Phasmatodea of a pair of 948:, usually a stem or leaf of the food plant. A single female lays from 100 to 1,200 eggs after mating, depending on the species. 608:

lifestyle. They are born equipped with tiny compound eyes with a limited number of facets. As phasmids grow through successive

2083: 1689: 718:. Most phasmids are known for effectively replicating the forms of sticks and leaves, and the bodies of some species (such as 5566: 5083: 3179: 3153: 2794: 2673: 2277: 2247: 2116: 1994: 1923: 522: 5475: 1805:

Research has been conducted to analyze the stick insect method of walking and apply this to the engineering of six-legged

636:

at each step. The sticky toe pads are used to provide additional grip when climbing but are not used on a level surface.

1519:. There are also a few other species that live in Europe but are introduced, as for example with a couple of species of 542:(hardened), while the hind wings are broad, with straight veins along their length and multiple cross-veins. Their wing 1434:; no males were recorded until 2016 when a single male was discovered in the UK where this lineage has been introduced. 1341:

Over 3,500 species have been described, with many more yet to be described both in museum collections and in the wild.

1263:

of the eggs may be a better basis for classification. An alternative is to divide the Phasmatodea into three suborders

601: 1955: 479: 3960: 1070:. This enables the late succession plants to become established and encourages the recycling of the tropical forest. 5410: 661: 644:

Phasmatodea can be found all over the world except for the Antarctic and Patagonia. They are most numerous in the

5423: 4085: 977:

Phasmatodea eggs resemble seeds in shape and size and have hard shells. They have a lid-like structure called an

3074:

Organización Para Estudios Tropicales, (OET), Costa Rica Bibliografía Nacional en Biología Tropical (BINABITROP)

1645:, found in India, is sometimes coupled for 79 days at a time. It is not uncommon for this species to assume the 1050:

Phasmids are herbivorous, feeding mostly on the leaves of trees and shrubs, and a conspicuous component of many

1951: 246: 3810: 5521: 5483: 1442:, is now listed as critically endangered. It was believed extinct until its rediscovery on the rock known as 1439: 1127:, the walking stick is a significant problem in parks and recreation sites, where it consumes the foliage of 624:

wherein they are hatched and move upward into the more brightly illuminated foliage. Young stick insects are

491: 17: 4722: 3197:"Extreme convergence in stick insect evolution: phylogenetic placement of the Lord Howe Island tree lobster" 2142: 1703: 940:

The life cycle of the stick insect begins when the female deposits her eggs through one of these methods of

3880: 3852: 1578: 1542: 3541: 572:

are uniform across species. The legs are typically long and slender, and some species are capable of limb

5340: 4018: 1223:, but the affiliations are uncertain and the grouping (sometimes referred to as "Orthopteroidea") may be 569: 2471:

Dossey, Aaron (December 2010). "Insects and their chemical weaponry: New potential for drug discovery".

1977:

Bradler, S.; Buckley, T.R. (2018). "Biodiversity of Phasmatodea". In Foottit, R.G.; Adler, P.H. (eds.).

149: 4078: 1799: 1228: 815:, another defense mechanism by which the insects avoid becoming prey. The eggs of some species such as 521:, is up to 64 centimetres (25 in) in total length, including outstretched legs. This makes it the 5498: 5076: 1584: 1091: 690: 2996:

Campbell, K.G. (1959). "The importance of research into forest insect problems in New South Wales".

967: 960: 2892: 2810:

Suetsugu, Kenji; Funaki, Shoichi; Takahashi, Asuka; Ito, Katsura; Yokoyama, Takeshi (29 May 2018).

933: 893: 460: 250: 4055: 3603: 3118: 1307:, and usually have two large pairs of wings. Modern phasmatodeans first appeared during the Early 1837: 1593: 1561: 1325:

of Brazil, around 113 million years old, which can be confidently assigned to the Euphasmatodea.

794: 664:, Central America, and the southern United States. Over 300 species are known from the island of 535: 517: 419: 403: 3942: 1752: 1299:

epoch represent stem-group phasmatodeans, the earliest unambiguous members of the group are the

993:, where development is delayed during the winter months. Diapause is initiated by the effect of 459:. They are herbivorous, with many species living unobtrusively in the tree canopy. They have an 5561: 5293: 4104: 3427:"The first fossil leaf insect: 47 million years of specialized cryptic morphology and behavior" 3171:

Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness

1330: 885: 862: 484: 3169: 3104:

Animal biodiversity: An outline of higherlevel classification and survey of taxonomic richness

2784: 2663: 2267: 1664:

Overt displays of aggression between males over mates suggests that extended pairing may have

1194:; Phasmatodea is correctly formed, and is widely accepted. However, Brock and Marshall argue: 774: 5576: 5331: 2980: 2441: 1782: 1097: 1059: 1000: 868: 817: 527: 136: 5511: 5462: 3982: 5556: 5379: 5069: 3895: 3383: 3253: 3005: 2826: 2741: 2553: 2195: 2167: 1722: 1468: 1260: 1247:(hardened plate), called a vomer, which allows the male to clasp the female during mating. 1203:

The order Phasmatodea is sometimes considered to be related to other orders, including the

1079: 844: 798:, accompany the visual display with the noise made by rubbing together parts of the wings. 1840:. The custom of keeping stick insects as pets was probably brought to Australia by either 410:, referring to their resemblance to vegetation while in fact being animals. Their natural 8: 3096: 2812:"Potential role of bird predation in the dispersal of otherwise flightless stick insects" 2689:

Morgan-Richards, M.; Trewick, S. A. (2005). "Hybrid origin of a parthenogenetic genus?".

2131: 1833: 1422: 971: 945: 803: 767: 589: 561: 512: 5531: 3899: 3626: 3516: 3490: 3387: 3371: 3345: 3319: 3293: 3257: 3009: 2830: 2745: 2557: 2315: 2171: 1019:

that caps the operculum. This structure attracts ants because of its resemblance to the

5013: 4528: 4000: 3923: 3814: 3669: 3453: 3426: 3407: 3269: 3221: 3196: 2866: 2765: 2714: 2577: 2039: 1599: 1477: 1447: 1284: 1177: 1140: 1016: 978: 850: 788: 780: 698: 613: 144: 39: 3035: 2811: 1231:(set of attributes that all members have). Phasmatodea, once considered a suborder of 616:. The sensitivity of the adult eye is at least tenfold that of the nymph in its first 5506: 5366: 5265: 4963: 3956: 3546: 3458: 3411: 3399: 3226: 3175: 3149: 2858: 2850: 2790: 2757: 2753: 2706: 2702: 2669: 2569: 2526: 2488: 2352: 2273: 2243: 2112: 2031: 1990: 1929: 1919: 1849: 1829: 1788:(1830–1890) painted leaf and stick insects that she saw on her travels in the 1870s. 1766: 1733: 1708: 1669: 1568: 1455: 1443: 1243:

inside the prothorax used for defense. Another is the presence of a specially formed

1063: 577: 565: 556: 497: 31: 4004: 3927: 3818: 3673: 3580: 3273: 2870: 2769: 2718: 2581: 2373:

Robinson, Michael H. (1968). "The defensive behaviour of the Javanese stick insect,

2043: 1484:, Canada. The species is one of the youngest members of the stem phasmatodean group 5371: 5242: 4905: 4756: 4442: 3992: 3948: 3913: 3903: 3806: 3757: 3713: 3661: 3598: 3448: 3438: 3391: 3261: 3216: 3208: 3017: 3013: 2956: 2946: 2842: 2834: 2749: 2698: 2641: 2608: 2561: 2518: 2480: 2420: 2342: 2331:"The swaying behavior of Extatosoma tiaratum: motion camouflage in a stick insect?" 2311: 2175: 2023: 1982: 1688:

the female. While the first mate is engaged in feeding and is forced to vacate the

1496:

In Europe there are 17 species of stick insects described, belonging to the genera

1481: 1216: 956: 904: 762: 751: 583: 507: 1255:(evolutionary) relationships between the different groups is poorly resolved. The 757: 543: 5219: 5202: 5049: 4983: 4900: 4890: 4867: 4434: 2846: 2508: 1845: 1460: 1431: 1322: 1212: 1171: 1156: 963: 511:, reach about 2 centimetres (0.8 in) long, while females of the longest, an 464: 423: 315: 286: 5488: 5345: 4827: 3243: 2978: 2143:

A second view on the evolution of flight in stick and leaf insects (Phasmatodea)

1235:, is now treated as an order of its own. Anatomical features separate them as a 787:

In a seemingly different method of defense, many species of Phasmatodea seek to

5418: 5405: 5252: 5042: 4998: 4993: 4978: 4925: 1986: 1841: 1810: 1785: 1757: 1646: 1628: 1240: 1116: 1035: 994: 808: 653: 5061: 3996: 3908: 3194: 2951: 2934: 2645: 2565: 1453:

The best known of the stick insects is the Indian or laboratory stick insect (

5550: 5316: 5162: 5154: 4953: 4945: 4171: 4163: 3589: 3403: 2854: 2356: 2035: 1933: 1888: 1806: 1552: 1485: 1386: 1304: 1300: 1280: 1272: 1264: 1102: 952: 908: 657: 468: 428: 387: 291: 276: 268: 85: 3717: 3443: 2347: 2330: 1295:

While suggestions have been made that various insects extending back to the

5136: 4885: 4658: 4635: 4627: 4569: 4524: 4356: 4299: 4128: 3700:

Sivinski, John (1980). "Effects of Mating on Predation in the Stick Insect

3462: 3230: 3212: 2862: 2761: 2710: 2573: 2530: 2492: 2132:

To be or not to be: postcubital vein in insects revealed by microtomography

1853: 1289: 1252: 1236: 1224: 1024: 676: 597: 231: 35: 974:

and their sexual behavior depends on the presence and abundance of males.

927: 811:

upwards over the body and head to resemble ants or scorpions in an act of

5444: 5325: 5224: 5211: 5008: 4940: 4872: 4773: 4674: 4604: 4455: 4269: 3952: 3762: 3737: 2613: 2596: 2425: 2404: 2180: 2155: 1868: 1861: 1521: 1515: 1427: 1361: 1268: 1051: 1028: 912: 682: 621: 612:, the number of facets in each eye is increased along with the number of 440: 434: 295: 272: 60: 3918: 2961: 2913: 2027: 5257: 5247: 4958: 4682: 4492: 4401: 4385: 4369: 4197: 3665: 3265: 2302:

Bedford, Geoffrey O. (1978). "Biology and Ecology of the Phasmatodea".

1857: 1825: 1775: 1770:, which eats vegetables such as lettuce. Droppings of the stick insect 1685: 1681: 1525:, which are native to New Zealand but are present in southern England. 1398: 1308: 1232: 1220: 1182: 1067: 1004:, diapause results in the development of two-year cycles of outbreaks. 888: 833: 829: 711: 694: 649: 625: 551: 456: 448: 411: 367: 351: 201: 105: 70: 3395: 3369: 2594: 2543: 2522: 2265: 1459:). This insect grows to roughly 10 cm (4 in) and reproduces 1417: 5449: 5392: 5234: 5124: 5112: 4920: 4764: 4724: 4699: 4552: 4463: 4422: 4409: 4240: 4227: 4122: 3479:, Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu. - see p. 614. 2838: 2484: 1913: 1817: 1802:

have traditionally made fishhooks from the legs of certain phasmids.

1774:(Serville, 1838) fed with specific plants are made into a medicinal 1729: 1718: 1693: 1692:

position, the intruder can clasp the female's abdomen and insert his

1503: 1256: 1204: 1152: 1124: 1073:

Phasmatodea are recognized as injurious to forest and shade trees by

1055: 1020: 986: 941: 916: 880: 822: 704: 605: 547: 531:, the females of which may weigh as much as 65 g (2.3 oz). 415: 396: 347: 211: 181: 161: 110: 5436: 5358: 5287: 1672:. Fighting between competing males has been observed in the species 710:

The defense mechanism most readily identifiable with Phasmatodea is

5397: 5353: 5310: 5130: 4968: 4877: 4666: 4536: 4328: 4134: 2106: 2014:

Scudder (Phasmatoptera: Timematodea) including three new species".

1880: 1872: 1548: 1509: 1473: 1373: 1244: 1208: 1148: 1144: 1132: 1120: 1074: 990: 876: 629: 609: 573: 221: 100: 95: 80: 75: 65: 4045: 3062:"Revision of the genera of the Areolatae, including the status of 1227:(not have a common ancestor) and hence invalid in the traditional 1007: 580:, as long as or longer than the rest of the body in some species. 4307: 4188: 2084:"Phasmids: An Introduction to the Stick Insects and Leaf Insects" 1893: 1792: 1665: 1632: 1296: 1112: 812: 747: 715: 645: 539: 452: 127: 115: 90: 4070: 2595:

Conle, Oskar; Frank H. Hennemann; Aaron T. Dossey (March 2009).

2439: 2329:

Bian, Xue; Elgar, Mark A.; Peters, Richard A. (1 January 2016).

5188: 5180: 5118: 5106: 4644: 4544: 4471: 4377: 4286: 4278: 4116: 4101: 3857: 1876: 1821: 1697: 1335: 1318: 1039: 731: 665: 617: 319: 191: 171: 5037: 4050: 3795: 2782: 2731: 2409:

Redtenbacher, a winged stick insect from Panama (Phasmatodea)"

1892:

includes a storyline centered around a giant stick insect and

1115:

all occur in outbreaks of economic importance. Indeed, in the

1981:. Vol. II. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 281–313. 1721:

at a slow rate, for instance, the males are forced to remain

1446:. An effort is underway in Australia to rear this species in 418:

to detect; still, many species have one of several secondary

407: 390: 5384: 2627: 1875:

and people in the Far East believe they bring good luck and

668:, making it the richest place in the world for Phasmatodea. 426:, spines or toxic secretions. Stick insects from the genera 4732: 3195:

Thomas R. Buckley; Dilini Attanayake; Sven Bradler (2009).

2979:

Craighead, Frank Cooper; Schaffner, John Valentine (1950).

2272:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 187–189. 2196:"How stick insects honed friction to grip without sticking" 2111:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 398–399. 1867:

Stick insects have been kept as pets since the time of the

1276: 903:, is used as a treatment for skin infections by a tribe in 3137: 3135: 2809: 628:(daytime) feeders and move around freely, expanding their 4742: 3811:

10.1665/1082-6467(2005)14[115:eoddot]2.0.co;2

3624: 2989: 2153: 1813:, it seems each leg of a phasmid operates independently. 1128: 4065: 1463:, and although males have been recorded, they are rare. 703:

Phasmatodea species exhibit mechanisms for defense from

447:

Members of the order are found on all continents except

3201:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

3132: 875:

Some species are equipped with a pair of glands at the

30:"Stick insect" redirects here. Not to be confused with 4685:(net-winged insects: lacewings, mantidflies, antlions) 2688: 2059:"World's New Longest Insect Is The Length Of Your Arm" 828:

When threatened, some phasmids that are equipped with

1661:), pairing can last three to 136 hours in captivity. 1369:

Considered earliest to branch from phylogenetic tree

1054:

systems. Phasmatodea has been postulated as dominant

3944:

The lexicon of Proto Oceanic vol. 1 Material culture

3777:

Bragg, P (2008). "Changes to the PSG Culture List".

2891:. National Geographic. 12 March 2010. Archived from 2402: 2372: 1536:), which usually means late spring to early autumn. 746:). In a further behavioral adaptation to supplement 265: 3578: 3424: 2985:. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 97–98. 1712:is often kept as a pet by schools and individuals. 1649:for days or weeks on end, and among some species ( 1287:within Euphasmatodea and Agathemerodea treated as 576:(appendage shedding). Phasmids have long, slender 525:. The heaviest species of phasmid is likely to be 3425:Wedmann, Sonja; Bradler, Sven; Rust, Jes (2006). 2266:Matthews, Robert W.; Matthews, Janice R. (2009). 1038:, proceeding through a series of several nymphal 5548: 3651: 2107:Hoell, H.V.; Doyen, J.T.; Purcell, A.H. (1998). 1328:The earliest leaf insect (Phylliinae) fossil is 5091: 4066:ASPER: Lesser Antilles and French stick insects 2661: 2377:De Haan, with a note on the startle display of 2328: 3947:. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. p. 219. 3831: 3706:Annals of the Entomological Society of America 3515:Brock, P.D.; Büscher, T.H.; Baker, E. (eds.). 3489:Brock, P.D.; Büscher, T.H.; Baker, E. (eds.). 3344:Brock, P.D.; Büscher, T.H.; Baker, E. (eds.). 3318:Brock, P.D.; Büscher, T.H.; Baker, E. (eds.). 3292:Brock, P.D.; Büscher, T.H.; Baker, E. (eds.). 3287: 3285: 3283: 2995: 2668:. Harvard University Press. pp. 141–144. 2601:Annals of the Entomological Society of America 2368: 2366: 2154:Meyer-Rochow, V. Benno; Essi Keskinen (2003). 1976: 1011:Eggs of various phasmid species (not to scale) 5077: 4522: 4086: 3878: 3738:"Intersexual Aggression in the Stick Insects 3645: 3604:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T6852A21426226.en 3514: 3488: 3343: 3317: 3291: 3094: 2877: 2504: 2502: 5153: 3162: 2974: 2972: 2109:Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity 1251:(Areolate) or not (Anareolate). However the 671: 342:. They are also occasionally referred to as 4354: 4162: 4019:"Care of Stick Insects - Australian Museum" 3280: 3141: 3119:"Phasmida Species File Online. Version 5.0" 2440:Harrington, Lindsay; Sannino, Dave (2011). 2398: 2396: 2363: 2261: 2259: 1259:of Anareolatae has been questioned and the 5084: 5070: 4268: 4093: 4079: 3731: 3729: 3727: 3695: 3693: 3625:Headrick, D.H.; Walen, C.A. (1 May 2011). 3059: 2926: 2499: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2289: 1015:Many species' eggs bear a fatty, knoblike 801:Some species, such as the young nymphs of 126: 3917: 3907: 3761: 3746:and Sexual Dimorphism in the Phasmatodea" 3602: 3452: 3442: 3220: 3095:Brock, Paul D.; Marshall, Judith (2011). 3055: 3053: 2969: 2960: 2950: 2783:Resh, Vincent H.; Cardé, Ring T. (2009). 2612: 2424: 2346: 2179: 1466:Fossils of the extinct genus and species 1311:, with the cuirrently oldest known being 1303:, which first appeared during the Middle 1135:. Severe outbreaks of the walking stick, 5572:Extant Late Cretaceous first appearances 4814:Four most speciose orders are marked in 4404:(crickets, wetas, grasshoppers, locusts) 3735: 3699: 2657: 2655: 2393: 2256: 1979:Insect Biodiversity: Science and Society 1911: 1824:many kinds of stick insects are kept as 1778:by Malaysian Chinese to treat ailments. 1751: 1702: 1611: 1416: 1397: 1372: 1170: 1006: 926: 773: 756: 675: 582: 490: 478: 285: 3724: 3690: 2301: 2286: 2009: 1426:or the prickly stick insect, native to 1275:(or Verophasmatodea) for the remaining 386:. The group's name is derived from the 346:, although this name is shared by both 14: 5549: 3940: 3704:Walsh (Phasmatodea: Heteronemiidae)". 3050: 2725: 2682: 2470: 2102: 2100: 5292: 5291: 5065: 4852: 4147: 4074: 3776: 3559: 3174:. Magnolia Press. 2011. p. 198. 2932: 2652: 2237: 1491: 970:, meaning they retain the ability to 652:. The greatest diversity is found in 444:include the world's longest insects. 354:They can be generally referred to as 322:whose members are variously known as 5499:f6b43006-184a-4f1f-b5ee-f83017bb34b9 5424:ea41d5d6-6cda-4f1f-8c6f-9ad1c01c1119 4677:(alderflies, dobsonflies, fishflies) 2776: 2056: 778:Defensive pose of a subadult female 451:, but they are most abundant in the 3590:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 3534: 3110: 3032:"Classification of the Phasmatodea" 2634:Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 2381:(Westw.)(Phasmatodea, Phasmidae)". 2316:10.1146/annurev.en.23.010178.001013 2097: 2010:Vickery, V.R. (1993). "Revision of 1747: 1732:with the female may be worthwhile. 1636:discern objects in the foreground. 1476:age sediments in the U.S. state of 915:when bothered, allowing the blood ( 821:have fleshy projections resembling 568:project out from the head. Chewing 463:life cycle with three stages: egg, 24: 25: 5588: 4100: 4061:New Zealand Stick Insect Web Site 4039: 3850: 3116: 3034:. Phasmatodea.com. Archived from 2982:Insect Enemies of Eastern Forests 2218:"Distribution for order Phasmida" 1954:. 16 October 2008. Archived from 1948:"World's longest insect revealed" 1412: 807:, have been observed to curl the 564:to match their surroundings. The 5036: 4187: 3853:"Leaf-Insects and Stick-Insects" 2754:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04542.x 2703:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02575.x 1896:called the insulindian phasmid. 1592: 1577: 1560: 1541: 1394:Vast majority of extant species 560:, are even able to change their 290:Phasmid in marginal forest on a 148: 58: 4011: 3976: 3934: 3872: 3844: 3825: 3789: 3770: 3750:Psyche: A Journal of Entomology 3680: 3631:Pests in Gardens and Landscapes 3618: 3572: 3553: 3508: 3482: 3469: 3418: 3363: 3337: 3311: 3237: 3188: 3088: 3024: 2907: 2803: 2789:. Academic Press. p. 392. 2621: 2588: 2537: 2464: 2446:: Common American Walkingstick" 2433: 2413:Psyche: A Journal of Entomology 2383:Entomologist's Monthly Magazine 2322: 2231: 2210: 2188: 2147: 639: 27:Order of stick and leaf insects 3799:Journal of Orthoptera Research 3779:Phasmid Study Group Newsletter 3579:Rudolf, E.; Brock, P. (2017). 3542:Insect poses prickly questions 3018:10.1080/00049158.1959.10675860 2160:Applied Entomology and Zoology 2136: 2125: 2076: 2050: 2003: 1970: 1940: 1905: 1798:Some indigenous people of the 1430:, is believed to reproduce by 1111:in coconut plantations in the 1034:The Phasmatodea life cycle is 474: 366:, with phasmids in the family 13: 1: 5529:Phasmida Species File (new): 5519:Phasmida Species File (old): 4607:(sawflies, wasps, ants, bees) 3888:Agriculture and Food Security 3517:"Euphasmatodea Bradler, 1999" 3320:"Agathemeridae Bradler, 2003" 3142:O'Toole, Christopher (2002). 3097:"Order Phasmida Leach. 1815." 2939:Agriculture and Food Security 2403:Robinson, Michael H. (1968). 1899: 1809:. Instead of one centralized 1795:eat phasmids and their eggs. 1756:Painting of Stick Insects by 1740:Certain Phasmatodea, such as 1440:Lord Howe Island stick insect 1334:from the 47-million-year-old 1271:(1 genus and 21 species) and 1175:True leaf insects, like this 951:Many species of phasmids are 922: 467:and adult. Many phasmids are 5567:Cenomanian first appearances 4555:(cicadas, aphids, true bugs) 3346:"Agathemerodea Zompro, 2004" 2916:The Texas Journal of Science 2198:. Phys.org. 19 February 2014 2057:Hale, Tom (14 August 2017). 1438:One Australian species, the 397: 7: 4853: 3148:. Oxford University Press. 2546:Journal of Chemical Ecology 2405:"The defensive behavior of 2304:Annual Review of Entomology 1607: 1317:from the Early Cretaceous ( 1166: 10: 5593: 4745:(gnats, mosquitoes, flies) 4638:(twisted-winged parasites) 4310:(dragonflies, damselflies) 4148: 3550:website, viewed 2013-10-16 2665:The Other Insect Societies 1987:10.1002/9781118945582.ch11 1623:Video of a walking phasmid 1045: 763:deimatic (startle) display 730:) are covered in mossy or 688: 391: 29: 5300: 5233: 5210: 5201: 5179: 5175: 5149: 5145: 5101: 5030: 4863: 4859: 4848: 4810: 4755: 4713: 4698: 4657: 4626: 4617: 4599: 4568: 4518: 4491: 4454: 4421: 4365: 4350: 4327: 4298: 4277: 4264: 4239: 4223: 4196: 4185: 4158: 4154: 4143: 4111: 3909:10.1186/s40066-015-0040-6 3491:"Timematodea Kevan, 1977" 3102:. In Zhang, Z.-Q. (ed.). 2952:10.1186/s40066-015-0040-6 2646:10.1016/j.bse.2009.11.002 2566:10.1007/s10886-008-9457-8 2238:Bragg, Philip E. (2001). 2016:The Canadian Entomologist 1585:Ctenomorpha marginipennis 1472:have been recovered from 1267:(1 genus and 8 species), 1092:Ctenomorphodes tessulatus 721:Pseudodiacantha macklotti 714:, in the form of a plant 691:Anti-predator adaptations 672:Anti-predator adaptations 554:. A few species, such as 518:Phryganistria "chinensis" 414:makes them difficult for 263: 258: 145:Scientific classification 143: 134: 125: 49: 4396:(stick and leaf insects) 3801:(Submitted manuscript). 2885:"Stick Insect: Phasmida" 2662:Costa, James T. (2006). 2630:Megacrania nigrosulfurea 2452:. University of Michigan 1915:Ozark Magic and Folklore 1912:Randolph, Vance (2012). 1871:. They were kept inside 1742:Anisomorpha buprestoides 968:facultative parthenogens 934:Anisomorpha buprestoides 900:Megacrania nigrosulfurea 894:Anisomorpha buprestoides 461:incomplete metamorphosis 5268:(striped walkingsticks) 4823:are paraphyletic groups 4466:(cockroaches, termites) 4230:(silverfish, firebrats) 4046:The Phasmid Study Group 3997:10.1023/A:1008980606521 3736:Sivinski, John (1978). 3444:10.1073/pnas.0606937104 3376:Papers in Palaeontology 3080:: 1–327. Archived from 3070:(Insecta: Phasmatodea)" 2786:Encyclopedia of Insects 2473:Natural Product Reports 2407:Pterinoxylus spinulosus 1800:D'Entrecasteaux Islands 1181:, belong to the family 1139:, have occurred in the 795:Pterinoxylus spinulosus 344:Devil's darning needles 4174:(jumping bristletails) 3879:Baker, Edward (2015). 3834:Malayan Nature Journal 3627:"Indian walking stick" 3294:"Phasmida Leach, 1815" 3213:10.1098/rspb.2008.1552 3145:Leaf and Stick Insects 1952:Natural History Museum 1918:. Dover Publications. 1828:including the strong, 1761: 1713: 1668:to guard females from 1624: 1435: 1405: 1380: 1331:Eophyllium messelensis 1201: 1186: 1086:Podacanthus wilkinsoni 1012: 966:, but non-hybrids are 937: 863:Diapheromera covilleae 784: 771: 727:Bactrododema centaurum 686: 680:A pair of camouflaged 593: 523:world's longest insect 502: 488: 485:Phobaeticus serratipes 299: 4056:Phasmida Species File 3718:10.1093/aesa/73.5.553 3654:Canadian Entomologist 3583:Dryococelus australis 3521:Phasmida Species File 3495:Phasmida Species File 3350:Phasmida Species File 3324:Phasmida Species File 3298:Phasmida Species File 3246:Systematic Entomology 2847:20.500.14094/90004770 2444:Diapheromera femorata 2348:10.1093/beheco/arv125 1783:botanical illustrator 1755: 1706: 1622: 1420: 1401: 1376: 1196: 1174: 1137:Diapheromera femorata 1098:Diapheromera femorata 1010: 1001:Diapheromera femorata 930: 869:Heteropteryx dilatata 818:Diapheromera femorata 777: 760: 689:Further information: 679: 596:All phasmids possess 586: 550:, and other forms of 528:Heteropteryx dilatata 494: 482: 289: 137:Pijnackeria hispanica 5419:Fauna Europaea (new) 4776:(moths, butterflies) 3953:10.15144/PL-C152.211 3597:: e.T6852A21426226. 2614:10.1603/008.102.0204 2511:ACS Chemical Biology 2450:Animal Diversity Web 2181:10.1303/aez.2003.281 1772:Eurycnema versirubra 1627:Stick insects, like 1469:Eoprephasma hichensi 1080:Didymuria violescens 879:(front) edge of the 845:Eurycantha calcarata 839:Oncotophasma martini 515:informally known as 3900:2015AgFS....4...22B 3740:Diapheromera veliei 3702:Diapheromera veliei 3475:Bragg, P.E. (2001) 3388:2022PPal....8E1437G 3258:2014SysEn..39..205B 3207:(1659): 1055–1062. 3060:Zompro, O. (2004). 3010:1959AuFor..23...19C 2998:Australian Forestry 2831:2018Ecol...99.1504S 2746:2010MolEc..19.1227M 2558:2008JCEco..34..584D 2172:2003AppEZ..38..281M 2028:10.4039/ent125657-4 1652:Diapheromera veliei 1423:Acanthoxyla prasina 857:Diapheromera veliei 804:Extatosoma tiaratum 768:Peruphasma schultei 614:photoreceptor cells 590:Extatosoma tiaratum 513:undescribed species 279:(=Verophasmatodea) 5266:Pseudophasmatidae 5043:Insects portal 5014:Triadophlebioptera 3763:10.1155/1978/35784 3666:10.4039/tce.2015.2 3477:Phasmids of Borneo 3266:10.1111/syen.12055 3084:on 3 October 2015. 2933:Baker, E. (2015). 2895:on 11 January 2010 2426:10.1155/1968/19150 2335:Behavioral Ecology 2240:Phasmids of Borneo 1958:on 19 October 2008 1852:immigrants during 1762: 1714: 1642:Necroscia sparaxes 1625: 1600:Leptynia hispanica 1492:Phasmids in Europe 1436: 1406: 1381: 1285:Pseudophasmatoidea 1192:incorrectly formed 1187: 1178:Phyllium bilobatum 1141:Ouachita Mountains 1062:and resilience in 1013: 938: 851:Eurycantha horrida 785: 781:Haaniella dehaanii 772: 743:Timema californica 699:Deimatic behaviour 687: 594: 503: 489: 300: 40:Water stick insect 5542: 5541: 5507:Open Tree of Life 5294:Taxon identifiers 5285: 5284: 5281: 5280: 5277: 5276: 5269: 5261: 5197: 5196: 5171: 5170: 5059: 5058: 5026: 5025: 5022: 5021: 4964:Palaeodictyoptera 4949: 4881: 4844: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4806: 4805: 4802: 4801: 4798: 4797: 4794: 4793: 4790: 4789: 4786: 4785: 4777: 4768: 4746: 4736: 4728: 4706: 4694: 4693: 4686: 4678: 4670: 4648: 4639: 4608: 4564: 4563: 4556: 4548: 4540: 4487: 4486: 4483: 4482: 4475: 4467: 4446: 4443:Mantophasmatodea 4438: 4427: 4413: 4405: 4397: 4389: 4381: 4373: 4323: 4322: 4319: 4318: 4311: 4290: 4279:Ephemeropteroidea 4231: 4183: 4182: 4175: 4023:australia.nmuseum 3985:Autonomous Robots 3851:North, Marianne. 3547:Otago Daily Times 3396:10.1002/spp2.1437 3181:978-1-86977-849-1 3155:978-0-19-852505-9 3038:on 3 October 2015 2796:978-0-08-092090-0 2734:Molecular Ecology 2691:Molecular Ecology 2675:978-0-674-02163-1 2523:10.1021/cb600318u 2479:(12): 1737–1757. 2379:Metriotes diocles 2375:Orxines macklotti 2279:978-90-481-2389-6 2249:978-983-812-027-2 2242:. Kota Kinabalu. 2118:978-0-19-510033-4 1996:978-1-118-94557-5 1925:978-1-306-33958-2 1767:Carausius morosus 1734:Sexual dimorphism 1709:Carausius morosus 1670:sperm competition 1620: 1569:Clonopsis gallica 1461:parthenogenically 1456:Carausius morosus 1410: 1409: 995:short day lengths 989:regions, undergo 737:Bostra scabrinota 587:Head of a female 557:Carausius morosus 498:Phobaeticus chani 284: 283: 254: 32:Stick grasshopper 16:(Redirected from 5584: 5535: 5534: 5525: 5524: 5515: 5514: 5502: 5501: 5492: 5491: 5489:NHMSYS0020787704 5479: 5478: 5466: 5465: 5453: 5452: 5440: 5439: 5427: 5426: 5414: 5413: 5401: 5400: 5388: 5387: 5375: 5374: 5362: 5361: 5349: 5348: 5336: 5335: 5334: 5321: 5320: 5319: 5289: 5288: 5267: 5259: 5243:Aschiphasmatidae 5208: 5207: 5177: 5176: 5151: 5150: 5147: 5146: 5086: 5079: 5072: 5063: 5062: 5041: 5040: 4974:Permoplectoptera 4947: 4906:Diaphanopterodea 4879: 4861: 4860: 4850: 4849: 4775: 4766: 4757:Amphiesmenoptera 4744: 4738: 4734: 4726: 4716: 4711: 4710: 4705: 4702: 4684: 4676: 4668: 4646: 4637: 4624: 4623: 4620: 4606: 4597: 4596: 4554: 4546: 4539:(barklice, lice) 4538: 4530: 4520: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4473: 4465: 4444: 4436: 4435:Grylloblattodea 4425: 4411: 4403: 4395: 4387: 4379: 4371: 4363: 4362: 4359: 4352: 4351: 4348: 4347: 4309: 4288: 4275: 4274: 4266: 4265: 4262: 4261: 4229: 4221: 4220: 4191: 4173: 4160: 4159: 4156: 4155: 4145: 4144: 4095: 4088: 4081: 4072: 4071: 4034: 4033: 4031: 4029: 4015: 4009: 4008: 3980: 3974: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3938: 3932: 3931: 3921: 3911: 3885: 3876: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3865: 3848: 3842: 3841: 3829: 3823: 3822: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3774: 3768: 3767: 3765: 3733: 3722: 3721: 3697: 3688: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3649: 3643: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3606: 3576: 3570: 3569: 3557: 3551: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3512: 3506: 3505: 3503: 3501: 3486: 3480: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3456: 3446: 3422: 3416: 3415: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3315: 3309: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3289: 3278: 3277: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3224: 3192: 3186: 3185: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3139: 3130: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3114: 3108: 3107: 3101: 3092: 3086: 3085: 3057: 3048: 3047: 3045: 3043: 3028: 3022: 3021: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2976: 2967: 2966: 2964: 2954: 2930: 2924: 2923: 2911: 2905: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2881: 2875: 2874: 2839:10.1002/ecy.2230 2825:(6): 1504–1506. 2816: 2807: 2801: 2800: 2780: 2774: 2773: 2740:(6): 1227–1238. 2729: 2723: 2722: 2697:(7): 2133–2142. 2686: 2680: 2679: 2659: 2650: 2649: 2625: 2619: 2618: 2616: 2592: 2586: 2585: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2506: 2497: 2496: 2485:10.1039/C005319H 2468: 2462: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2437: 2431: 2430: 2428: 2400: 2391: 2390: 2370: 2361: 2360: 2350: 2326: 2320: 2319: 2299: 2284: 2283: 2263: 2254: 2253: 2235: 2229: 2228: 2226: 2224: 2214: 2208: 2207: 2205: 2203: 2192: 2186: 2185: 2183: 2151: 2145: 2140: 2134: 2129: 2123: 2122: 2104: 2095: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2080: 2074: 2073: 2071: 2069: 2054: 2048: 2047: 2007: 2001: 2000: 1974: 1968: 1967: 1965: 1963: 1944: 1938: 1937: 1909: 1748:In human culture 1629:praying mantises 1621: 1596: 1581: 1564: 1545: 1482:British Columbia 1378:Timema dorotheae 1344: 1343: 1217:Mantophasmatodea 1119:, as well as in 1108:Graeffea crouani 1029:resembles an ant 905:Papua New Guinea 752:cataleptic state 508:Timema cristinae 424:startle displays 420:lines of defense 400: 394: 393: 267: 245: 153: 152: 130: 120: 57: 53:Temporal range: 47: 46: 21: 5592: 5591: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5583: 5582: 5581: 5547: 5546: 5543: 5538: 5530: 5528: 5520: 5518: 5510: 5505: 5497: 5495: 5487: 5482: 5474: 5469: 5461: 5456: 5448: 5443: 5435: 5430: 5422: 5417: 5409: 5404: 5396: 5391: 5383: 5378: 5370: 5365: 5357: 5352: 5344: 5339: 5330: 5329: 5324: 5315: 5314: 5309: 5296: 5286: 5273: 5229: 5220:Diapheromeridae 5203:Verophasmatodea 5193: 5167: 5141: 5097: 5090: 5060: 5055: 5035: 5018: 4984:Protelytroptera 4916:Eudiaphanoptera 4901:Coxoplectoptera 4896:Carbotriplurida 4891:Campylopteridae 4868:Aethiocarenodea 4855: 4836: 4782: 4751: 4727:(scorpionflies) 4714: 4703: 4701: 4690: 4653: 4618: 4613: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4571: 4560: 4510: 4508: 4506: 4504: 4502: 4500: 4498: 4496: 4494: 4479: 4450: 4424: 4417: 4412:(angel insects) 4355: 4342: 4340: 4338: 4336: 4334: 4332: 4330: 4315: 4294: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4235: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4201: 4199: 4192: 4179: 4150: 4139: 4107: 4099: 4051:Phasmatodea.com 4042: 4037: 4027: 4025: 4017: 4016: 4012: 3981: 3977: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3939: 3935: 3883: 3877: 3873: 3863: 3861: 3849: 3845: 3830: 3826: 3794: 3790: 3775: 3771: 3734: 3725: 3698: 3691: 3685: 3681: 3650: 3646: 3636: 3634: 3623: 3619: 3609: 3607: 3577: 3573: 3558: 3554: 3539: 3535: 3525: 3523: 3513: 3509: 3499: 3497: 3487: 3483: 3474: 3470: 3423: 3419: 3368: 3364: 3354: 3352: 3342: 3338: 3328: 3326: 3316: 3312: 3302: 3300: 3290: 3281: 3242: 3238: 3193: 3189: 3182: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3156: 3140: 3133: 3123: 3121: 3117:Brock, Paul D. 3115: 3111: 3099: 3093: 3089: 3058: 3051: 3041: 3039: 3030: 3029: 3025: 2994: 2990: 2977: 2970: 2931: 2927: 2912: 2908: 2898: 2896: 2883: 2882: 2878: 2814: 2808: 2804: 2797: 2781: 2777: 2730: 2726: 2687: 2683: 2676: 2660: 2653: 2626: 2622: 2593: 2589: 2542: 2538: 2507: 2500: 2469: 2465: 2455: 2453: 2438: 2434: 2401: 2394: 2371: 2364: 2327: 2323: 2300: 2287: 2280: 2269:Insect Behavior 2264: 2257: 2250: 2236: 2232: 2222: 2220: 2216: 2215: 2211: 2201: 2199: 2194: 2193: 2189: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2137: 2130: 2126: 2119: 2105: 2098: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2081: 2077: 2067: 2065: 2055: 2051: 2008: 2004: 1997: 1975: 1971: 1961: 1959: 1946: 1945: 1941: 1926: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1886:The video game 1750: 1612: 1610: 1603: 1597: 1588: 1582: 1573: 1565: 1556: 1546: 1494: 1432:parthenogenesis 1415: 1353:Defining notes 1350:No. of species 1323:Crato Formation 1241:exocrine glands 1229:circumscription 1213:Grylloblattodea 1169: 1157:parasitic wasps 1048: 931:Mating pair of 925: 907:because of its 701: 674: 642: 477: 422:in the form of 306:(also known as 275: 271: 244: 147: 121: 119: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 56:Jurassic–Recent 55: 54: 51: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5590: 5580: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5536: 5526: 5516: 5503: 5493: 5480: 5467: 5454: 5441: 5428: 5415: 5406:Fauna Europaea 5402: 5389: 5376: 5363: 5350: 5337: 5322: 5306: 5304: 5298: 5297: 5283: 5282: 5279: 5278: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5271: 5263: 5260:(leaf insects) 5255: 5253:Heteronemiidae 5250: 5245: 5239: 5237: 5231: 5230: 5228: 5227: 5222: 5216: 5214: 5205: 5199: 5198: 5195: 5194: 5192: 5191: 5185: 5183: 5173: 5172: 5169: 5168: 5166: 5165: 5159: 5157: 5143: 5142: 5140: 5139: 5133: 5127: 5121: 5115: 5109: 5102: 5099: 5098: 5089: 5088: 5081: 5074: 5066: 5057: 5056: 5054: 5053: 5046: 5031: 5028: 5027: 5024: 5023: 5020: 5019: 5017: 5016: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4999:Protozygoptera 4996: 4994:Protorthoptera 4991: 4989:Protephemerida 4986: 4981: 4979:Protanisoptera 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4948:(griffinflies) 4946:Meganisoptera 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4926:Glosselytrodea 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4875: 4870: 4864: 4857: 4856: 4846: 4845: 4842: 4841: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4834: 4824: 4818: 4811: 4808: 4807: 4804: 4803: 4800: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4792: 4791: 4788: 4787: 4784: 4783: 4781: 4780: 4770: 4761: 4759: 4753: 4752: 4750: 4749: 4739: 4719: 4717: 4708: 4696: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4689: 4688: 4680: 4672: 4667:Raphidioptera 4663: 4661: 4655: 4654: 4652: 4651: 4641: 4632: 4630: 4621: 4619:Neuropteroidea 4615: 4614: 4612: 4611: 4600: 4594: 4566: 4565: 4562: 4561: 4559: 4558: 4550: 4542: 4533: 4531: 4513: 4489: 4488: 4485: 4484: 4481: 4480: 4478: 4477: 4469: 4460: 4458: 4452: 4451: 4449: 4448: 4440: 4437:(ice-crawlers) 4431: 4429: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4415: 4407: 4399: 4391: 4383: 4375: 4366: 4360: 4345: 4325: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4317: 4316: 4314: 4313: 4304: 4302: 4296: 4295: 4293: 4292: 4287:Ephemeroptera 4283: 4281: 4272: 4259: 4237: 4236: 4234: 4233: 4224: 4218: 4194: 4193: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4180: 4178: 4177: 4172:Archaeognatha 4168: 4166: 4152: 4151: 4141: 4140: 4138: 4137: 4131: 4125: 4119: 4112: 4109: 4108: 4098: 4097: 4090: 4083: 4075: 4069: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4053: 4048: 4041: 4040:External links 4038: 4036: 4035: 4010: 3991:(3): 271–288. 3975: 3961: 3933: 3871: 3843: 3824: 3788: 3769: 3756:(4): 395–403. 3723: 3712:(5): 553–556. 3689: 3679: 3644: 3617: 3571: 3552: 3533: 3507: 3481: 3468: 3437:(2): 565–569. 3417: 3362: 3336: 3310: 3279: 3252:(2): 205–222. 3236: 3187: 3180: 3161: 3154: 3131: 3109: 3087: 3049: 3023: 2988: 2968: 2925: 2906: 2876: 2802: 2795: 2775: 2724: 2681: 2674: 2651: 2640:(6): 759–760. 2620: 2607:(2): 210–232. 2587: 2552:(5): 584–590. 2536: 2517:(8): 511–514. 2498: 2463: 2432: 2419:(3): 195–207. 2392: 2362: 2321: 2285: 2278: 2255: 2248: 2230: 2209: 2187: 2166:(3): 281–291. 2146: 2135: 2124: 2117: 2096: 2075: 2049: 2022:(4): 657–692. 2002: 1995: 1969: 1939: 1924: 1903: 1901: 1898: 1811:control system 1807:walking robots 1786:Marianne North 1758:Marianne North 1749: 1746: 1647:mating posture 1609: 1606: 1605: 1604: 1598: 1591: 1589: 1583: 1576: 1574: 1566: 1559: 1557: 1551:sp., from the 1547: 1540: 1493: 1490: 1444:Ball's Pyramid 1414: 1413:Select species 1411: 1408: 1407: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1383: 1382: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1358: 1357: 1354: 1351: 1348: 1168: 1165: 1161:Myrmecomimesis 1117:American South 1095:in Australia, 1064:climax forests 1047: 1044: 1036:hemimetabolous 924: 921: 832:spines on the 673: 670: 660:, followed by 654:Southeast Asia 641: 638: 476: 473: 380:walking leaves 282: 281: 261: 260: 256: 255: 239: 235: 234: 229: 225: 224: 219: 215: 214: 209: 205: 204: 199: 195: 194: 189: 185: 184: 179: 175: 174: 169: 165: 164: 159: 155: 154: 141: 140: 132: 131: 123: 122: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 52: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5589: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5562:Insect orders 5560: 5558: 5555: 5554: 5552: 5545: 5533: 5527: 5523: 5517: 5513: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5494: 5490: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5342: 5338: 5333: 5327: 5323: 5318: 5312: 5308: 5307: 5305: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5290: 5270: 5264: 5262: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5238: 5236: 5232: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5213: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5200: 5190: 5187: 5186: 5184: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5164: 5163:Agathemeridae 5161: 5160: 5158: 5156: 5155:Agathemerodea 5152: 5148: 5144: 5138: 5134: 5132: 5128: 5126: 5122: 5120: 5116: 5114: 5110: 5108: 5104: 5103: 5100: 5095: 5087: 5082: 5080: 5075: 5073: 5068: 5067: 5064: 5052: 5051: 5047: 5045: 5044: 5039: 5033: 5032: 5029: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4954:Megasecoptera 4952: 4950: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4865: 4862: 4858: 4851: 4847: 4833: 4831: 4825: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4813: 4812: 4809: 4779: 4778: 4771: 4769: 4767:(caddisflies) 4763: 4762: 4760: 4758: 4754: 4748: 4747: 4740: 4737: 4733:Siphonaptera 4730: 4729: 4721: 4720: 4718: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704:(Mecopterida) 4697: 4687: 4681: 4679: 4673: 4671: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4660: 4656: 4650: 4649: 4642: 4640: 4636:Strepsiptera 4634: 4633: 4631: 4629: 4625: 4622: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4602: 4601: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4567: 4557: 4551: 4549: 4545:Thysanoptera 4543: 4541: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4527: 4526: 4521: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4490: 4476: 4470: 4468: 4462: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4453: 4447: 4441: 4439: 4433: 4432: 4430: 4428: 4420: 4414: 4408: 4406: 4400: 4398: 4392: 4390: 4388:(webspinners) 4384: 4382: 4376: 4374: 4368: 4367: 4364: 4361: 4358: 4353: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4326: 4312: 4306: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4297: 4291: 4285: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4238: 4232: 4226: 4225: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4195: 4190: 4176: 4170: 4169: 4167: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4146: 4142: 4136: 4132: 4130: 4126: 4124: 4120: 4118: 4114: 4113: 4110: 4106: 4103: 4096: 4091: 4089: 4084: 4082: 4077: 4076: 4073: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4057: 4054: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4043: 4024: 4020: 4014: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3979: 3964: 3962:0-85883-507-X 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3945: 3937: 3929: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3882: 3875: 3860: 3859: 3854: 3847: 3839: 3835: 3828: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3792: 3784: 3780: 3773: 3764: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3745: 3741: 3732: 3730: 3728: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3696: 3694: 3683: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3648: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3605: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3591: 3586: 3584: 3575: 3567: 3563: 3556: 3549: 3548: 3543: 3537: 3522: 3518: 3511: 3496: 3492: 3485: 3478: 3472: 3464: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3421: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3325: 3321: 3314: 3299: 3295: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3240: 3232: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3183: 3177: 3173: 3172: 3165: 3157: 3151: 3147: 3146: 3138: 3136: 3120: 3113: 3105: 3098: 3091: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3069: 3065: 3056: 3054: 3037: 3033: 3027: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2992: 2984: 2983: 2975: 2973: 2963: 2958: 2953: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2929: 2921: 2917: 2910: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2880: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2813: 2806: 2798: 2792: 2788: 2787: 2779: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2728: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2685: 2677: 2671: 2667: 2666: 2658: 2656: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2624: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2591: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2540: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2505: 2503: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2467: 2451: 2447: 2445: 2436: 2427: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2408: 2399: 2397: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2369: 2367: 2358: 2354: 2349: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2325: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2298: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2281: 2275: 2271: 2270: 2262: 2260: 2251: 2245: 2241: 2234: 2219: 2213: 2197: 2191: 2182: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2150: 2144: 2139: 2133: 2128: 2120: 2114: 2110: 2103: 2101: 2085: 2079: 2064: 2060: 2053: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2006: 1998: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1973: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1943: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1921: 1917: 1916: 1908: 1904: 1897: 1895: 1891: 1890: 1889:Disco Elysium 1884: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1865: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1814: 1812: 1808: 1803: 1801: 1796: 1794: 1791:Tribesmen in 1789: 1787: 1784: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1768: 1759: 1754: 1745: 1743: 1738: 1735: 1731: 1728:preserve his 1726: 1725: 1720: 1711: 1710: 1705: 1701: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1653: 1648: 1644: 1643: 1637: 1634: 1630: 1601: 1595: 1590: 1586: 1580: 1575: 1571: 1570: 1563: 1558: 1554: 1553:Western Ghats 1550: 1544: 1539: 1538: 1537: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1524: 1523: 1518: 1517: 1512: 1511: 1506: 1505: 1501: 1500: 1489: 1487: 1486:Susumanioidea 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1470: 1464: 1462: 1458: 1457: 1451: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1424: 1419: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1387:Euphasmatodea 1385: 1384: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1359: 1355: 1352: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1333: 1332: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1315: 1314:Araripephasma 1310: 1306: 1302: 1301:Susumanioidea 1298: 1293: 1292: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1281:Agathemeridae 1278: 1274: 1273:Euphasmatodea 1270: 1266: 1265:Agathemerodea 1262: 1258: 1254: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1200: 1195: 1193: 1184: 1180: 1179: 1173: 1164: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1113:South Pacific 1110: 1109: 1104: 1103:North America 1100: 1099: 1094: 1093: 1088: 1087: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1043: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1009: 1005: 1003: 1002: 996: 992: 988: 984: 983:anterior pole 980: 975: 973: 969: 965: 962: 958: 957:hybridisation 954: 953:parthenogenic 949: 947: 943: 936: 935: 929: 920: 918: 914: 910: 909:antibacterial 906: 902: 901: 896: 895: 890: 887: 882: 878: 873: 871: 870: 866: 864: 859: 858: 853: 852: 847: 846: 841: 840: 835: 831: 826: 824: 820: 819: 814: 810: 806: 805: 799: 797: 796: 790: 783: 782: 776: 770: 769: 764: 759: 755: 753: 749: 745: 744: 739: 738: 733: 729: 728: 723: 722: 717: 713: 708: 706: 700: 696: 692: 685: 684: 678: 669: 667: 663: 659: 658:South America 655: 651: 647: 637: 633: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 598:compound eyes 592: 591: 585: 581: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 558: 553: 549: 545: 541: 537: 532: 530: 529: 524: 520: 519: 514: 510: 509: 500: 499: 493: 487: 486: 481: 472: 470: 469:parthenogenic 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 445: 443: 442: 437: 436: 431: 430: 429:Phryganistria 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 402:, meaning an 401: 399: 389: 388:Ancient Greek 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 364:ghost insects 361: 357: 356:phasmatodeans 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 336:stick animals 333: 332:walkingsticks 329: 325: 324:stick insects 321: 317: 313: 312:Phasmatoptera 309: 305: 297: 293: 292:pitcher plant 288: 280: 278: 277:Euphasmatodea 274: 270: 269:Susumanioidea 262: 257: 252: 248: 243: 240: 237: 236: 233: 230: 227: 226: 223: 220: 217: 216: 213: 210: 207: 206: 203: 200: 197: 196: 193: 190: 187: 186: 183: 180: 177: 176: 173: 170: 167: 166: 163: 160: 157: 156: 151: 146: 142: 139: 138: 133: 129: 124: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 48: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 18:Stick insects 5577:Orthopterida 5544: 5301: 5137:Orthopterida 5135:Superorder: 5129:Infraclass: 5093: 5048: 5034: 5004:Syntonoptera 4886:Caloneurodea 4878:Blattoptera 4829: 4820: 4815: 4774:Lepidoptera 4772: 4765:Trichoptera 4741: 4723: 4675:Megaloptera 4669:(snakeflies) 4659:Neuropterida 4643: 4628:Coleopterida 4605:Hymenoptera 4603: 4525:Paraneoptera 4523: 4445:(gladiators) 4394:Phasmatodea 4393: 4372:(stoneflies) 4357:Polyneoptera 4300:Odonatoptera 4164:Monocondylia 4129:Pancrustacea 4127:(unranked): 4026:. Retrieved 4022: 4013: 3988: 3984: 3978: 3966:. Retrieved 3943: 3936: 3919:10141/615363 3891: 3887: 3874: 3862:. Retrieved 3856: 3846: 3837: 3833: 3827: 3802: 3798: 3791: 3782: 3778: 3772: 3753: 3749: 3744:D. covilleae 3743: 3739: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3682: 3657: 3653: 3647: 3635:. Retrieved 3630: 3620: 3608:. Retrieved 3594: 3588: 3582: 3574: 3565: 3561: 3555: 3545: 3536: 3524:. Retrieved 3520: 3510: 3498:. Retrieved 3494: 3484: 3476: 3471: 3434: 3430: 3420: 3379: 3375: 3365: 3353:. Retrieved 3349: 3339: 3327:. Retrieved 3323: 3313: 3301:. Retrieved 3297: 3249: 3245: 3239: 3204: 3200: 3190: 3170: 3164: 3144: 3122:. Retrieved 3112: 3103: 3090: 3082:the original 3077: 3073: 3067: 3063: 3040:. Retrieved 3036:the original 3026: 3004:(1): 19–23. 3001: 2997: 2991: 2981: 2962:10141/615363 2942: 2938: 2928: 2919: 2915: 2909: 2897:. Retrieved 2893:the original 2888: 2879: 2822: 2818: 2805: 2785: 2778: 2737: 2733: 2727: 2694: 2690: 2684: 2664: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2623: 2604: 2600: 2590: 2549: 2545: 2539: 2514: 2510: 2476: 2472: 2466: 2454:. Retrieved 2449: 2443: 2435: 2416: 2412: 2406: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2341:(1): 83–92. 2338: 2334: 2324: 2307: 2303: 2268: 2239: 2233: 2221:. Retrieved 2212: 2200:. Retrieved 2190: 2163: 2159: 2149: 2138: 2127: 2108: 2087:. Retrieved 2078: 2066:. Retrieved 2062: 2052: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2005: 1978: 1972: 1960:. Retrieved 1956:the original 1942: 1914: 1907: 1887: 1885: 1879:, just like 1866: 1854:World War II 1815: 1804: 1797: 1790: 1780: 1771: 1765: 1763: 1741: 1739: 1723: 1715: 1707: 1678:D. covilleae 1677: 1673: 1663: 1658:D. covilleae 1656: 1650: 1640: 1638: 1626: 1567: 1533: 1529: 1527: 1520: 1514: 1508: 1502: 1497: 1495: 1467: 1465: 1454: 1452: 1437: 1421: 1403:Phasma gigas 1402: 1377: 1340: 1329: 1327: 1312: 1294: 1290:nomen dubium 1288: 1253:phylogenetic 1249: 1237:monophyletic 1225:paraphyletic 1202: 1197: 1188: 1176: 1160: 1136: 1106: 1096: 1090: 1084: 1078: 1072: 1049: 1033: 1025:myrmecochory 1014: 999: 976: 964:parthenogens 959:are usually 950: 939: 932: 898: 892: 874: 867: 861: 855: 849: 843: 837: 834:metathoracic 827: 816: 802: 800: 793: 786: 779: 766: 741: 735: 725: 719: 709: 702: 681: 643: 640:Distribution 634: 595: 588: 562:pigmentation 555: 533: 526: 516: 506: 504: 496: 483: 446: 439: 433: 427: 395: 383: 379: 375: 372:leaf insects 371: 363: 359: 355: 352:crane flies. 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 311: 307: 303: 301: 264: 241: 232:Polyneoptera 218:Infraclass: 198:(unranked): 135: 44: 36:Stick mantis 5557:Phasmatodea 5445:iNaturalist 5332:Phasmatodea 5326:Wikispecies 5258:Phylliidae 5225:Phasmatidae 5212:Anareolatae 5189:Timematidae 5181:Timematodea 5094:Phasmatodea 5050:Wikispecies 5009:Titanoptera 4941:Lapeyriidae 4936:Hypoperlida 4911:Eoblattodea 4880:(roachoids) 4873:Archodonata 4715:Antliophora 4683:Neuroptera 4645:Coleoptera 4456:Dictyoptera 4426:(Xenonomia) 4402:Orthoptera 4386:Embioptera 4378:Dermaptera 4370:Plecoptera 4270:Palaeoptera 4133:Subphylum: 3805:: 115–118. 3660:(6): 1–10. 3610:13 November 2889:Animals A-Z 2310:: 125–149. 1869:Han dynasty 1862:Vietnam War 1826:exotic pets 1534:Pijnackeria 1522:Acanthoxyla 1516:Pijnackeria 1428:New Zealand 1362:Timematodea 1269:Timematodea 1075:defoliation 1052:Neotropical 942:oviposition 913:exoskeleton 889:metabolites 683:Dares ulula 622:leaf litter 475:Description 441:Phobaeticus 435:Ctenomorpha 348:dragonflies 304:Phasmatodea 296:Philippines 273:Timematodea 242:Phasmatodea 50:Phasmatodea 5551:Categories 5248:Bacillidae 5123:Subclass: 5113:Arthropoda 4959:Miomoptera 4725:Mecoptera 4553:Hemiptera 4474:(mantises) 4464:Blattodea 4410:Zoraptera 4289:(mayflies) 4228:Zygentoma 4123:Arthropoda 3968:9 February 3637:10 October 3068:Agathemera 2899:10 October 2063:IFLScience 1962:16 October 1900:References 1858:Korean War 1850:Vietnamese 1838:children's 1686:inseminate 1682:integument 1674:D. veiliei 1478:Washington 1347:Suborders 1309:Cretaceous 1283:placed in 1261:morphology 1233:Orthoptera 1221:Dermaptera 1183:Phylliidae 1153:pesticides 1131:and other 1068:defecation 1060:succession 923:Life cycle 823:elaiosomes 765:of a male 712:camouflage 695:Camouflage 650:subtropics 566:mouthparts 552:camouflage 457:subtropics 449:Antarctica 412:camouflage 404:apparition 384:bug leaves 368:Phylliidae 340:bug sticks 328:stick-bugs 259:Subgroups 208:Subclass: 202:Dicondylia 182:Arthropoda 5235:Areolatae 5125:Pterygota 5105:Kingdom: 4931:Heraridea 4921:Geroptera 4826:Based on 4700:Panorpida 4647:(beetles) 4537:Psocodea 4472:Mantodea 4423:Notoptera 4380:(earwigs) 4115:Kingdom: 3894:(1): 22. 3864:2 October 3412:249738376 3404:2056-2799 3124:2 October 3042:2 October 2855:0012-9658 2456:7 October 2357:1045-2249 2223:2 October 2202:3 October 2036:0008-347X 1934:868269974 1873:birdcages 1818:Australia 1730:offspring 1724:in copulo 1719:ejaculate 1694:genitalia 1504:Clonopsis 1448:captivity 1257:monophyly 1205:Blattodea 1133:hardwoods 1125:Wisconsin 1056:light-gap 1021:elaiosome 1017:capitulum 987:temperate 979:operculum 946:substrate 917:hemolymph 881:prothorax 761:Hindwing 732:lichenous 705:predators 662:Australia 606:nocturnal 570:mandibles 548:tubercles 540:cornified 416:predators 376:leaf-bugs 314:) are an 212:Pterygota 168:Kingdom: 162:Eukaryota 5354:BugGuide 5346:Phasmida 5311:Wikidata 5302:Phasmida 5131:Neoptera 5111:Phylum: 5107:Animalia 5096:families 4969:Paoliida 4743:Diptera 4547:(thrips) 4308:Odonata 4135:Hexapoda 4121:Phylum: 4117:Animalia 4005:46306252 3928:17881709 3840:: 33–40. 3819:86169927 3674:86608533 3633:. UC IPM 3568:: 16–23. 3463:17197423 3274:85794995 3231:19129110 2871:46920315 2863:29809279 2770:25972583 2762:20163549 2719:29709325 2711:15910332 2582:10765114 2574:18401661 2531:17168538 2493:20957283 2389:: 46–54. 2089:22 March 2068:27 March 2044:86710665 1881:crickets 1846:Japanese 1608:Behavior 1549:Phyllium 1530:Leptynia 1510:Leptynia 1499:Bacillus 1474:Ypresian 1305:Jurassic 1245:sclerite 1209:Mantodea 1167:Taxonomy 1149:Oklahoma 1145:Arkansas 1121:Michigan 991:diapause 961:obligate 886:volatile 877:anterior 630:foraging 578:antennae 574:autotomy 544:venation 360:phasmids 308:Phasmida 247:Jacobson 228:Cohort: 222:Neoptera 178:Phylum: 172:Animalia 158:Domain: 5522:1199226 5317:Q188029 5119:Insecta 5117:Class: 5092:Extant 4854:Extinct 4828:Sasaki 4735:(fleas) 4529: * 3896:Bibcode 3562:Atropos 3526:15 June 3500:15 June 3454:1766425 3384:Bibcode 3355:15 June 3329:15 June 3303:15 June 3254:Bibcode 3222:2679072 3006:Bibcode 2827:Bibcode 2819:Ecology 2742:Bibcode 2554:Bibcode 2168:Bibcode 1894:cryptid 1877:fortune 1860:or the 1842:Chinese 1830:goliath 1793:Sarawak 1760:, 1870s 1666:evolved 1633:crypsis 1297:Permian 1163:spp.). 1046:Ecology 1040:instars 981:at the 830:femoral 813:mimicry 809:abdomen 789:startle 748:crypsis 716:mimicry 646:tropics 632:range. 626:diurnal 495:Female 453:tropics 408:phantom 370:called 320:insects 251:Bianchi 238:Order: 192:Insecta 188:Class: 5532:851140 5512:814472 5496:NZOR: 5476:666755 5398:1PHASO 4832:(2013) 4830:et al. 4821:Italic 4149:Extant 4105:orders 4102:Insect 4003: 3959: 3926: 3858:Art UK 3817: 3785:: 4–5. 3687:25-27. 3672: 3461: 3451: 3410: 3402: 3272: 3229: 3219: 3178: 3152: 3064:Timema 2945:(22). 2869: 2861: 2853: 2793: 2768: 2760: 2717: 2709: 2672: 2580: 2572: 2529: 2491: 2355: 2276: 2246: 2115: 2042: 2034: 2012:Timema 1993: 1932: 1922: 1856:, the 1822:Hawaii 1698:boxing 1690:dorsal 1356:Image 1336:Eocene 1319:Aptian 836:legs ( 697:, and 666:Borneo 618:instar 602:ocelli 600:, but 536:thorax 438:, and 398:phasma 253:, 1902 249:& 5463:12370 5458:IRMNG 5450:47198 5411:11925 5372:8NKFG 4028:8 May 4001:S2CID 3924:S2CID 3884:(PDF) 3815:S2CID 3670:S2CID 3544:" on 3408:S2CID 3382:(3). 3270:S2CID 3100:(PDF) 2867:S2CID 2815:(PDF) 2766:S2CID 2715:S2CID 2578:S2CID 2040:S2CID 1834:spiny 1391:3514 610:molts 465:nymph 392:φάσμα 382:, or 362:, or 338:, or 316:order 38:, or 5471:ITIS 5437:1460 5432:GBIF 5393:EPPO 4816:bold 4030:2016 3970:2020 3957:ISBN 3866:2015 3742:and 3639:2015 3612:2021 3595:2017 3528:2024 3502:2024 3459:PMID 3431:PNAS 3400:ISSN 3357:2024 3331:2024 3305:2024 3227:PMID 3176:ISBN 3150:ISBN 3126:2015 3066:and 3044:2015 2901:2015 2859:PMID 2851:ISSN 2791:ISBN 2758:PMID 2707:PMID 2670:ISBN 2570:PMID 2527:PMID 2489:PMID 2458:2015 2353:ISSN 2274:ISBN 2244:ISBN 2225:2015 2204:2015 2113:ISBN 2091:2011 2070:2020 2032:ISSN 1991:ISBN 1964:2008 1930:OCLC 1920:ISBN 1836:and 1820:and 1781:The 1676:and 1655:and 1532:and 1513:and 1480:and 1277:taxa 1219:and 1147:and 1129:oaks 1123:and 1105:and 1089:and 972:mate 724:and 656:and 648:and 455:and 350:and 302:The 61:PreꞒ 5484:NBN 5385:645 5380:EoL 5367:CoL 5341:AFD 3993:doi 3949:doi 3914:hdl 3904:doi 3807:doi 3783:113 3758:doi 3714:doi 3662:doi 3658:147 3599:doi 3449:PMC 3439:doi 3435:104 3392:doi 3262:doi 3217:PMC 3209:doi 3205:276 3014:doi 2957:hdl 2947:doi 2843:hdl 2835:doi 2750:doi 2699:doi 2642:doi 2632:". 2609:doi 2605:102 2562:doi 2519:doi 2481:doi 2421:doi 2387:104 2343:doi 2312:doi 2176:doi 2024:doi 2020:125 1983:doi 1848:or 1816:In 1776:tea 1366:21 1143:of 1101:in 406:or 318:of 310:or 5553:: 5509:: 5486:: 5473:: 5460:: 5447:: 5434:: 5421:: 5408:: 5395:: 5382:: 5369:: 5359:74 5356:: 5343:: 5328:: 5313:: 4731:+ 4021:. 3999:. 3987:. 3955:. 3922:. 3912:. 3902:. 3890:. 3886:. 3855:. 3838:17 3836:. 3813:. 3803:14 3781:. 3754:85 3752:. 3748:. 3726:^ 3710:73 3708:. 3692:^ 3668:. 3656:. 3629:. 3593:. 3587:. 3566:60 3564:. 3519:. 3493:. 3457:. 3447:. 3433:. 3429:. 3406:. 3398:. 3390:. 3378:. 3374:. 3348:. 3322:. 3296:. 3282:^ 3268:. 3260:. 3250:39 3248:. 3225:. 3215:. 3203:. 3199:. 3134:^ 3078:37 3076:. 3072:. 3052:^ 3012:. 3002:23 3000:. 2971:^ 2955:. 2941:. 2937:. 2920:38 2918:. 2887:. 2865:. 2857:. 2849:. 2841:. 2833:. 2823:99 2821:. 2817:. 2764:. 2756:. 2748:. 2738:19 2736:. 2713:. 2705:. 2695:14 2693:. 2654:^ 2638:37 2636:. 2603:. 2599:. 2576:. 2568:. 2560:. 2550:34 2548:. 2525:. 2513:. 2501:^ 2487:. 2477:27 2475:. 2448:. 2417:75 2415:. 2411:. 2395:^ 2385:. 2365:^ 2351:. 2339:27 2337:. 2333:. 2308:23 2306:. 2288:^ 2258:^ 2174:. 2164:38 2162:. 2158:. 2099:^ 2061:. 2038:. 2030:. 2018:. 1989:. 1950:. 1928:. 1883:. 1864:. 1844:, 1832:, 1507:, 1488:. 1450:. 1321:) 1215:, 1211:, 1207:, 1083:, 1077:. 860:, 854:, 848:, 842:, 740:, 693:, 432:, 378:, 374:, 358:, 334:, 330:, 326:, 294:, 111:Pg 34:, 5085:e 5078:t 5071:v 4592:a 4590:l 4588:o 4586:b 4584:a 4582:t 4580:e 4578:m 4576:o 4574:l 4572:o 4570:H 4511:a 4509:l 4507:o 4505:b 4503:a 4501:t 4499:e 4497:m 4495:u 4493:E 4343:a 4341:r 4339:e 4337:t 4335:p 4333:o 4331:e 4329:N 4257:a 4255:t 4253:o 4251:g 4249:y 4247:r 4245:e 4243:t 4241:P 4216:a 4214:i 4212:l 4210:y 4208:d 4206:n 4204:o 4202:c 4200:i 4198:D 4094:e 4087:t 4080:v 4032:. 4007:. 3995:: 3989:7 3972:. 3951:: 3930:. 3916:: 3906:: 3898:: 3892:4 3868:. 3821:. 3809:: 3766:. 3760:: 3720:. 3716:: 3676:. 3664:: 3641:. 3614:. 3601:: 3585:" 3581:" 3540:" 3530:. 3504:. 3465:. 3441:: 3414:. 3394:: 3386:: 3380:8 3359:. 3333:. 3307:. 3276:. 3264:: 3256:: 3233:. 3211:: 3184:. 3158:. 3128:. 3106:. 3046:. 3020:. 3016:: 3008:: 2965:. 2959:: 2949:: 2943:4 2922:. 2903:. 2873:. 2845:: 2837:: 2829:: 2799:. 2772:. 2752:: 2744:: 2721:. 2701:: 2678:. 2648:. 2644:: 2617:. 2611:: 2584:. 2564:: 2556:: 2533:. 2521:: 2515:1 2495:. 2483:: 2460:. 2442:" 2429:. 2423:: 2359:. 2345:: 2318:. 2314:: 2282:. 2252:. 2227:. 2206:. 2184:. 2178:: 2170:: 2121:. 2093:. 2072:. 2046:. 2026:: 1999:. 1985:: 1966:. 1936:. 1602:. 1587:. 1572:. 1555:. 1185:. 1159:( 865:, 298:. 266:† 116:N 106:K 101:J 96:T 91:P 86:C 81:D 76:S 71:O 66:Ꞓ 42:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index