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civilians. This, combined with the constant wars between the warlords, led to destitution, hunger, and the rise of banditry in many areas. Some regions suffered more than others from the warlords' rule. Less developed, and more remote parts of China, such as the country's south, centre and west were most adversely affected. They were often rather poor and isolated to begin with, and crises were less likely to be alleviated by outside help. Furthermore, warlord armies of these regions were less well equipped, fed and disciplined than their equivalents in the more wealthy north and coastal regions of China. The warlord soldiers of southern China consequently treated civilians especially badly, regularly exploiting and abusing them.
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political or social order when occupying counties. Instead the old magistrate would simply be replaced with a new one "who appeared to be a 'good' man". One observer noted that such minor changes often failed to permanently improve the situation of the peasants. Despite this, the Spirit
Soldiers' rule was widely perceived as "benevolent" in comparison with the warlords' regime. The peasant rebels prevented the collection of rents and taxes by the government, and drove away both marauding warlord soldiers as well as bandits. The areas the insurgents had conquered were considered to be safe for unarmed travellers. To finance themselves, the Spirit Soldiers fought bandits and warlords for control of the
1186:. Although the Communists regarded secret societies with suspicion as conservative and predatory elements, they presented convenient allies whose aims were at least somewhat compatible with the Left-wing uprising. He Long in particular forged close links with the Spirit Soldiers. He came to view them as "social bandits" who wanted to protect their people. In fact, many Spirit Soldiers actually became part of the Red Armies. As unrest remained high throughout the country, the Spirit Soldier movement also continued to spread on its own, expanding to northern and central Sichuan, western Henan, and eastern Guizhou. Spirit Soldier groups persisted in these regions during the 1930s.
37:
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returned to civilian life, but a significant number continued the insurgency. Several retreated into the mountains of Hubei, where they joined the main Spirit
Soldier armies, while others stayed in Sichuan. The latter were mostly small militias that behaved like bandits, so that officials lamented that "whole country districts laid waste" as the rebels plundered them. Instead of attempting to seize and hold territory, they would capture towns, expel foreigners and missionaries, and then move on. For several years after the Wanzhou incursion, permanent Spirit Soldier bases in Sichuan were restricted to areas which were close to the border with Hubei.
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as numerous militias early on, and had formed six main branches by 1928. These different groups did not much coordinate their activities. While the Spirit
Soldiers generally lacked military training, modern weaponry, and uniforms, they attempted to organize their forces into actual armies. They introduced military ranks, and the rebel fighters identified themselves by wearing a yellow band around their left hand's middle finger since yellow served as "official color" of their movement. In addition, each major Spirit Soldier group dressed in a specific color. For example, the Spirit Soldiers in western Hubei mostly wore red turbans and
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354:. Following years of brutal suppression, civil war, and excessive taxation, the rural population of central China was restive, and susceptible to militant salvationist movements. One spiritual group, the so-called Spirit Soldiers, promised the peasants that they could gain protection from modern weaponry through protective magic. Tens of thousands consequently rallied to join the Spirit Soldiers, and successfully revolted in the mountainous and isolated areas of Hubei and Sichuan. At its height, the Spirit Soldier movement numbered over 100,000 fighters, and controlled about forty counties.
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459:, and others. The latter felt traditionally oppressed by the plainspeople and had long resisted Han immigration as well as influence from the Chinese central governments. The highlanders were thus more versed in organizing self-defense forces and more prone to revolting than the Han population. In this context, belief systems were also of great importance. Although the Han Chinese migrants and highland people rarely inter-married, they culturally influenced each other. This gave rise of a highly heterodox cultural and religious environment in which
463:, and belief in magic as well as possession played a major role. In the context of the long struggle for autonomy by the highlanders, gods, heroes, and ancestors were often associated with past resistance and rebellions. These elements helped to popularize the so-called "spirit soldiers" – the belief that one could summon divine beings that would fight alongside or possess a fighter, granting the marginalized and weak the ability to oppose stronger opponents. The belief in spirit soldiers was often integrated into
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773:, armed themselves with simple weapons including bamboo spears and launched a grand assault against Wanzhou town on 5 March 1921. Attacking in two waves of about 2,000 fighters, the Spirit Soldiers terrified the local warlord soldiers, as they fought ferociously with bared upper body, unafraid of bullets. Despite being armed with guns, the soldiers believed their opponents to be actually protected by magic and fled from Wanzhou's outskirts behind the walls of the inner town.
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spilled over into western Hubei, where
Guizhou expatriate warlord Yuan Zuming – one of Yang's opponents – moved to Lichuan and Shinan in an attempt to conquer Hefeng. Meanwhile, the Spirit Soldiers spread in eastern Sichuan offering the locals protection from the marauding warlords and bandits. In fact, the peasant rebels managed to win a major victory over warlord troops at Wangying in that year; according to one account, "the river ran red with enemy blood".
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991:" at his base in western Hubei. Active around 1920–1922, he began to issue numerous edicts, in which he railed against "students, farmers, labourers, employers, merchants, and military, and, lastly, the missionaries". He openly called for the violent extermination of all Christian priests, blaming them for the country's problems and promising his followers that with Christianity gone peace would return to China. Other Spirit Soldiers wanted to restore the
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769:. In late 1920, a number of Spirit Soldiers from Lichuan came to Wanzhou. Led by the peasants Hsiang Ting-hsi and Yang Tse-kun, they spread the message of their movement in the town's suburbs using slogans such as "Stand Against Rents and Taxes", and "Kill the Grey Dogs" (warlord soldiers). In a few months, they managed to gather 4,000 supporters from the town and the nearby villages. The insurgents then set up their headquarters at the local temple for
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constantly fought each other. As a result, hundreds of thousands of soldiers, militiamen and bandits roamed the two provinces during the
Warlord Era, causing widespread instability. Further tensions existed due to the fact that the local warlords often acknowledged the nominal authority of the central government and the more powerful warlords in northern China, but distrusted them and wanted to maintain their autonomy.
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533:"Spirit Soldier" by undergoing magical rituals. These rituals such as drinking a special fluid or eating the ashes of burned amulets, were supposed to make the "Spirit Soldiers" invulnerable to gunfire and raise their bravery. Convinced that they could finally overcome the government authorities' superior weaponry, thousands joined the movement and launched an open rebellion. Despite being mostly armed with just
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consequently realized that they could actually kill the rebels, and launched a counter-attack on 8 March. Heavy fighting lasted almost the entire day, but the warlord forces prevailed and had mostly ousted the Spirit
Soldiers from Wanzhou by nightfall. About 500 people died in course of this battle, the majority of them rebels.
1159:) were active in the province. However, one major change to the warfare in the region was the introduction of new ideological elements. Many KMT troops which moved through central China were part of the party's left wing or outright Communists. When the KMT's right wing launched a purge against the leftists in the
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rents and taxes, peasants launched a great number of uprisings, riots, and protests during the
Warlord Era. Varying greatly in their intensity and importance, such disturbances often erupted spontaneously and were frequent during years of poor harvests. In several cases, the peasants joined or organized militant
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The
Northern Expedition lasted until December 1928, reunified China, and ousted numerous warlords from power. However, several warlords such as Xiong Kewu and Yang Sen allied themselves with the KMT to maintain or regain power. The operation also caused further chaos and great disruption in Hubei and
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which the warlords eventually sent against them in 1926. The rebels suffered several crushing defeats in rapid succession, and their leaders were either killed in combat or died of other causes, including suicide or sickness. In consequence, the rebel movement rapidly declined from late 1926 to early
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to carve out their own territories while fighting each other in order to achieve supremacy. In the process, the warlords caused great suffering for China's civilian population. They brutally suppressed opposition, raised high taxes, and in many cases allowed their armies to plunder, rape, and enslave
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On 12 March, warlord Chou Fu-yu arrived in the area with reinforcements and attacked the Spirit
Soldiers at their temple headquarters, killing about 1,000 of them, including most of their leaders. Following this defeat, the insurgents around Wanzhou scattered. Most of the survivors in Wanzhou County
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battled several rivals in an attempt to unify the province. This became important to the peasant rebels because Xiong was gradually defeated in 1923, and his armies moved towards western Hubei. Yang and other strongmen exploited the situation by moving their forces in the opposite direction, trying
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At this point, the Spirit
Soldiers numbered over 10,000 fighters, and their forces would continue to grow over the next few years. Though the movement would eventually develop a relatively sophisticated organization, it was never really unified. The rebel forces split into three main armies as well
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of 1915–1916, Hubei and Sichuan had fallen into chaos, as various warlords carved out their own fiefdoms. Sichuan became home to a very large number of warlords, some of them little more than villages leaders or bandit chiefs while others led armies several thousand strong. These military strongmen
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Though they had managed to capture most of the town, the Spirit Soldiers did not capitalize on their success, instead "composing chants and parading" through the streets. The remaining warlord forces managed to hold out, and shot a number of Spirit Soldiers from behind the inner town's walls. They
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As a result, peasants in rural China generally perceived outsiders like soldiers, tax collectors, and other state agents as "foreign" or "parasite" in nature, and were deeply hostile toward them. In an attempt to evict these groups from their lands, or at least in order to resist the collection of
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The Spirit Soldiers had early military victories, but, relative to their opponents, lacked organization, a cohesive ideology and modern weaponry. As a result, they could not prevail in the face of concentrated counter-offensives by the Chinese warlord armies. The Spirit Soldiers’ main armies were
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Early 1926 marked the Spirit Soldier movement's height, as the rebels counted about 100,000 fighters, and controlled forty counties in Hubei. Despite this, however, the Spirit Soldiers were too disorganized and poorly armed to defend their territories against the three well-trained, well-equipped
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The chaotic wars continued in Hubei and Sichuan, as Yang Sen's ascendency to Sichuan's governorship proved short-lived. He provoked several of his previous allies, and was ousted from power in early 1925. He retreated back to Hubei, eventually finding himself in Badong. These clashes once again
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Besides such vague slogans and the aim of overthrowing the existing authorities, the rebels had few concrete aims. Most of the Spirit Soldiers did not want to seize political power, and had no revolutionary ideology. Despite having an affinity with the poor, they would not try to change the
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The Spirit Soldiers were aided in their expansion by the continuing infighting among the warlords of Hubei and Sichuan. The conflicts in western Hubei remained very chaotic, with not just the Spirit Soldiers but also warlord forces from other provinces and bandits invading the region.
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in an attempt to link up with them around July 1924. This valley was the most important Spirit Soldier stronghold in Sichuan. However, northern warlord forces under Wang Duqing and Yu Xuezhong as well as Henan troops led by Hu Xiannian were sent to block the way of Xiong's army.
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Besides the chaotic infighting among the armies of Sichuan and Hubei, the two provinces were affected by additional divisions between the different ethnic and social groups. While the valleys and plains of Sichuan and Hubei were dominated by
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to crush Xiong's dwindling armies and taking Sichuan for themselves. Although Kong Geng took control of some counties previously occupied by Yang, the removal of many Sichuan troops allowed Lao Yangren's bandit army to invade
552:. They also carried flags into battle, many of them red, which were inscribed with their leaders' names or slogans that urged for "heavenly" or "universal peace" and the establishment of a "heavenly kingdom" on earth.
529:. It was initially a small association of about 100 people. The movement's slogan "Kill the Warlords and Out with Rotten Officials and Loafers" found wide appeal, while the priests taught that anyone could become a
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Sichuan which was exploited by various groups such as Lao Yangren whose bandit army had grown to about 20,000 fighters by late 1926. In addition, autonomous village militias, other secret societies such as the
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Amid this volatile situation, a power vacuum came to be in western Hubei in 1920. The 30,000-strong army of warlords Li Tiancai, Lan Tianwei, Bao Wenwei, and Wang Tianzong which had previously controlled the
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movements in Chinese history, giving rise to the idea that saviors in human guise would arrive in times of immense crisis, leading an army of spirit soldiers, and establish a new and fair rule on earth.
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Despite the setback in Sichuan, the Spirit Soldiers continued to flourish and expand in Hubei, driving warlord forces from large parts of the province. Many counties fell to the insurgents, including
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defeated and dispersed in 1926. Despite this, the movement remained active and continued to spread into neighboring provinces. Several Spirit Soldier factions consequently allied themselves with the
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Having suffered from deprivations and high taxes at the hands of the warlords, the rural populace of Hubei and Sichuan became increasingly restive. The discontent escalated in 1920 when a group of
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1927, and large numbers of Spirit Soldiers deserted. By this point, however, the situation in the region began to experience a significant change due to the launch of the
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garrison mutinied. With his fortunes declining, Xiong actually allied with the Spirit Soldier factions based at Enshi and Hefeng, and his remaining army moved through the
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ter Haar, Barend J. (1993). "Messianism and the Heaven and Earth Society: Approaches to Heaven and Earth Society Texts". In David Ownby; Mary Somers Heidhues (eds.).
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took control of Lichuan and Jianshi in October 1921, holding them until February 1923. Yang was strongly involved in the wars of Sichuan, as the forces of Governor
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By this point, the Spirit Soldier movement still had a significant presence in the region, and Spirit Soldier bands soon allied themselves with the
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groups. In most cases, however, the peasants were unable to form cohesive movements and their resistance was easily crushed by the warlords.
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Smith, S.A. (2015). "Redemptive Religious Societies and the Communist State, 1949 to the 1980s". In Jeremy Brown; Matthew D. Johnson (eds.).
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Soon after its launch, the Spirit Soldiers movement spread westward into Sichuan, where it directly affected the regional trade center of
544:, the peasant rebels overran Lichuan County and killed the local magistrate, whereupon the movement spread into the surrounding regions.
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which they saw a highpoint in China's history. Under the Ming, the Chinese had ruled their own country and not been subject to the
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Peasants without the Party: Grassroots Movements in Twentieth Century China: Grassroots Movements in Twentieth Century China
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He Long's closeness to various secret societies might have been related to his own membership in one of them, namely the
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2352:"Secret Societies" Reconsidered: Perspectives on the Social History of Early Modern South China and Southeast Asia
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soldiers", "supernatural soldiers", and "immortal boys". They were also known as "Heavenly Soldiers" (Wade–Giles:
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as well as Christianity had brought chaos to China by subjecting it to foreign ideas. They consequently wanted to
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The Spirit Soldier movement originated from and was centered in the mountainous, isolated counties of western
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and Sichuan into Hubei in 1921. The northern forces were repelled, but the Sichuan troops occupied Badong,
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Chesneaux, Jean (1972). "Secret Societies in China's Historical Evolution". In Jean Chesneaux (ed.).
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resided in a hidden kingdom in Sichuan and would soon lead an army of spirit soldiers to destroy the
1275:. This is however contradicted by other contemporary records as well as later eyewitness interviews.
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with the KMT, and rebelled. Hubei became one of the major centers of the early Communist insurgency.
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Having suffered from internal instability for decades, China fully disintegrated upon the death of
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1271:, historian Tai Hsüan-chih dated the beginning of the Spirit Soldiers movement to 1925 in eastern
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Bianco, Lucien (1986). "Peasant movements". In Denis Twitchett; John K. Fairbank (eds.).
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were a series of major peasant uprisings against state authorities and warlords in the
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Map showing centers of the Spirit Soldier movement in western Hubei (modern-day
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Maoism at the Grassroots: Everyday Life in China's Era of High Socialism
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was active in Hubei from 1747 to 1752, proclaiming that a member of the
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through western Hubei. The Spirit Soldiers were also noted for
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Good iron does not make nails, good men do not make soldiers.
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priests started a militant and spiritual movement opposed to
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Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General (1921).
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of April 1927, a civil war broke out within the KMT. The
2355:. Armonk, N.Y.; London: M. E. Sharpe. pp. 153–176.
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and foreigners. This was due to the rebels' belief that
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motorcycle in China in 1939. The Spirit Soldiers were
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663:
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631:
624:
139:
126:
2876:Nationalist-Communist Civil War
2481:Annual trade report and returns
1303:
1278:
1101:Spirit Soldier rebellion (1959)
895:
847:
815:
799:
696:
648:
632:
2248:The Cambridge History of China
2199:
1267:Based on a 1928 report of the
1203:Chinese salvationist religions
680:
1:
3174:Republic of China (1912–1949)
2623:Empire of China (Yuan Shikai)
1320:
1284:For example, the sect leader
927:
911:
863:
712:
365:
2707:Occupation of Outer Mongolia
1155:, as well as river pirates (
1086:
491:
7:
3223:Military history of Sichuan
3022:Soviet invasion of Xinjiang
2757:Washington Naval Conference
2267:Bandits in Republican China
2252:. Translated by Janet Llo.
1269:Shanghai Central Daily News
1196:
1191:took place in February 1959
290:Peasant armies and militias
186:Yuan, the self-proclaimed "
10:
3249:
3084:National Pacification Army
2949:Northeast Flag Replacement
2855:Zhongshan Warship Incident
2552:and warlordism during the
2397:Jowett, Philip S. (2017).
2370:Jowett, Philip S. (2014).
2265:Billingsley, Phil (1988).
2258:Cambridge University Press
1097:Hunan–Hubei–Jiangxi Soviet
1090:
401:, military strongmen used
397:in 1916. In the following
374:
3171:
3047:
3037:
3027:
3013:
2999:
2987:
2964:
2954:
2932:
2922:
2912:
2902:
2892:
2882:
2860:
2850:
2836:
2822:
2800:Second Zhili–Fengtian War
2794:
2784:
2772:
2762:
2752:
2747:1st National CPC Congress
2742:
2737:Spirit Soldier rebellions
2732:
2722:
2712:
2702:
2682:
2672:
2662:
2652:
2642:
2632:
2618:
2608:
2598:
2588:
2565:
2498:The Red Spears, 1916-1949
2447:Santa Barbara, California
2313:Stanford University Press
2275:Stanford University Press
319:
306:
284:
173:
119:
53:
34:
26:
22:Spirit Soldier rebellions
21:
2927:Muslim conflict in Gansu
2897:Shanghai Commune of 1927
2887:Nanking incident of 1927
2767:First Zhili–Fengtian War
2496:Tai, Hsüan-chih (1985).
2320:Fenby, Jonathan (2008).
2224:Bianco, Lucien (2015) .
2029:, pp. 212, 214–215.
1213:
2845:Canton–Hong Kong strike
2627:National Protection War
2405:: Amberley Publishing.
2282:Ch'en, Jerome (2018) .
1909:, p. 175, 191–192.
1208:List of peasant revolts
1165:Chinese Communist Party
1002:or western foreigners.
535:close quarters weaponry
440:National Protection War
360:Chinese Communist Party
96:Chinese Communist Party
2831:May Thirtieth Movement
2687:Paris Peace Conference
2506:University of Michigan
2441:Miller, James (2006).
1062:
580:
514:
435:
385:
174:Commanders and leaders
2727:Guangdong–Guangxi War
2677:Siberian intervention
1812:, pp. 31–32, 34.
1091:Further information:
1054:
752:and at the border to
558:
511:close quarters combat
504:
433:
381:
320:Casualties and losses
134:Allied warlord forces
2982:Sino-Soviet conflict
2637:Death of Yuan Shikai
2420:Lary, Diana (1985).
2309:Stanford, California
2271:Stanford, California
2207:Alley, Rewi (1966).
2074:, pp. 212, 215.
1987:, pp. 109, 212.
1975:, pp. 138, 237.
1848:, pp. 175, 191.
1586:, pp. 175, 192.
1255:) or "Divine Army".
960:class=notpageimage|
745:class=notpageimage|
3233:Rebellions in China
2941:Huanggutun incident
2871:Nanjing–Wuhan Split
2866:Northern Expedition
2696:May Fourth Movement
2502:Ann Arbor, Michigan
2380:Schiffer Publishing
2260:. pp. 270–328.
2110:, pp. 34, 209.
2014:, pp. 214–215.
2002:, pp. 211–212.
1773:, pp. 197–198.
1732:, pp. 88, 111.
1679:, pp. 270–273.
1664:, pp. 282–284.
1652:, pp. 304–305.
1442:, pp. 191–192.
1231:"Spirit Soldiers" (
1093:Northern Expedition
1077:Northern Expedition
571:Western-influenced
537:such as spears and
2993:Central Plains War
2827:Yunnan–Guangxi War
2778:First United Front
2647:Manchu Restoration
2613:Twenty-One Demands
2593:Bai Lang Rebellion
2288:Abingdon-on-Thames
2230:Abingdon-on-Thames
2151:Billingsley (1988)
2139:Billingsley (1988)
2108:Billingsley (1988)
2096:Billingsley (1988)
1063:
581:
515:
436:
292:Xiong Kewu's army
3180:
3179:
3166:
3165:
3057:
3056:
3008:Qinghai–Tibet War
2907:Shanghai massacre
2841:Anti-Fengtian War
2814:
2813:
2603:Second Revolution
2433:978-0-521-13629-7
1936:, pp. 67–68.
1921:, pp. 66–67.
1800:, pp. 32–33.
1761:, pp. 31–32.
1637:, pp. 87–88.
1161:Shanghai massacre
618:Battle of Wanzhou
561:Jesuit missionary
497:Initial uprisings
340:Republic of China
332:
331:
315:Tens of thousands
146:Republic of China
115:
114:
3240:
3218:History of Hubei
3158:
3155:Communist Party
3150:
3004:Sino-Tibetan War
2917:July 15 Incident
2820:
2819:
2789:Lincheng Outrage
2691:Shandong Problem
2667:Golok rebellions
2586:
2585:
2568:
2567:
2560:
2548:
2538:
2531:
2524:
2515:
2514:
2509:
2492:
2475:
2454:
2437:
2416:
2393:
2378:, Pennsylvania:
2366:
2345:
2316:
2315:. pp. 1–21.
2299:
2278:
2261:
2241:
2220:
2193:
2187:
2181:
2175:
2169:
2163:
2154:
2148:
2142:
2136:
2130:
2124:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2093:
2087:
2081:
2075:
2069:
2063:
2057:
2051:
2045:
2030:
2024:
2015:
2009:
2003:
1997:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1958:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1931:
1922:
1916:
1910:
1904:
1895:
1889:
1872:
1866:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1774:
1768:
1762:
1756:
1750:
1744:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1715:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1674:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1638:
1632:
1626:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1596:
1587:
1581:
1572:
1566:
1551:
1545:
1530:
1524:
1497:
1491:
1480:
1474:
1443:
1437:
1424:
1421:Chesneaux (1972)
1418:
1397:
1391:
1352:
1346:
1337:
1331:
1314:
1307:
1301:
1296:and restore the
1282:
1276:
1265:
1256:
1229:
1122:
1113:
946:
945:
930:
929:
914:
913:
898:
897:
882:
881:
866:
865:
850:
849:
834:
833:
818:
817:
802:
801:
795:
731:
730:
715:
714:
699:
698:
683:
682:
667:
666:
651:
650:
635:
634:
628:
525:and taxation in
461:ancestor worship
412:secret societies
389:
342:'s provinces of
295:
262:
230:
181:Spirit Soldiers:
156:Sichuan warlords
144:
143:
142:
131:
130:
129:
55:
54:
47:Enshi Prefecture
39:
19:
18:
3248:
3247:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3228:Peasant revolts
3203:1920s conflicts
3183:
3182:
3181:
3176:
3167:
3162:
3156:
3148:
3058:
3018:Kumul Rebellion
2980:
2971:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2873:
2869:
2843:
2829:
2815:
2807:
2803:
2717:Zhili–Anhui War
2693:
2689:
2625:
2561:
2542:
2512:
2472:
2434:
2413:
2390:
2363:
2342:
2217:New World Press
2202:
2197:
2196:
2188:
2184:
2176:
2172:
2164:
2157:
2149:
2145:
2137:
2133:
2125:
2114:
2106:
2102:
2094:
2090:
2086:, pp. 2–3.
2082:
2078:
2070:
2066:
2058:
2054:
2046:
2033:
2025:
2018:
2010:
2006:
1998:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1959:
1952:
1944:
1940:
1932:
1925:
1917:
1913:
1905:
1898:
1890:
1875:
1867:
1852:
1844:
1840:
1834:ter Haar (1993)
1832:
1828:
1822:ter Haar (1993)
1820:
1816:
1808:
1804:
1796:
1792:
1784:
1777:
1769:
1765:
1757:
1753:
1745:
1736:
1728:
1724:
1716:
1707:
1699:
1695:
1687:
1683:
1675:
1668:
1660:
1656:
1648:
1641:
1633:
1629:
1625:, pp. 1–3.
1621:
1617:
1609:
1605:
1597:
1590:
1582:
1575:
1567:
1554:
1546:
1533:
1525:
1500:
1492:
1483:
1475:
1446:
1438:
1427:
1419:
1400:
1392:
1355:
1347:
1340:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1317:
1308:
1304:
1283:
1279:
1266:
1259:
1230:
1221:
1216:
1199:
1144:
1143:
1142:
1141:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1115:
1114:
1103:
1089:
1041:Xingshan County
973:
972:
971:
962:
956:
955:
954:
953:
947:
939:
938:
937:
931:
923:
922:
921:
915:
907:
906:
905:
899:
891:
890:
889:
883:
875:
874:
873:
867:
859:
858:
857:
851:
843:
842:
841:
835:
827:
826:
825:
819:
811:
810:
809:
803:
787:
763:
762:
761:
747:
741:
740:
739:
738:
732:
724:
723:
722:
716:
708:
707:
706:
700:
692:
691:
690:
684:
676:
675:
674:
668:
660:
659:
658:
652:
644:
643:
642:
636:
620:
499:
494:
428:
391:
387:
379:
373:
368:
301:
299:Warlord armies
293:
291:
260:
228:
215:Hsiang Ting-hsi
168:
140:
138:
133:
132:Spirit Soldiers
127:
125:
78:
40:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3246:
3236:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3208:1920s in China
3205:
3200:
3195:
3178:
3177:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3164:
3163:
3161:
3160:
3152:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3061:
3059:
3055:
3054:
3052:War in Ningxia
3049:
3045:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3034:
3029:
3025:
3024:
3015:
3011:
3010:
3001:
2997:
2996:
2989:
2985:
2984:
2977:Beijing Revolt
2969:Chiang-Gui War
2966:
2962:
2961:
2956:
2952:
2951:
2937:Jinan incident
2934:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2909:
2904:
2900:
2899:
2894:
2890:
2889:
2884:
2880:
2879:
2862:
2858:
2857:
2852:
2848:
2847:
2838:
2834:
2833:
2824:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2811:
2796:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2782:
2781:
2774:
2770:
2769:
2764:
2760:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2749:
2744:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2730:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2710:
2709:
2704:
2700:
2699:
2684:
2680:
2679:
2674:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2649:
2644:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2630:
2629:
2620:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2575:
2572:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2554:Nanjing decade
2541:
2540:
2533:
2526:
2518:
2511:
2510:
2493:
2476:
2471:978-0674287204
2470:
2455:
2438:
2432:
2417:
2412:978-1445651927
2411:
2394:
2389:978-0764343452
2388:
2367:
2362:978-1563241987
2361:
2346:
2340:
2317:
2300:
2279:
2262:
2242:
2221:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2195:
2194:
2192:, p. 346.
2182:
2180:, p. 230.
2170:
2168:, p. 185.
2155:
2143:
2131:
2129:, p. 228.
2112:
2100:
2098:, p. 209.
2088:
2076:
2064:
2062:, p. 215.
2052:
2050:, p. 212.
2031:
2016:
2004:
1989:
1977:
1965:
1950:
1938:
1923:
1911:
1896:
1873:
1871:, p. 156.
1850:
1838:
1836:, p. 163.
1826:
1824:, p. 154.
1814:
1802:
1790:
1788:, p. 183.
1775:
1763:
1751:
1749:, p. 109.
1734:
1722:
1720:, p. 211.
1705:
1703:, p. 278.
1693:
1691:, p. 280.
1681:
1666:
1654:
1639:
1627:
1615:
1603:
1601:, p. 209.
1588:
1573:
1571:, p. 192.
1552:
1550:, p. 191.
1531:
1529:, p. 175.
1498:
1481:
1444:
1425:
1398:
1353:
1338:
1336:, p. 138.
1325:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1302:
1277:
1257:
1218:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1210:
1205:
1198:
1195:
1127:
1126:
1117:
1116:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1104:
1088:
1085:
958:
957:
949:
948:
941:
940:
933:
932:
925:
924:
917:
916:
909:
908:
901:
900:
893:
892:
885:
884:
877:
876:
869:
868:
861:
860:
853:
852:
845:
844:
837:
836:
829:
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821:
820:
813:
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805:
804:
797:
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790:
789:
788:
786:
783:
743:
742:
734:
733:
726:
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718:
717:
710:
709:
702:
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693:
686:
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670:
669:
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661:
654:
653:
646:
645:
638:
637:
630:
629:
623:
622:
621:
619:
616:
569:hostile toward
531:heaven-blessed
527:Lichuan, Hubei
498:
495:
493:
490:
427:
424:
414:that acted as
403:private armies
380:
375:Main article:
372:
369:
367:
364:
330:
329:
326:
322:
321:
317:
316:
313:
309:
308:
304:
303:
296:
287:
286:
285:Units involved
282:
281:
280:
279:
270:
269:
266:
263:
255:
250:
245:
233:
232:
231:
217:
216:
213:
210:
204:Wang Hsi-chiu
202:
194:
193:Wang Tzu-cheng
191:
176:
175:
171:
170:
167:
166:
160:
159:Hubei warlords
157:
154:
135:
122:
121:
117:
116:
113:
112:
111:
110:
92:
84:
80:
79:
69:
67:
63:
62:
59:
51:
50:
32:
31:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3245:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3190:
3188:
3175:
3170:
3159:
3153:
3151:
3145:
3143:
3140:
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3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
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3103:
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3088:
3087:
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3071:
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3063:
3062:
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3046:
3043:
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3033:
3030:
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3023:
3019:
3016:
3012:
3009:
3005:
3002:
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2995:
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2983:
2978:
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2957:
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2895:
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2768:
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2728:
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2711:
2708:
2705:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2692:
2688:
2685:
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2678:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2651:
2648:
2645:
2641:
2638:
2635:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2601:
2597:
2594:
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2539:
2534:
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2525:
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2516:
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2490:
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2477:
2473:
2467:
2463:
2462:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
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2358:
2354:
2353:
2347:
2343:
2341:9780061661167
2337:
2333:
2332:HarperCollins
2329:
2328:New York City
2325:
2324:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2292:New York City
2289:
2285:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2255:
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2249:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2234:New York City
2231:
2227:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2205:
2204:
2191:
2186:
2179:
2174:
2167:
2162:
2160:
2153:, p. 23.
2152:
2147:
2141:, p. 22.
2140:
2135:
2128:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2109:
2104:
2097:
2092:
2085:
2084:Jowett (2017)
2080:
2073:
2068:
2061:
2056:
2049:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2028:
2023:
2021:
2013:
2008:
2001:
1996:
1994:
1986:
1981:
1974:
1969:
1963:, p. 14.
1962:
1961:Bianco (2015)
1957:
1955:
1948:, p. 68.
1947:
1942:
1935:
1930:
1928:
1920:
1915:
1908:
1903:
1901:
1894:, p. 67.
1893:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1870:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1857:
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1772:
1767:
1760:
1755:
1748:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1731:
1730:Jowett (2014)
1726:
1719:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1702:
1701:Bianco (1986)
1697:
1690:
1689:Bianco (1986)
1685:
1678:
1677:Bianco (1986)
1673:
1671:
1663:
1662:Bianco (1986)
1658:
1651:
1650:Bianco (1986)
1646:
1644:
1636:
1635:Jowett (2014)
1631:
1624:
1623:Jowett (2017)
1619:
1613:, p. 83.
1612:
1607:
1600:
1595:
1593:
1585:
1580:
1578:
1570:
1565:
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1523:
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1519:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1496:, p. 34.
1495:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1479:, p. 66.
1478:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1441:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1423:, p. 12.
1422:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1396:, p. 91.
1395:
1390:
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1384:
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1376:
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1350:
1349:Bianco (2015)
1345:
1343:
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1326:
1312:
1306:
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1038:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
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1001:
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994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
970:
966:
961:
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936:
920:
904:
888:
872:
856:
840:
824:
808:
794:
782:
778:
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772:
768:
759:
755:
751:
746:
737:
721:
705:
689:
673:
657:
641:
627:
615:
613:
609:
608:modernization
606:
605:Western-style
602:
599:
595:
591:
587:
578:
574:
573:modernization
570:
566:
562:
557:
553:
551:
545:
543:
541:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
512:
508:
503:
489:
487:
486:Wang Zhanyuan
483:
479:
473:
470:
466:
462:
458:
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417:
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327:
324:
323:
318:
314:
311:
310:
305:
302:Bandit groups
300:
297:
289:
288:
283:
277:
276:
275:
274:
267:
264:
259:
256:
254:
251:
249:
248:Wang Zhanyuan
246:
244:
241:
240:
239:
238:
234:
227:
224:
223:
222:
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214:
211:
209:
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158:
155:
153:
150:
149:
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147:
136:
124:
123:
118:
109:
105:
101:
97:
94:Emergence of
93:
90:
89:
88:
85:
82:
81:
76:
72:
68:
65:
64:
60:
57:
56:
52:
48:
44:
38:
33:
30:
25:
20:
2991:
2874:
2864:
2809:Beijing Coup
2798:
2776:
2736:
2694:
2497:
2480:
2460:
2442:
2422:
2398:
2371:
2351:
2322:
2304:
2283:
2266:
2246:
2225:
2208:
2190:Smith (2015)
2185:
2178:Ch'en (2018)
2173:
2166:Ch'en (2018)
2146:
2134:
2127:Ch'en (2018)
2103:
2091:
2079:
2072:Ch'en (2018)
2067:
2060:Ch'en (2018)
2055:
2048:Ch'en (2018)
2027:Ch'en (2018)
2012:Ch'en (2018)
2007:
2000:Ch'en (2018)
1985:Ch'en (2018)
1980:
1973:Alley (1966)
1968:
1941:
1914:
1907:Alley (1966)
1869:Fenby (2008)
1846:Alley (1966)
1841:
1829:
1817:
1810:Ch'en (2018)
1805:
1798:Ch'en (2018)
1793:
1786:Ch'en (2018)
1771:Ch'en (2018)
1766:
1759:Ch'en (2018)
1754:
1747:Ch'en (2018)
1725:
1718:Ch'en (2018)
1696:
1684:
1657:
1630:
1618:
1606:
1599:Ch'en (2018)
1584:Alley (1966)
1569:Alley (1966)
1548:Alley (1966)
1527:Alley (1966)
1494:Ch'en (2018)
1440:Alley (1966)
1351:, p. 9.
1334:Alley (1966)
1329:
1305:
1298:Ming dynasty
1294:Qing dynasty
1290:House of Zhu
1280:
1268:
1252:
1244:
1236:
1188:
1184:Xu Xiangqian
1173:
1169:United Front
1156:
1145:
1138:Xu Xiangqian
1068:
1064:
1039:, while the
1008:Zhili clique
1004:
1000:Qing dynasty
993:Ming dynasty
989:Jade Emperor
974:
779:
775:
764:
756:(modern-day
582:
577:Christianity
546:
539:
516:
474:
445:
437:
416:self defense
408:
392:
386:
382:
356:
335:
333:
298:
272:
271:
261:(until 1924)
236:
235:
219:
218:
212:Yang Tse-kun
205:
197:
188:Jade Emperor
180:
179:
152:Zhili clique
137:
120:Belligerents
108:Xu Xiangqian
86:
27:Part of the
3193:Warlord Era
3147:Kuomintang
3132:New Guangxi
3127:Old Guangxi
3042:Two-Liu war
3032:Han–Liu War
2550:Warlord Era
2200:Works cited
1611:Lary (1985)
1136:(left) and
1014:moved from
598:persecuting
590:opium trade
542:broadswords
469:apocalyptic
449:Han Chinese
399:Warlord Era
395:Yuan Shikai
377:Warlord Era
352:Warlord Era
350:during the
294:(from 1924)
278:Lao Yangren
265:Yuan Zuming
229:(from 1924)
29:Warlord Era
3187:Categories
3090:Zhili Army
1946:Tai (1985)
1934:Tai (1985)
1919:Tai (1985)
1892:Tai (1985)
1477:Tai (1985)
1321:References
1286:Ma Chaozhu
1253:T'ien-ping
1233:Wade–Giles
1176:Red Armies
1130:Red Armies
1081:Kuomintang
1032:Xiong Kewu
601:Christians
523:militarism
438:After the
366:Background
268:Chou Fu-yu
258:Xiong Kewu
226:Xiong Kewu
100:Red Armies
87:Stalemate
3137:Guangdong
3102:Guominjun
3014:1931–1935
3000:1930–1932
2955:1928–1929
2923:1927–1930
2861:1926–1928
2837:1925–1926
2773:1923–1927
2753:1921–1922
2733:1920–1926
2723:1920–1921
2703:1919–1921
2673:1918–1920
2663:1917–1929
2653:1917–1922
2619:1915–1916
2589:1911–1914
2574:1925–1934
2571:1915–1924
2296:Routledge
2254:Cambridge
2238:Routledge
1237:Shen Ping
1167:left the
1087:Aftermath
1072:divisions
1056:Wu valley
1045:Wu valley
965:Chongqing
758:Chongqing
492:Rebellion
465:messianic
420:vigilante
237:Warlords:
220:Warlords:
61:1920–1926
49:pictured)
3112:Xinjiang
3080:Fengtian
2578:Factions
2485:Shanghai
2451:ABC-CLIO
1311:Gelaohui
1245:Shenbing
1197:See also
1153:Baijihui
1149:Gelaohui
1028:Yang Sen
1020:Xingshan
1012:Wu Peifu
951:Wu Gorge
887:Yinjiang
736:Wu Gorge
312:100,000+
307:Strength
273:Bandits:
253:Yang Sen
243:Wu Peifu
66:Location
3142:Guizhou
3122:Sichuan
3065:Beiyang
2975:(incl.
2213:Beijing
1273:Sichuan
1180:He Long
1140:(right)
1134:He Long
1060:Sichuan
1037:Yunxian
985:Yichang
977:Xuan'en
969:Guizhou
903:Wuchuan
855:Dejiang
839:Xuan'en
823:Lichuan
807:Wanzhou
767:Wanzhou
754:Sichuan
704:Yichang
672:Xuan'en
656:Lichuan
640:Wanzhou
594:Guizhou
348:Sichuan
169:Bandits
163:Guizhou
104:He Long
77:, China
75:Sichuan
3117:Yunnan
3097:Shanxi
2468:
2430:
2409:
2403:Stroud
2386:
2376:Atglen
2359:
2338:
1241:pinyin
1099:, and
1022:, and
997:Manchu
981:Badong
967:) and
688:Badong
563:on an
519:Taoist
507:Boxers
482:Hefeng
196:Chang
165:forces
83:Result
3157:(CCP)
3149:(KMT)
3075:Zhili
3070:Anhui
1214:Notes
1024:Zigui
1016:Hunan
935:Enshi
919:Yanhe
871:Sinan
750:Hubei
720:Enshi
565:Asahi
550:sashs
478:Enshi
457:Tujia
344:Hubei
328:Heavy
325:Heavy
71:Hubei
43:Hubei
3048:1934
3038:1932
3028:1932
2988:1930
2965:1929
2933:1928
2913:1927
2903:1927
2893:1927
2883:1927
2851:1926
2823:1925
2795:1924
2785:1923
2763:1922
2743:1921
2713:1920
2683:1919
2643:1917
2633:1916
2609:1915
2599:1913
2466:ISBN
2428:ISBN
2407:ISBN
2384:ISBN
2357:ISBN
2336:ISBN
1249:Joss
1182:and
1157:huba
1151:and
771:Yama
588:and
586:salt
575:and
467:and
453:Miao
418:and
346:and
334:The
106:and
73:and
58:Date
1178:of
1132:of
540:dao
102:of
3189::
3107:Ma
3086:)
3020:/
3006:/
2500:.
2487::
2483:.
2449::
2445:.
2401:.
2382:.
2374:.
2334:.
2330::
2326:.
2311::
2307:.
2294::
2290:,
2286:.
2273::
2269:.
2256::
2236::
2232:,
2228:.
2215::
2211:.
2158:^
2115:^
2034:^
2019:^
1992:^
1953:^
1926:^
1899:^
1876:^
1853:^
1778:^
1737:^
1708:^
1669:^
1642:^
1591:^
1576:^
1555:^
1534:^
1501:^
1484:^
1447:^
1428:^
1401:^
1356:^
1341:^
1313:.
1300:.
1260:^
1243::
1239:,
1235::
1222:^
1095:,
983:,
979:,
614:.
579:.
559:A
455:,
3082:(
2979:)
2537:e
2530:t
2523:v
2508:.
2491:.
2474:.
2453:.
2436:.
2415:.
2392:.
2365:.
2344:.
2298:.
2277:.
2240:.
2219:.
760:)
480:-
207:†
199:†
190:"
45:(
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