Spark-gap transmitter

989: 1999: 2430:. Since without the spark no current could flow in the primary circuit, this effectively uncoupled the secondary from the primary circuit, allowing the secondary resonant circuit and antenna to oscillate completely free of the primary circuit after that (until the next spark). This produced output power centered on a single frequency instead of two frequencies. It also eliminated most of the energy loss in the spark, producing very lightly damped, long "ringing" waves, with decrements of only 0.08 to 0.25 (a Q of 12-38) and consequently a very "pure", narrow bandwidth radio signal. Another advantage was the rapid quenching allowed the time between sparks to be reduced, allowing higher spark rates of around 1000 Hz to be used, which had a musical tone in the receiver which penetrated radio static better. The quenched gap transmitter was called the "singing spark" system. 2620: 1682: 2015: 1810: 1797: 2132: 2099: 2604: 2508: 2493: 2839: 977: 942: 2124: 2592: 2111: 1781: 2047: 922: 2284: 2525:: In the earlier rotary gaps, the motor was not synchronized with the frequency of the AC transformer, so the spark occurred at random times in the AC cycle of the voltage applied to the capacitor. The problem with this was the interval between the sparks was not constant. The voltage on the capacitor when a moving electrode approached the stationary electrode varied randomly between zero and the peak AC voltage. The exact time when the spark started varied depending on the gap length the spark could jump, which depended on the voltage. The resulting random phase variation of successive damped waves resulted in a signal that had a "hissing" or "rasping" sound in the receiver. 2316: 2370: 2481: 3014:, slowly replaced the spark transmitter in high-power radiotelegraphy stations. However spark transmitters remained popular in two way communication stations because most continuous wave transmitters were not capable of a mode called "break in" or "listen in" operation. With a spark transmitter, when the telegraph key was up between Morse symbols the carrier wave was turned off and the receiver was turned on, so the operator could listen for an incoming message. This allowed the receiving station, or a third station, to interrupt or "break in" to an ongoing transmission. In contrast, these early CW transmitters had to operate continuously; the 2304: 2340: 907: 1845: 2027: 3031: 2272: 1109: 2835:

so that a round-the-clock radio watch could be kept. US President Taft and the public heard reports of chaos on the air the night of the disaster, with amateur stations interfering with official naval messages and passing false information. In response Congress passed the 1912 Radio Act, in which licenses were required for all radio transmitters, maximum damping of transmitters was limited to a decrement of 0.2 to get old noisy non-syntonic transmitters off the air, and amateurs were mainly restricted to the unused frequencies above 1.5 MHz and output power of 1 kilowatt.

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until the stored energy is dissipated, permitting practical operation only up to around 60 signals per second. If active measures are taken to break the arc (either by blowing air through the spark or by lengthening the spark gap), a much shorter "quenched spark" may be obtained. A simple quenched spark system still permits several oscillations of the capacitor circuit in the time taken for the spark to be quenched. With the spark circuit broken, the transmission frequency is solely determined by the antenna resonant circuit, which permits simpler tuning.

1351: 1582: 2469: 1307: 1628: 770:, the capacitor was charged by AC from a high-voltage transformer as above, and discharged by a spark gap consisting of electrodes spaced around a wheel which was spun by an electric motor, which produced sparks as they passed by a stationary electrode. The spark rate was equal to the rotations per second times the number of spark electrodes on the wheel. It could produce spark rates up to several thousand hertz, and the rate could be adjusted by changing the speed of the motor. The rotation of the wheel was usually synchronized to the AC 716:

contact, opening the switch and cutting off the primary current. Then the magnetic field collapses, creating a pulse of high voltage in the secondary winding, and the interrupter arm springs back to close the contact again, and the cycle repeats. Each pulse of high voltage charged up the capacitor until the spark gap fired, resulting in one spark per pulse. Interrupters were limited to low spark rates of 20–100 Hz, sounding like a low buzz in the receiver. In powerful induction coil transmitters, instead of a vibrating interrupter, a

2394:. The oscillating radio frequency energy was passed rapidly back and forth between the primary and secondary resonant circuits as long as the spark continued. Each time the energy returned to the primary, some was lost as heat in the spark. In addition, unless the coupling was very loose the oscillations caused the transmitter to transmit on two separate frequencies. Since the narrow passband of the receiver's resonant circuit could only be tuned to one of these frequencies, the power radiated at the other frequency was wasted. 1363: 2197:, which lost funding and was abandoned unfinished after Marconi's success). Marconi's original round 400-wire transmitting antenna collapsed in a storm 17 September 1901 and he hastily erected a temporary antenna consisting of 50 wires suspended in a fan shape from a cable between two 160 foot poles. The frequency used is not known precisely, as Marconi did not measure wavelength or frequency, but it was between 166 and 984 kHz, probably around 500 kHz. He received the signal on the coast of St. John's, 1746:(coil) between the sides of his dipole antennas, which resonated with the capacitance of the antenna to make a tuned circuit. Although his complicated circuit did not see much practical use, Lodge's "syntonic" patent was important because it was the first to propose a radio transmitter and receiver containing resonant circuits which were tuned to resonance with each other. In 1911 when the patent was renewed the Marconi Company was forced to buy it to protect its own syntonic system against infringement suits. 1476: 737:, when the capacitor was fully charged. Since the AC sine wave has two peaks per cycle, ideally two sparks occurred during each cycle, so the spark rate was equal to twice the frequency of the AC power (often multiple sparks occurred during the peak of each half cycle). The spark rate of transmitters powered by 50 or 60 Hz mains power was thus 100 or 120 Hz. However higher audio frequencies cut through interference better, so in many transmitters the transformer was powered by a 2457: 1012: 1496: 1456: 1027: 7960: 2058:

of the above prior patents, Marconi in his 26 April 1900 "four circuit" or "master tuning" patent on his system claimed rights to the inductively coupled transmitter and receiver. This was granted a British patent, but the US patent office twice rejected his patent as lacking originality. Then in a 1904 appeal a new patent commissioner reversed the decision and granted the patent, on the narrow grounds that Marconi's patent by including an antenna

7970: 368: 7949: 31: 2794:. In the US prior to 1912 there was no government regulation of radio, and a chaotic "wild west" atmosphere prevailed, with stations transmitting without regard to other stations on their frequency, and deliberately interfering with each other. The expanding numbers of non-syntonic broadband spark transmitters created uncontrolled congestion in the airwaves, interfering with commercial and military wireless stations. 2639:, one of the most powerful spark transmitters ever built. During World War I it transmitted telegram traffic at 200 words per minute on 21.5 kHz to receivers in Belmar, New Jersey. The roar of the spark could reportedly be heard a kilometer away. On 22 September 1918 it transmitted the first wireless message from Britain to Australia, a distance of 15,200 km (9,439 miles). In 1921 it was replaced by 1149:, and largely failed to foresee its possibilities as a communication technology. Due to the influence of Maxwell's theory, their thinking was dominated by the similarity between radio waves and light waves; they thought of radio waves as an invisible form of light. By analogy with light, they assumed that radio waves only traveled in straight lines, so they thought radio transmission was limited by the visual 7980: 677:. As long as the key is pressed the spark gap fires repetitively, creating a string of pulses of radio waves, so in a receiver the keypress sounds like a buzz; the entire Morse code message sounds like a sequence of buzzes separated by pauses. In low-power transmitters the key directly breaks the primary circuit of the supply transformer, while in high-power transmitters the key operates a heavy duty 3080:

equipment that was still being used on older ships. The Convention prohibited licensing of new land spark transmitters after 1929. Damped wave radio emission, called Class B, was banned after 1934 except for emergency use on ships. This loophole allowed shipowners to avoid replacing spark transmitters, which were kept as emergency backup transmitters on ships through World War II.

1762:. The energy in each spark, and thus the power output, was no longer limited by the capacitance of the antenna but by the size of the capacitor in the resonant circuit. In order to increase the power very large capacitor banks were used. The form that the resonant circuit took in practical transmitters was the inductively-coupled circuit described in the next section. 1604:). During each spark the energy stored in the antenna was quickly radiated away as radio waves, so the oscillations decayed to zero quickly. The radio signal consisted of brief pulses of radio waves, repeating tens or at most a few hundreds of times per second, separated by comparatively long intervals of no output. The power radiated was dependent on how much 988: 4371:, Applied: 2 June 1896, full specification: 2 March 1897, accepted: 2 July 1897. British patents allowed the full specification to be submitted after the application. Marconi's monopole antenna did not appear in his initial June 1896 application but in his March 1897 specification. Corresponding US patent 586193, Marconi, Guglielmo, 2143:. This would require a major scale-up in power, a risky gamble for his company. Up to that time his small induction coil transmitters had an input power of 100 - 200 watts, and the maximum range achieved was around 150 miles. To build the first high power transmitter, Marconi hired an expert in electric power engineering, Prof. 1796: 4920:"Crookes’s article was read very widely—and more than that, attended to and remembered—both in Europe and in the United States; there is hardly one figure important in the early days of radio who does not at some point in his memoirs or correspondence refer to the article of 1892 as having made a difference." 1809: 6543:

George Fitzgerald as early as 1892 described a spark oscillator as similar to the oscillations produced when a cork pops out of a winebottle, and said what was needed was a continuous electromagnetic "whistle". He realized that if the resistance of a tuned circuit were made zero or negative it would

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s call as its radio operator had gone to bed. This was held responsible for most of the 1500 deaths. Existing international regulations required all ships with more than 50 passengers to carry wireless equipment, but after the disaster subsequent regulations mandated ships have enough radio officers

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gap. A quenched gap consisted of a stack of wide cylindrical electrodes separated by thin insulating spacer rings to create many narrow spark gaps in series, of around 0.1–0.3 mm (0.004–0.01 in). The wide surface area of the electrodes terminated the ionization in the gap quickly by cooling

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Marconi at first paid little attention to syntony, but by 1900 developed a radio system incorporating features from these systems, with a two circuit transmitter and two circuit receiver, with all four circuits tuned to the same frequency, using a resonant transformer he called the "jigger". In spite

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used also had no resonant circuits, so they had no way of selecting one signal from others besides the broad resonance of the antenna, and responded to the transmissions of all transmitters in the vicinity. An example of this interference problem was an embarrassing public debacle in August 1901 when

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of the transmitter, which is the number of sinusoidal oscillations per second in each damped wave. Since the transmitter produces one pulse of radio waves per spark, the output power of the transmitter was proportional to the spark rate, so higher rates were favored. Spark transmitters generally used

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to zero. When the oscillating electric current in the primary circuit has decreased to a point where it is insufficient to keep the air in the spark gap ionized, the spark stops, opening the resonant circuit, and stopping the oscillations. In a transmitter with two resonant circuits, the oscillations

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for deep body heating. High oscillating voltages of hundreds of thousands of volts at frequencies of 0.1 - 1 MHz from a Tesla coil were applied directly to the patient's body. The treatment was not painful, because currents in the radio frequency range do not cause the physiological reaction of

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Knowledgeable sources today doubt whether Marconi actually received this transmission. Ionospheric conditions should not have allowed the signal to be received during the daytime at that range. Marconi knew the Morse code signal to be transmitted was the letter 'S' (three dots). He and his assistant

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provided the means for tuning the four circuits to the same frequency, whereas in the Tesla and Stone patents this was done by adjusting the length of the antenna. This patent gave Marconi a near monopoly of syntonic wireless telegraphy in England and America. Tesla sued Marconi's company for patent

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of the circuit so the oscillations were less damped. Another advantage was the frequency of the transmitter was no longer determined by the length of the antenna but by the resonant circuit, so it could easily be changed by adjustable taps on the coil. The antenna was brought into resonance with the

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The transmitter works in a rapid repeating cycle in which the capacitor is charged to a high voltage by the transformer and discharged through the coil by a spark across the spark gap. The impulsive spark excites the resonant circuit to "ring" like a bell, producing a brief oscillating current which

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in synchronism with the cycles of the AC voltage to the transformer, so the spark occurred at the same points of the voltage sine wave each cycle. Usually it was designed so there was one spark each half cycle, adjusted so the spark occurred at the peak voltage when the capacitor was fully charged.

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Marconi's achievement received worldwide publicity, and was the final proof that radio was a practical communication technology. The scientific community at first doubted Marconi's report. Virtually all wireless experts besides Marconi believed that radio waves traveled in straight lines, so no one

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The inductively coupled or "syntonic" spark transmitter was the first type that could communicate at intercontinental distances, and also the first that had sufficiently narrow bandwidth that interference between transmitters was reduced to a tolerable level. It became the dominant type used during

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so the moving electrode passed by the stationary one at the peak of the sine wave, initiating the spark when the capacitor was fully charged, which produced a musical tone in the receiver. When tuned correctly in this manner, the need for external cooling or quenching airflow was eliminated, as was

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steps the input voltage up to the high voltage needed. The sinusoidal voltage from the transformer is applied directly to the capacitor, so the voltage on the capacitor varies from a high positive voltage, to zero, to a high negative voltage. The spark gap is adjusted so sparks only occur near the

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audiences and aviation authorities were complaining of the disruption to radio reception that noisy legacy marine spark transmitters were causing. But shipping interests vigorously fought a blanket prohibition on damped waves, due to the capital expenditure that would be required to replace spark

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can only have low damping (high Q, narrow bandwidth) if it is a "closed" circuit, with no energy dissipating components. But such a circuit does not produce radio waves. A resonant circuit with an antenna radiating radio waves (an "open" tuned circuit) loses energy quickly, giving it high damping

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The speed at which signals may be transmitted is naturally limited by the time taken for the spark to be extinguished. If, as described above, the conductive plasma does not, during the zero points of the alternating current, cool enough to extinguish the spark, a 'persistent spark' is maintained

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waves (CW), had theoretical advantages over damped waves for radio transmission. Because their energy is essentially concentrated at a single frequency, in addition to causing almost no interference to other transmitters on adjacent frequencies, continuous wave transmitters could transmit longer

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and reinforced each other. The result was essentially a continuous sinusoidal wave, whose amplitude varied with a ripple at the spark rate. This system was necessary to give Marconi's transoceanic stations a narrow enough bandwidth that they didn't interfere with other transmitters on the narrow

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repeatedly breaks the circuit that provides current to the primary winding, causing the coil to generate pulses of high voltage. When the primary current to the coil is turned on, the primary winding creates a magnetic field in the iron core which pulls the springy interrupter arm away from its

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This troublesome backflow of energy to the primary circuit could be prevented by extinguishing (quenching) the spark at the right instant, after all the energy from the capacitors was transferred to the antenna circuit. Inventors tried various methods to accomplish this, such as air blasts and

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were developed, which were less expensive and produced continuous waves which had a greater range, produced less interference, and could also carry audio, making spark transmitters obsolete by 1920. The radio signals produced by spark-gap transmitters are electrically "noisy"; they have a wide

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and others. It consisted of multiple electrodes equally spaced around a disk rotor spun at high speed by a motor, which created sparks as they passed by a stationary electrode. By using the correct motor speed, the rapidly separating electrodes extinguished the spark after the energy had been

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of the radiated signal, it would occupy a smaller range of frequencies around its center frequency, so that the signals of transmitters "tuned" to transmit on different frequencies would no longer overlap. A receiver which had its own resonant circuit could receive a particular transmitter by

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of the coil when the capacitor voltage reaches zero the current doesn't stop but keeps flowing, charging the capacitor plates with an opposite polarity, until the charge is stored in the capacitor again, on the opposite plates. Then the process repeats, with the charge flowing in the opposite

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to carry sound. The problem was no techniques were known for generating them. The efforts described above to reduce the damping of spark transmitters can be seen as attempts to make their output approach closer to the ideal of a continuous wave, but spark transmitters could not produce true

1916:. The advantage of the inductively coupled circuit was that the "loosely coupled" transformer transferred the oscillating energy of the tank circuit to the radiating antenna circuit gradually, creating long "ringing" waves. A second advantage was that it allowed a large primary capacitance 413:

The cycle begins when current from the transformer charges up the capacitor, storing positive electric charge on one of its plates and negative charge on the other. While the capacitor is charging the spark gap is in its nonconductive state, preventing the charge from escaping through the

857:". Maxwell proposed that light consisted of electromagnetic waves of short wavelength, but no one knew how to confirm this, or generate or detect electromagnetic waves of other wavelengths. By 1883 it was theorized that accelerated electric charges could produce electromagnetic waves, and 2507: 216:

Pictorial diagram of a simple spark-gap transmitter from a 1917 boy's hobby book, showing examples of the early electronic components used. It is typical of the low-power transmitters homebuilt by thousands of amateurs during this period to explore the exciting new technology of

941: 2315: 1780: 1957:) attached to an elevated wire monopole antenna transmitted radio waves, which were received across the room by a similar wire antenna attached to a receiver consisting of a second grounded resonant transformer tuned to the transmitter's frequency, which lighted a 2260:("static") in their earphones for the clicks of the transmitter. Marconi made many subsequent transatlantic transmissions which clearly establish his priority, but reliable transatlantic communication was not achieved until 1907 with more powerful transmitters. 1293:, mainly by combining and tinkering with the inventions of others. Starting at age 21 on his family's estate in Italy, between 1894 and 1901 he conducted a long series of experiments to increase the transmission range of Hertz's spark oscillators and receivers. 1403:. The length of the antenna determined the wavelength of the waves produced and thus their frequency. Longer, lower frequency waves have less attenuation with distance. As Marconi tried longer antennas, which radiated lower frequency waves, probably in the 865:. Fitzgerald in a brief note published in 1883 suggested that electromagnetic waves could be generated practically by discharging a capacitor rapidly; the method used in spark transmitters, however there is no indication that this inspired other inventors. 390: 2927:

gas, eroded the spark electrodes, and could be a fire hazard. Despite its drawbacks, most wireless experts believed along with Marconi that the impulsive "whipcrack" of a spark was necessary to produce radio waves that would communicate long distances.

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The first application of radio was on ships, to keep in touch with shore, and send out a distress call if the ship were sinking. The Marconi Company built a string of shore stations and in 1904 established the first Morse code distress call, the letters

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to carry sound. Due to the development of the first high-power transmitting tubes by the end of World War I, in the 1920s tube transmitters replaced the arc converter and alternator transmitters, as well as the last of the old noisy spark transmitters.

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and capacitor in the primary circuit of the induction coil produced a continuous string of damped waves. Hertz often just used a pushbutton switch, which created a single spark and pulse of radio waves when pushed, resulting in a single spark in his

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the "spark" era. A drawback of the plain inductively coupled transmitter was that unless the primary and secondary coils were very loosely coupled it radiated on two frequencies. This was remedied by the quenched-spark and rotary gap transmitters

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The energy in the resonant circuit is limited to the amount of energy originally stored in the capacitor. The radiated radio waves, along with the heat generated by the spark, uses up this energy, causing the oscillations to decrease quickly in

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The largest spark transmitters were powerful transoceanic radiotelegraphy stations with input power of 100 - 300 kW. Beginning about 1910, industrial countries built global networks of these stations to exchange commercial and diplomatic

1961:. This system, patented by Tesla 2 September 1897, 4 months after Lodge's "syntonic" patent, was in effect an inductively coupled radio transmitter and receiver, the first use of the "four circuit" system claimed by Marconi in his 1900 patent 1391:

He was unable to communicate beyond a half-mile until 1895, when he discovered that the range of transmission could be increased greatly by replacing one side of the Hertzian dipole antenna in his transmitter and receiver with a connection to

1593:(also called LC circuits, tank circuits, or tuned circuits), the spark gap was in the antenna, which functioned as the resonator to determine the frequency of the radio waves. These were called "unsyntonized" or "plain antenna" transmitters. 5387: 3643: 1672:

attempted to report the New York Yacht Race to newspapers from ships with their untuned spark transmitters. The Morse code transmissions interfered, and the reporters on shore failed to receive any information from the garbled signals.

2569:. These were discharged sequentially by multiple rotary discharger wheels on the same shaft to create overlapping damped waves shifted progressively in time, which were added together in the oscillation transformer so the output was a 6544:

produce continuous oscillations, and tried to make an electronic oscillator by exciting a tuned circuit with negative resistance from a dynamo, what would today be called a parametric oscillator, but was unsuccessful. G. Fitzgerald,

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sinking 14 April 1912 increased public appreciation for the role of radio, but the loss of life brought attention to the disorganized state of the new radio industry, and prompted regulation which corrected some abuses. Although the

5024:(1) the idea of inductive coupling between the driving and the working circuits (2) the importance of tuning both circuits, i.e. the idea of an 'oscillation transformer' (3) the idea of a capacitance loaded open secondary circuit 1516:

funded his experiments. Marconi applied for a patent on his radio system 2 June 1896, often considered the first wireless patent. In May 1897 he transmitted 14 km (8.7 miles), on 27 March 1899 he transmitted across the

1011: 2782:", many of them teenage boys, who used their homebuilt sets recreationally to contact distant amateurs and chat with them by Morse code, and relay messages. Low-power amateur transmitters ("squeak boxes") were often built with " 1620:" antennas characteristic of the "spark" era. The only other way to increase the energy stored in the antenna was to charge it up to very high voltages. However the voltage that could be used was limited to about 100 kV by 976: 711:(Ruhmkorff coil) was used in low-power transmitters, usually less than 500 watts, often battery-powered. An induction coil is a type of transformer powered by DC, in which a vibrating arm switch contact on the coil called an 312:. The advantage of this circuit was that the oscillating current persisted in the antenna circuit even after the spark stopped, creating long, ringing, lightly damped waves, in which the energy was concentrated in a narrower 1080:

were applied between the two sides of the antenna. Each pulse stored electric charge in the capacitance of the antenna, which was immediately discharged by a spark across the spark gap. The spark excited brief oscillating

1259:, limiting their power output. Therefore, these devices were not capable of long distance transmission; their reception range with the primitive receivers employed was typically limited to roughly 100 yards (100 meters). 817:

had come close to discovering radio in 1875; he had generated and detected radio waves which he called "etheric currents" experimenting with high-voltage spark circuits, but due to lack of time did not pursue the matter.

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around 1896. One of the first uses for spark-gap transmitters was on ships, to communicate with shore and broadcast a distress call if the ship was sinking. They played a crucial role in maritime rescues such as the 1912

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The inductively-coupled transmitter had a more complicated output waveform than the non-syntonic transmitter, due to the interaction of the two resonant circuits. The two magnetically coupled tuned circuits acted as a

308:. The antenna and ground were connected to the secondary winding. The capacitance of the antenna resonated with the secondary winding to make a second resonant circuit. The two resonant circuits were tuned to the same 800:

signals without wires. Experiments by a number of inventors had shown that electrical disturbances could be transmitted short distances through the air. However most of these systems worked not by radio waves but by

3893:. The text in full: "This is by utilizing the alternating currents produced when an accumulator is discharged through a small resistance. It would be possible to produce waves of ten meters wavelength, or even less" 388: 2552:

of 15 or greater). Virtually the only spark transmitters which could satisfy this condition were the quenched-spark and rotary gap types above, and they dominated wireless telegraphy for the rest of the spark era.

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It became clear that for multiple transmitters to operate, some system of "selective signaling" had to be devised to allow a receiver to select which transmitter's signal to receive, and reject the others. In 1892

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of damped waves. The speed of the discharger wheel was controlled so that the time between sparks was equal to an integer multiple of the wave period. Therefore, oscillations of the successive wave trains were

1097:, which radiated waves roughly twice the length of the antenna (for example a dipole 1 meter long would generate 150 MHz radio waves). Hertz detected the waves by observing tiny sparks in micrometer spark gaps 1928:. The receiver in most systems also used two inductively coupled circuits, with the antenna an "open" resonant circuit coupled through an oscillation transformer to a "closed" resonant circuit containing the 1525:

communication at increasingly long distances convinced the world that radio, or "wireless telegraphy" as it was called, was not just a scientific curiosity but a commercially useful communication technology.

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of the transmitter, the number of sparks and resulting damped wave pulses it produces per second, which determines the tone of the signal heard in the receiver. The spark rate should not be confused with the

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toy trucks, boats and robots called Radicon, which used a low-power spark transmitter in the controller as an inexpensive way to produce the radio control signals. The signals were received in the toy by a

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Standard Marconi inductively coupled transmitter on ship 1902. Spark gap is in front of induction coil, lower right. The spiral oscillation transformer is in the wooden box on the wall above the Leyden

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Beginning about 1904, continuous wave transmitters were developed using new principles, which competed with spark transmitters. Continuous waves were first generated by two short-lived technologies:

2014: 830:. Neither of these individuals are usually credited with the discovery of radio, because they did not understand the significance of their observations and did not publish their work before Hertz. 3318:

Individual nations enforce this prohibition in their communication laws. In the United States, Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations make it a felony to operate a spark transmitter:

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used to receive them were simple enough that they were widely built by hobbyists. During the first decades of the 20th century this exciting new high tech hobby attracted a growing community of "

1521:, 46 km (28 miles), in fall 1899 he extended the range to 136 km (85 miles), and by January 1901 he had reached 315 km (196 miles). These demonstrations of wireless 1236:

of radio waves. He also measured the speed of radio waves, showing they traveled at the same speed as light. These experiments established that light and radio waves were both forms of Maxwell's

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is radiated as electromagnetic waves by the antenna. The transmitter repeats this cycle at a rapid rate, so the spark appeared continuous, and the radio signal sounded like a whine or buzz in a

209:; the charge flows rapidly back and forth through the spark gap for a brief period, charging the conductors on each side alternately positive and negative, until the oscillations die away. 1157:, and therefore was not capable of longer distance communication. As late as 1894 Oliver Lodge speculated that the maximum distance Hertzian waves could be transmitted was a half mile. 2513:

US Navy 100 kW rotary gap transmitter built by Fessenden in 1913 at Arlington, Virginia. It transmitted on 113 kHz to Europe, and broadcast the US's first radio time signal.

2501:'s 35 kW synchronous rotary spark transmitter, built 1905 at Brant Rock, Massachusetts, with which he achieved the first 2 way transatlantic communication in 1906 on 88 kHz. 2883:

Co. which was dominant outside the British Empire. Marconi transmitters used the timed spark rotary discharger, while Telefunken transmitters used its quenched spark gap technology.

279:. However, this meant that the electromagnetic energy produced by the transmitter was dissipated across a wide band, thereby limiting its effective range to a few kilometers at most. 237:

to 75-100 kilovolts in powerful transmitters) to jump across the spark gap. The transformer charges the capacitor. In low-power transmitters powered by batteries this was usually an

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invalidated the inductive coupling claims of Marconi's patent due to the prior patents of Lodge, Tesla, and Stone, but this came long after spark transmitters had become obsolete.

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The 1927 International Radiotelegraph Convention in Washington, D.C. saw a political battle to finally eliminate spark radio. Spark transmitters were obsolete at this point, and

2046: 1841:(low Q, wide bandwidth). There was a fundamental tradeoff between a circuit which produced persistent oscillations which had narrow bandwidth, and one which radiated high power. 1723:

to the frequency of the desired transmitter, analogously to the way one musical instrument could be tuned to resonance with another. This is the system used in all modern radio.

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in the secondary circuit and antenna may continue some time after the spark has terminated. Then the transformer begins charging the capacitor again, and the whole cycle repeats.

1655:, which made it impossible for other transmitters to be heard. When multiple transmitters attempted to operate in the same area, their broad signals overlapped in frequency and 1427:

propagation. Marconi did not understand any of this at the time; he simply found empirically that the higher his vertical antenna was suspended, the further it would transmit.

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To reduce interference caused by the "noisy" signals of the burgeoning numbers of spark transmitters, the 1912 US Congress "Act to Regulate Radio Communication" required that "

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direction through the coil. This continues, resulting in oscillating currents flowing rapidly back and forth between the plates of the capacitor through the coil and spark gap.

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In 1912 in his high-power stations Marconi developed a refinement of the rotary discharger called the "timed spark" system, which generated what was probably the nearest to a

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Hertz's first oscillator: a pair of one meter copper wires with a 7.5 mm spark gap between them, ending in 30 cm zinc spheres. When 20,000 volt pulses from an induction coil

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was also experimenting with spark oscillators at this time and came close to discovering radio waves before Hertz, but his focus was on waves on wires, not in free space.

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The resonant circuit is connected to the antenna, so these oscillating currents also flow in the antenna, charging and discharging it. The current creates an oscillating

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between two conductors was the first device known which could generate radio waves. The spark itself doesn't produce the radio waves, it merely serves as a fast acting

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Quenched spark gap from transmitter, left. The handle turns a screw which puts pressure on the stack of cylindrical electrodes, allowing the gap widths to be adjusted.

2863:, radio became a strategic defensive technology, as it was realized a nation without long distance radiotelegraph stations could be isolated by an enemy cutting its 4571: 892:, which were called "Hertzian waves" until about 1910. Hertz was inspired to try spark excited circuits by experiments with "Reiss spirals", a pair of flat spiral 3915:

Translated from German by A. E. Selig. Zenneck describes the Marconi, Braun, and Wien transmitters on p. 173, and the early "lineal" or Hertz oscillators on p. 41.

1768: 381: 2174:, which generated the output. The spark rate was low, perhaps as low as 2 - 3 sparks per second. Fleming estimated the radiated power was around 10 - 12 kW. 1612:

of the antenna. To increase their capacitance to ground, antennas were made with multiple parallel wires, often with capacitive toploads, in the "harp", "cage", "

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The high frequencies produced by Hertzian oscillators could not travel beyond the horizon. The dipole resonators also had low capacitance and couldn't store much

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band. Timed spark transmitters achieved the longest transmission range of any spark transmitters, but these behemoths represented the end of spark technology.

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were used to transmit Morse code text at high speed. To achieve a maximum range of around 3000 – 6000 miles, transoceanic stations transmitted mainly in the

300:

of the transformer made one resonant circuit, which generated the oscillating current. The oscillating current in the primary winding created an oscillating

2228:(including Marconi) understood how the waves had managed to propagate around the 300 mile high curve of the Earth between Britain and Newfoundland. In 1902 7224: 4677: 2540:

with the line frequency. The synchronous gap was said to produce a more musical, easily heard tone in the receiver, which cut through interference better.

868:

The division of the history of spark transmitters into the different types below follows the organization of the subject used in many wireless textbooks.

1419:

that followed the contour of the Earth. Under certain conditions they could also reach beyond the horizon by reflecting off layers of charged particles (

3022:

could not operate as long as the transmitter was powered up. Therefore, these stations could not receive messages until the transmitter was turned off.

2923:, which due to their large bandwidth caused interference between transmitters. The spark also made a very loud noise when operating, produced corrosive 1282:

was one of the first people to believe that radio waves could be used for long distance communication, and singlehandedly developed the first practical

813:

claimed to have transmitted an electrical signal through the atmosphere between two 600 foot wires held aloft by kites on mountaintops 14 miles apart.

1541:

throughout the spark era. Inspired by Marconi, in the late 1890s other researchers also began developing competing spark radio communication systems;

6586: 5451: 1415:

waves produced by Hertz's horizontal antennas. These longer vertically polarized waves could travel beyond the horizon, because they propagated as a

2480: 2445:

A second type of spark gap that had a similar quenching effect was the "rotary gap", invented by Tesla in 1896 and applied to radio transmitters by

2422:

it after the current stopped. In the inductively coupled transmitter, the narrow gaps extinguished ("quenched") the spark at the first nodal point (

6571: 3367: 336:, a metal conductor such as an elevated wire, that radiates the power in the oscillating electric currents from the resonant circuit into space as 3397: 1212:

bands. In his various experiments, Hertz produced waves with frequencies from 50 to 450 MHz, roughly the frequencies used today by broadcast

1068:

a common lab power source which produced pulses of high voltage, 5 to 30 kV. In addition to radiating the waves, the antenna also acted as a

4994: 673:

in the primary circuit of the transformer, producing sequences of short (dot) and long (dash) strings of damped waves, to spell out messages in

3805: 1742:, who had been researching electrical resonance for years, patented the first "syntonic" transmitter and receiver in May 1897 Lodge added an 3573: 70:

built the first experimental spark-gap transmitters in 1887, with which he proved the existence of radio waves and studied their properties.

3424: 7932: 7904: 7899: 6924: 5626:. Proceedings of the 1995 International Conference on 100 Years of Radio. London: Institute of Engineering and Technology. pp. 32–34. 1681: 4159:

Signor Marconi's Magic Box: The Most Remarkable Invention Of The 19th Century & The Amateur Inventor Whose Genius Sparked A Revolution

3120:

discovered that RF currents applied to a scalpel could cut and cauterize tissue in medical operations, and spark oscillators were used as

2619: 2456: 473:

The cycle is very rapid, taking less than a millisecond. With each spark, this cycle produces a radio signal consisting of an oscillating

6557: 4822: 3208: 5933: 2147:

of University College, London, who applied power engineering principles. Fleming designed a complicated inductively-coupled transmitter

1920:

to be used which could store a lot of energy, increasing the power output enormously. Powerful transoceanic transmitters often had huge

4856: 4514: 4487: 3099:

The spark gap oscillator was also used in nonradio applications, continuing long after it became obsolete in radio. In the form of the

720:

was used. This could break the current at rates up to several thousand hertz, and the rate could be adjusted to produce the best tone.

1501:

French non-syntonic transmitter used for ship-to-shore communication around 1900. It had a range of about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi).

624:

The transmitter repeats this cycle rapidly, so the output is a repeating string of damped waves. This is equivalent to a radio signal

4554: 2139:

Marconi decided in 1900 to attempt transatlantic communication, which would allow him to dominate Atlantic shipping and compete with

6876: 5972:

Improvements relating to the production, regulation, and utilization of electric currents of high frequency, and apparatus therefore

1836:

In developing these syntonic transmitters, researchers found it impossible to achieve low damping with a single resonant circuit. A

1268:

I could scarcely conceive it possible that application to useful purposes could have escaped the notice of such eminent scientists.

2131: 1533:. and radio communication began to be used commercially around 1900. His first large contract in 1901 was with the insurance firm 568: 133:(RFI) that can disrupt other radio transmissions. This type of radio emission has been prohibited by international law since 1934. 4938: 4876:

Wireless telegraphy and wireless telephony: An understandable presentation of the science of wireless transmission of intelligence

4716:

Wireless Telegraphy and Wireless Telephony: An understandable presentation of the science of wireless transmission of intelligence

275:

The earliest spark-gap transmitters before 1897 did not have a resonant circuit; the antenna performed this function, acting as a

73:

A fundamental limitation of spark-gap transmitters is that they generate a series of brief transient pulses of radio waves called

5422: 7926: 5781: 2907:

antennas up to several miles long with large capacitive toploads, to achieve adequate efficiency. The antenna required a large

2104:

Marconi's transmitting station at Poldhu, Cornwall, showing the original 400-wire vertical inverted cone aerial which collapsed

2665:

was agreed on. The first significant marine rescue due to radiotelegraphy was the 23 January 1909 sinking of the luxury liner

2098: 7921: 7911: 7891: 7693: 6104: 6054: 5319: 3320: 3235: 2603: 1407:

band around 2 MHz, he found that he could transmit further. Another advantage was that these vertical antennas radiated

17: 2468: 2345:

A powerful quenched-spark transmitter in Australia. The 6 cylinders in front of the Leyden jars are the quenched spark gaps.

1624:

which caused charge to leak off the antenna, particularly in wet weather, and also energy lost as heat in the longer spark.

880:

in 1887 built the first experimental spark gap transmitters during his historic experiments to demonstrate the existence of

8004: 6864: 5865: 7058: 4036: 198:

in the conductors of the attached circuit. The conductors radiate the energy in this oscillating current as radio waves.

7983: 7916: 7762: 6739: 5624:

Fessenden and Marconi: Their differing technologies and transatlantic experiments during the first decade of this century

3262: 1932:. A radio system with a "two circuit" (inductively coupled) transmitter and receiver was called a "four circuit" system. 665:

In order to transmit information with this signal, the operator turns the transmitter on and off rapidly by tapping on a

6897: 6382: 4539: 3292: 2565:

that sparks could produce. He used several identical resonant circuits in parallel, with the capacitors charged by a DC

2450:

transferred to the secondary. The rotating wheel also kept the electrodes cooler, important in high-power transmitters.

1726:

During the period 1897 to 1900 wireless researchers realized the advantages of "syntonic" or "tuned" systems, and added

1340:

Marconi's first monopole antenna transmitter, 1895. One side of spark gap grounded, the other attached to a metal plate

8019: 7688: 6623: 6528: 5895: 5841: 5814: 5561: 5432: 5292: 5201: 5171: 5131: 5104: 4634:. Proceedings of the 1995 International Conference on 100 Years of Radio. London: Institute of Engineering Technology. 4581: 4524: 4497: 4461: 4429: 4345: 4318: 4201: 4167: 4140: 4078: 4046: 3864: 3815: 3785: 3468: 3434: 3407: 3377: 3245: 3218: 2838: 2426:) when the primary current momentarily went to zero after all the energy had been transferred to the secondary winding 4921: 2123: 7782: 4647: 4108: 4016: 717: 5719: 5309: 4785: 1943:

in 1891. At a March 1893 St. Louis lecture he had demonstrated a wireless system that, although it was intended for

1860:

The solution found by a number of researchers was to use two resonant circuits in the transmitter, with their coils

1596:

The average power output of these transmitters was low, because due to its low capacitance the antenna was a highly

1085:

of current between the sides of the antenna. The antenna radiated the energy as a momentary pulse of radio waves; a

7567: 7115: 6917: 6712: 2920: 2546:

the logarithmic decrement per oscillation in the wave trains emitted by the transmitter shall not exceed two tenths

1086: 486: 74: 6776: 2591: 982:

Hertz's 450 MHz transmitter; a 26 cm dipole with spark gap at focus of a sheet metal parabolic reflector

7678: 4419: 4335: 4068: 1233: 6678: 3139:

Spark gap oscillators are still used to generate high-frequency high voltage needed to initiate welding arcs in

2891:(VLF) band, from 50 kHz to as low as 15 – 20 kHz. At these wavelengths even the largest antennas were 2110: 1380:

Later researchers found that multiple parallel wires were a better way to increase capacitance. "Cage antennas"

7673: 2127:

Circuit of Poldhu transmitter. Fleming's curious dual spark gap design was not used in subsequent transmitters.

93:

radio transmission. So spark-gap transmitters could not transmit audio, and instead transmitted information by

3879:

Fitzgerald, George "On a method of producing electromagnetic disturbances of comparatively short wavelength",

3350: 7698: 6326: 5831: 5804: 2868: 1947:, had many of the elements of later radio communication systems. A grounded capacitance-loaded spark-excited 1738:(coils of wire) to transmitters and receivers, to make resonant circuits (tuned circuits, or tank circuits). 1715: 1640: 1530: 313: 126: 108:

The first practical spark gap transmitters and receivers for radiotelegraphy communication were developed by

6859: 4661: 4451: 7973: 7734: 7631: 7174: 6969: 6941: 2245: 1656: 130: 5493: 5094: 4603: 3673: 1396:

and the other side with a long wire antenna suspended high above the ground. These antennas functioned as

749:, that produced AC at a higher frequency, usually 500 Hz, resulting in a spark rate of 1000 Hz. 58:. Spark-gap transmitters were the first type of radio transmitter, and were the main type used during the 7963: 7470: 6910: 6661: 5672: 5191: 5121: 4225:

Electric Waves: Being Researches on the Propagation of Electric Action with Finite Velocity Through Space

3936:

Electric Waves: Being Researches on the Propagation of Electric Action with Finite Velocity Through Space

2369: 1944: 1542: 282:

Most spark transmitters had two resonant circuits coupled together with an air core transformer called a

205:

of circuit conductors, the discharge of a capacitor through a low enough resistance (such as a spark) is

6088: 5454:, filed: 26 April 1900, granted: 13 April 1901. Corresponding US Patent no. 763,772, Guglielmo Marconi, 3092:

were regularly nicknamed "Sparky" long after the devices ceased to be used. Even today, the German verb

2437:

Co., Marconi's rival, acquired the patent rights and used the quenched spark gap in their transmitters.

8009: 7822: 7744: 7683: 7390: 3854: 2820:

which rescued 705 survivors, the rescue operation was delayed four hours because the nearest ship, the

2221: 1988:

in February 1900. Braun made the crucial discovery that low damping required "loose coupling" (reduced

1669: 6417: 6037: 5591: 233:

electricity from the power source, a battery or electric outlet, to a high enough voltage (from a few

7594: 7555: 7400: 7300: 7229: 7162: 6989: 6005: 2867:. Most of these networks were built by the two giant wireless corporations of the age: the British 2864: 2843: 2140: 1816: 1130: 858: 827: 806: 5632: 2212:. Marconi announced the first transatlantic radio transmission took place on 12 December 1901, from 1900:) formed a "closed" resonant circuit which generated the oscillations, while the secondary winding ( 1844: 775:

the loss of power directly from the charging circuit (parallel to the capacitor) through the spark.

7953: 7195: 7130: 7083: 7043: 3140: 2597:

Transmitter building, showing the 36 feedlines feeding power to the 3,600 ft. flattop wire antenna.

2198: 6198: 5076: 4904: 4772: 4229: 3775: 3609: 2536:

Thus the spark had a steady frequency equal to a multiple of the AC line frequency, which created

947:

Hertzian spark oscillator, 1902. Visible are antenna consisting of 2 wires ending in metal plates

7792: 7777: 7621: 7572: 7495: 7395: 7073: 6959: 6954: 6646: 5913: 5702: 4880: 4098: 3940: 3910: 3543: 2983: 2872: 2640: 2570: 1786:

Amateur inductively coupled spark transmitter and receiver, 1910. The spark gap is in glass bulb

1631:

Emission bandwidth of a spark gap transmitter showing signal strength versus wavelength in meters

1412: 1324:

Marconi first tried enlarging the dipole antenna with 6×6 foot metal sheet "capacity areas"

802: 372: 5986: 4974: 3030: 3018:

was not turned off between Morse code symbols, words, or sentences but just detuned, so a local

1469:

during a demonstration 1897. The pole supporting the vertical wire antenna is visible at center.

1372:

Marconi found suspending the metal plate "capacity area" high above the ground increased range.

8014: 7714: 7500: 7315: 7260: 7255: 7068: 7033: 5949: 5627: 2919:

Although their damping had been reduced as much as possible, spark transmitters still produced

2249: 2082: 1213: 842: 793:

The invention of the radio transmitter resulted from the convergence of two lines of research.

440:

The charge on the capacitor discharges as a current through the coil and spark gap. Due to the

268:

or tuning coil, connected together. The values of the capacitance and inductance determine the

121: 6615: 6551: 6518: 6437: 5885: 5551: 5282: 5161: 4308: 3886: 3837: 7616: 7420: 7385: 7305: 7285: 7207: 7095: 7016: 6275: 5216: 4808: 4713: 4245: 4157: 3144: 3067:. Vacuum tube oscillators were a far cheaper source of continuous waves, and could be easily 3045: 2190: 1408: 1245: 1146: 1122: 1121:

Hertz and the first generation of physicists who built these "Hertzian oscillators", such as

994: 430: 6949: 6892: 6789:...the number one maintenance item on a TIG machine is cleaning and adjusting the spark gap. 5392:, applied: 3 November 1899, complete specification: 30 June 1900, granted: 22 September 1900 4130: 3458: 2609:

5 ft diameter primary coil of oscillation transformer, consisting of 3 turns of specialized

2240:

atoms in the upper atmosphere, enabling them to return to Earth beyond the horizon. In 1924

900:

capacitor discharged through one spiral, would cause sparks in the gap of the other spiral.

7530: 7490: 7460: 7217: 7152: 6974: 6449: 5731: 2896: 2144: 1981: 1948: 1940: 1865: 1558: 1534: 1397: 1393: 1237: 1229: 1205: 1108: 881: 854: 636: 625: 457: 284: 264:) which stores high-voltage electricity from the transformer, and a coil of wire called an 141: 6503: 5509: 4730: 2355: 2116:

The temporary antenna used in the transatlantic transmission, a fan-shaped 50-wire aerial.

1508:

After failing to interest the Italian government, in 1896 Marconi moved to England, where

1334: 689:

The circuit which charges the capacitors, along with the spark gap itself, determines the

8: 8024: 7540: 7480: 7239: 7201: 6999: 6984: 6880: 6806: 6546:

On the Driving of Electromagnetic Vibrations by Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Engines

6026:, July 27, 1914 edition, Department of Commerce, United States government printing office 3830:

Fitzgerald, George "On the energy lost by radiation from alternating electric currents",

3603: 2964: 2666: 1513: 1435: 1318: 1201: 1197: 1069: 885: 838: 819: 738: 59: 6830: 6640: 6453: 6192: 5735: 4898: 4874: 4766: 4368:

Improvements in transmitting electrical impulses and signals, and in apparatus therefore

4223: 3934: 2850:, Germany was the most powerful radio transmitter in the world when it was built in 1911 1076:) which generated the oscillating currents. High-voltage pulses from the induction coil 512:

of the oscillations, which is the frequency of the emitted radio waves, is equal to the

7767: 7724: 7655: 7525: 7455: 7430: 7365: 7212: 6933: 6854: 6565: 6475: 5757: 5653: 5053: 4950: 3904: 3161: 3076: 3053: 3003: 2991: 2987: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2580: 2498: 2446: 2241: 2194: 1913: 1861: 1720: 1550: 1090: 788: 545: 522: 513: 495: 309: 1908:) and ground, forming an "open" resonant circuit with the capacitance of the antenna ( 1627: 1546: 1350: 1021:

in 1894. Its 5-inch resonator ball produced waves of around 12 cm or 2.5 GHz

212: 168:

flowing through a conductor which suddenly change their velocity, thus accelerating.

7807: 7729: 7643: 7626: 7589: 7435: 7265: 7234: 7100: 6994: 6619: 6609: 6524: 5891: 5837: 5810: 5657: 5645: 5557: 5428: 5315: 5288: 5251: 5197: 5167: 5127: 5100: 5045: 4802: 4643: 4577: 4520: 4493: 4457: 4425: 4341: 4314: 4197: 4163: 4136: 4104: 4074: 4042: 4012: 3860: 3811: 3781: 3464: 3430: 3403: 3373: 3321:"Section 2.201: Emission, modulation, and transmission characteristics, footnote (f)" 3241: 3214: 3042: 2532: 1989: 1581: 1475: 1306: 1279: 1134: 823: 784: 482: 418: 305: 109: 7475: 5057: 38:, Austria. The spark gap is inside the box with the transparent cover at top center. 7812: 7772: 7752: 7719: 7648: 7606: 7520: 7375: 7360: 7335: 7310: 7270: 7120: 6979: 6964: 6826: 6520:

The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940

6479: 6470: 6465: 6457: 6394: 5945: 5761: 5752: 5747: 5739: 5637: 5037: 4635: 4604:

The Science of Radio: with MATLAB and Electronics Workbench demonstrations, 2nd Ed.

4257: 3674:

The Science of Radio: with MATLAB and Electronics Workbench demonstrations, 2nd Ed.

3156: 3117: 2976: 2960: 2900: 2659:, used until the Second International Radiotelegraphic Convention in 1906 at which 2537: 2403: 2233: 2067: 1985: 1929: 1837: 1711: 1621: 1613: 1590: 1585:

Circuit of Marconi's monopole transmitter and all other transmitters prior to 1897.

1404: 1400: 1252:

of 12 and 60 GHz respectively, using small metal balls as resonator-antennas.

1094: 834: 643: 639: 245: 195: 161: 34:

Low-power inductively coupled spark-gap transmitter on display in Electric Museum,

2859:

traffic with other countries and communicate with their overseas colonies. During

1976:

In addition to Tesla's system, inductively coupled radio systems were patented by

1639:

was that the radio transmissions were electrically "noisy"; they had a very large

7440: 7295: 7063: 7038: 7026: 5424:

Semiconductors and the Information Revolution: Magic Crystals that made IT Happen

4006: 3325:

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 47, Chapter I, Subchapter A, Part 2, Subpart C

3049: 2999: 2932: 2562: 2229: 2081:

In recognition of their achievements in radio, Marconi and Braun shared the 1909

1885: 1699: 1605: 1529:

In 1897 Marconi started a company to produce his radio systems, which became the

1518: 1283: 1256: 998: 655: 333: 297: 249: 191: 145: 94: 90: 86: 78: 6497: 2678:

Radio frequencies used by spark transmitters during the wireless telegraphy era

2155:

firing at different rates, and three resonant circuits, powered by a 25 kW

1608:

could be stored in the antenna before each spark, which was proportional to the

822:

in 1879 had also stumbled on radio wave transmission which he received with his

7638: 7510: 7485: 7445: 7415: 7290: 7125: 7078: 7053: 7011: 6138: 5473:

Tesla: Master of Lightning - companion site for 2000 PBS television documentary

5468: 3128: 3121: 3113: 3089: 3019: 2876: 2821: 2388: 2205: 1966: 1660: 1652: 1566: 1509: 1362: 1290: 1177: 1061: 1043: 877: 850: 846: 742: 708: 453: 449: 426: 361: 301: 238: 176: 67: 55: 4629: 4261: 1852:

is not an actual capacitor but represents the capacitance between the antenna

1060:

attached to the outer ends. The two sides of the antenna were connected to an

1005:

generated 60 GHz (5 mm) waves using 3 mm metal ball resonators.

7998: 7787: 7560: 7550: 7465: 7355: 7350: 7340: 7325: 7147: 7006: 6548:, read at the January 22, 1892 meeting of the Physical Society of London, in 6297: 5649: 5455: 5405: 5335: 5236: 5049: 4373: 3181: 3171: 3166: 3064: 2956: 2814: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2531:: In this type, invented by Fessenden around 1904, the rotor was turned by a 2399: 2066:

infringement but didn't have the resources to pursue the action. In 1943 the

1958: 1714:(also called tuned circuit or tank circuit) in transmitters would narrow the 1665: 1636: 1597: 1554: 1241: 1217: 1193: 1181: 1138: 1126: 1082: 964: 814: 810: 670: 647: 344: 98: 5389:

Improvements in or related to telegraphy without the use of continuous wires

5041: 1774:

Demonstration inductively coupled spark transmitter 1909, with parts labeled

7665: 7505: 7450: 7380: 7345: 7280: 7179: 7169: 7021: 4246:"On a complete apparatus for the study of the properties of electric waves" 3015: 2968: 2944: 2908: 2791: 2186: 2059: 1977: 1936: 1759: 1739: 1538: 1185: 1142: 1102: 1018: 862: 629: 149: 82: 6438:"Wireless Telegraphy, with special reference to the quenched-spark system" 6248: 6165: 5934:"The New Telefunken Telegraph: A combination of the arc and spark systems" 5720:"Wireless Telegraphy, with special reference to the quenched-spark system" 5641: 5252:"Misreading the Supreme Court: A Puzzling Chapter in the History of Radio" 4639: 3856:

The Science of Radio: with MATLAB and Electronics Workbench demonstrations

3807:

The Science of Radio: with MATLAB and Electronics Workbench demonstrations

3426:

The Science of Radio: with MATLAB and Electronics Workbench demonstrations

2625:

The three 5 ft rotary spark discharger wheels of the "timed spark" system.

2321:

Cross section of portion of quenched spark gap, consisting of metal disks

1819:, Nauen, Germany, showing large 360 Leyden jar 400 μF capacitor bank 456:. These oscillating fields radiate away from the antenna into space as an 7865: 7515: 7425: 7410: 7370: 7330: 7189: 6666:(5th ed.). Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. pp. 187–188, 197–200. 5358: 5020:

Tesla is entitled to either distinct priority or independent discovery of

3127:

In the 1950s a Japanese toy company, Matsudaya, produced a line of cheap

3060: 3039: 2911:

at the base, 6 – 10 feet tall, to make it resonant with the transmitter.

2860: 2674: 2384: 2257: 1750: 1648: 1609: 1562: 1537:

to equip their ships with wireless stations. Marconi's company dominated

1449:, which recorded the Morse code symbols with an ink line on a paper tape. 1416: 1286: 1225: 1173: 1054: 1026: 729: 712: 517: 253: 226: 206: 172: 47: 6333:. San Francisco, California: Charles Shortridge. 7 July 1912. p. 22 5916:

Wireless Telegraphy, with special reference to the quenched-spark system

5705:

Wireless Telegraphy, with special reference to the quenched-spark system

5028:

Wheeler, L. P. (August 1943). "Tesla's contribution to high frequency".

2631:

Marconi 300 kW transatlantic timed spark transmitter built 1916 at

2162:

turned by a combustion engine. The first spark gap and resonant circuit

1495: 1455: 7870: 7577: 7275: 7184: 7140: 7110: 7088: 4100:

Radio's Conquest of Space: The experimental rise of radio communication

3104: 3100: 2995: 2940: 2935: 2880: 2632: 2434: 2237: 2156: 1953: 1921: 1731: 1570: 1522: 1221: 1165: 1161: 897: 889: 746: 674: 540: 474: 441: 422: 396: 348: 337: 261: 202: 153: 102: 51: 6869: 6216: 2998:) driven by an electric motor at a high enough speed that it produced 2277:

Ship radio room with 1.5 kW Telefunken quenched-spark transmitter

2236:

independently theorized that radio waves were reflected by a layer of

1702:

had given an influential lecture on radio in which he suggested using

7855: 7320: 7135: 6902: 6461: 5867:

Text-book on Wireless Telegraphy, Vol. 1: General Theory and Practice

5743: 3429:(2nd ed.). Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 27–28. 3108: 3068: 2904: 2610: 1935:

The first person to use resonant circuits in a radio application was

1727: 1703: 1644: 1617: 1249: 1209: 1154: 1073: 1047: 1035: 797: 771: 734: 651: 633: 490: 478: 465: 400: 322: 276: 269: 257: 180: 157: 6835:. Translated by Alfred E. Seelig. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company 329:

in the resonant circuit, discharging the capacitor through the coil.

7850: 7840: 7757: 7582: 7405: 3516: 3011: 3010:

These transmitters, which could produce power outputs of up to one

2972: 2931:

From the beginning, physicists knew that another type of waveform,

2856: 2575: 2549: 2410: 2409:

In 1906, a new type of spark gap was developed by German physicist

2217: 2182: 1790:

next to tuning coil, on top of box containing glass plate capacitor

1754: 1743: 1735: 1601: 1384:

distributed current more equally between wires, reducing resistance

1299:

Evolution of Marconi's monopole antenna from Hertz's dipole antenna

893: 659: 367: 265: 234: 188: 165: 35: 6362:. New York, NY: James Gordon Bennett, Jr. 17 April 1912. p. 2 5836:(2nd ed.). Springer Science and Business Media. p. 972. 2899:(often below 1 ohm), so these transmitters required enormous wire 2842:

Telefunken 100 kW transoceanic quenched spark transmitter at

2189:

was building his own transatlantic radiotelegraphy transmitter on

1112:

Circuit of Hertz's spark oscillator and receiver. The interrupter

1101:

in loops of wire which functioned as resonant receiving antennas.

1093:

of the antenna, which was determined by its length; it acted as a

658:

range, typically 50 to 1000 sparks per second, so in a receiver's

7845: 7830: 7048: 5510:"No. 369 (1943) Marconi Wireless Co. of America v. United States" 3859:(2nd ed.). Springer Science and Business Media. p. 18. 3176: 3143:. Powerful spark gap pulse generators are still used to simulate 3133: 2798: 2202: 2052:

Marconi's inductively coupled transmitter patented 26 April 1900.

1710:) to reduce the bandwidth of transmitters and receivers. Using a 1424: 1150: 1046:

made of a pair of collinear metal rods of various lengths with a

912:

Heinrich Hertz discovering radio waves with his spark oscillator

230: 114: 30: 6191:

Moorcroft, John Harold; Pinto, A.; Curry, Walter Andrew (1921).

5077:

The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla, 2nd Ed.

4340:(2nd ed.). UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–39. 4073:(2nd ed.). UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 34–36. 3881:

Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science

3832:

Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science

3810:(2nd ed.). Springer Science and Business Media. p. 7. 2020:

Braun's inductively coupled transmitter patented 3 November 1899

1216:. Hertz used them to perform historic experiments demonstrating 347:

to switch the transmitter on and off to communicate messages by

7875: 7835: 7157: 5806:

Communications: An International History of the Formative Years

4788:

The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits, 2nd Ed.

4573:

Communications: An International History of the Formative Years

3096:, literally, "to spark", also means "to send a radio message". 3057: 2566: 2213: 2178: 1189: 1169: 845:. Maxwell's theory predicted that a combination of oscillating 666: 326: 184: 101:, creating pulses of radio waves to spell out text messages in 6594:. Hartford, CN: American Radio Relay league. pp. 123–124. 6139:"The first direct wireless messages from England to Australia" 5969:

British patent GB189620981 Henry Harris Lake for Nikola Tesla

1815:

Telefunken 25 kW long distance transmitter built 1906 at

1693:

of the first "syntonic" radio system, from Lodge's 1897 patent

1647:, but a continuous band of frequencies. They were essentially 1461:

British Post Office officials examining Marconi's transmitter

833:

The other was research by physicists to confirm the theory of

437:). This closes the circuit between the capacitor and the coil. 7860: 7797: 7105: 6553:

The Scientific Writings of the late George Francis Fitzgerald

3888:

The Scientific Writings of the Late George Francis Fitzgerald

3839:

The Scientific Writings of the Late George Francis Fitzgerald

3460:

The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932

2924: 2847: 2636: 1168:

high-frequency waves with which they could duplicate classic

826:

detector, however he was persuaded that what he observed was

678: 614:{\displaystyle f={\frac {1}{2\pi }}{\sqrt {\frac {1}{LC}}}\,} 452:

around the antenna, while the voltage creates an oscillating

63: 6611:

The History of Communications - Electronics in the U.S. Navy

6277:

The History of Communications - Electronics in the U.S. Navy

4804:

The History of Communications - Electronics in the U.S. Navy

796:

One was efforts by inventors to devise a system to transmit

256:

when excited by the spark. A resonant circuit consists of a

7802: 6887: 3774:

Sarkar, T. K.; Mailloux, Robert; Oliner, Arthur A. (2006).

3297:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. pp. 6–9 2209: 221:

A practical spark gap transmitter consists of these parts:

6291: 6289: 6287: 5788:. This author misspells the word "quenched" as "squenched" 3352:

Contact at Sea: A History of Maritime Radio Communications

2244:

demonstrated the existence of this layer, now called the "

1376:

He found that a simple elevated wire worked just as well.

296:

transmitter. The spark gap and capacitor connected to the

97:; the operator switched the transmitter on and off with a 4873:

Ashley, Charles Grinnell; Hayward, Charles Brian (1912).

3327:. US Government Publishing Office website. 1 October 2007 2661: 2462:

A typical rotary spark gap used in low-power transmitters

2088: 1420: 1042:

See circuit diagram. Hertz's transmitters consisted of a

434: 4979:. London: The Electrician Publishing Co. pp. 50–58. 4857:

Improvements in Syntonized Telegraphy without Line Wires

4250:

The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine

2939:

distances with a given output power. They could also be

1753:, storing oscillating electrical energy, increasing the 66:, from 1887 to the end of World War I. German physicist 6523:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 126–130. 6284: 5809:. Institute of Electrical Engineers. pp. 361–362. 4971:

Lodge's explanation of his syntonic radio system is in

4576:. Institute of Electrical Engineers. pp. 313–329. 4513:

Dosi, Giovanni; Teece, David J.; Chytry, Josef (2004).

4041:. Springer Science and Business Media. pp. 51–53. 4038:

Heinrich Hertz: Classical Physicist, Modern Philosopher

2895:, a tiny fraction of a wavelength tall, and so had low 1643:. These transmitters did not produce waves of a single 1328:, 1895 Metal sheets and spark balls not shown to scale. 1053:

between their inner ends and metal balls or plates for

809:, which had too short a range to be practical. In 1866 5830:

Bard, Allen J.; Inzelt, György; Scholz, Fritz (2012).

5163:

Intellectual Property Law for Engineers and Scientists

4337:

The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits

4070:

The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits

3366:

Serway, Raymond; Faughn, Jerry; Vuille, Chris (2008).

1160:

To investigate the similarity between radio waves and

662:

the signal sounds like a steady tone, whine, or buzz.

6055:"The Marconi Timed-Spark Continuous-Wave Transmitter" 3510: 3508: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3500: 2994:, was a huge rotating alternating current generator ( 2177:

The transmitter was built in secrecy on the coast at

571: 548: 525: 498: 6556:. London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 277–281. 6321: 6319: 6210: 6208: 6145:. VK2DYM's military radio and radar information site 5475:. PBS.org, Public Broadcasting Service website. 2000 5382: 5380: 3773: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3206: 3107:

it was used until the 1940s in the medical field of

3038:

All these early technologies were superseded by the

1200:. Their short antennas generated radio waves in the 1164:, these researchers concentrated on producing short 6190: 5975:

filed: 22 September 1896, granted: 21 November 1896

5386:British patent no. 189922020 Karl Ferdinand Braun, 4815: 4220:, Vol. 36, December 13, 1988, p. 769, reprinted in 4034: 3842:. London: Hodges, Figgis, and Co. pp. 128–129. 3237:

Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology

2170:powering the second spark gap and resonant circuit 2166:generated the high voltage to charge the capacitor 1600:oscillator (in modern terminology, it had very low 1356:

Re-creation of Marconi's first monopole transmitter

316:, creating less interference to other transmitters. 6422:. New York: Wireless Press, Inc. pp. 288–307. 6042:. New York: Wireless Press, Inc. pp. 274–275. 5870:. London: Longmans Green and Co. pp. 200–204. 5596:. London: Longmans Green and Co. pp. 449–454. 5408:, filed: 8 February 1900, granted: 2 December 1902 3927:Hertz, H., "On very rapid electric oscillations", 3365: 2518:There were two types of rotary spark transmitter: 2208:with a 400 ft. wire antenna suspended from a 1651:sources radiating energy over a large part of the 684: 613: 554: 531: 504: 6316: 6205: 5458:, filed: 10 November 1900, granted: 28 June 1904. 5452:Improvements in apparatus for wireless telegraphy 5377: 5359:"Nikola Tesla: The Guy Who DIDN'T "Invent Radio"" 5338:, filed: 1 February 1898, granted: 16 August 1898 5240:, filed: 2 September 1897; granted: 20 March 1900 4823:"Reporting the yacht races by wireless telegraph" 3477: 3034:Marconi 2 kilowatt ship spark transmitter, 1920. 1749:The resonant circuit functioned analogously to a 1441:Marconi in 1901 with his early spark transmitter 1153:like existing optical signalling methods such as 927:Hertz's drawing of one of his spark oscillators. 7996: 6860:Fessenden and the Early History of Radio Science 6775:. Lincoln Electric website. 2006. Archived from 6765: 6093:. New York: Wireless Press, Inc. pp. 73–75. 5991:. London: Ernst Benn, Ltd. pp. 25, 138–148. 5829: 4361: 4359: 4357: 4008:Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion 3548:. London: Longmans Green and Co. pp. 15–16. 2986:transmitter, developed between 1906 and 1915 by 2224:, a distance of 2100 miles (3400 km). 1589:The primitive transmitters prior to 1897 had no 6491: 6489: 6000: 5998: 5446: 5444: 5400: 5398: 5230: 5228: 5126:. Barnes and Noble Publishing. pp. 65–70. 4512: 4377:, filed 7 December 1896, accepted: 13 July 1897 3372:(8th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 714. 3207:Hempstead, Colin; Worthington, William (2005). 2556: 2248:" or "E-layer", for which he received the 1947 1489:Induction coil, telegraph key, and battery box. 248:(tuned circuits or tank circuits) which create 6877:"The Sounds of a Spark Transmitter with audio" 6502:. Scientific American Publishing Co. pp. 6353:"President Moves to Stop Mob Rule of Wireless" 6345: 5196:. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 21–23. 4879:. American School of Correspondence. pp. 4850: 4848: 4722: 4413: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4403: 4302: 4300: 4298: 4035:Baird, D.; Hughes, R.I.; Nordmann, A. (2013). 3891:. London: Hodges, Figgis, and Co. p. 129. 3402:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–17. 3240:. Gulf Professional Publishing. p. 2045. 2263: 2004:Tesla's inductively coupled power transmitter 1089:. The frequency of the waves was equal to the 896:with their conductors ending in spark gaps. A 728:In higher power transmitters powered by AC, a 417:When the voltage on the capacitor reaches the 6918: 6898:Spark gap transmitter history & operation 6249:"Section 12: Pioneering Amateurs (1900-1912)" 6097: 6024:Radio Communication Laws of the United States 6012:. United States Congress. 1912. pp. 6–14 5879: 5877: 5777: 5775: 5773: 5771: 5545: 5543: 5541: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5533: 5531: 4872: 4860:filed: May 10, 1897, granted: August 10, 1898 4516:Understanding Industrial and Corporate Change 4445: 4443: 4441: 4401: 4399: 4397: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4354: 4296: 4294: 4292: 4290: 4288: 4286: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4278: 3452: 3450: 3448: 3446: 3124:generators or "Bovies" as late as the 1980s. 3088:One legacy of spark-gap transmitters is that 1145:, were mainly interested in radio waves as a 650:used during the wireless telegraphy era. The 6570:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6486: 6431: 6429: 5995: 5450:British patent no. 7777, Guglielmo Marconi, 5441: 5395: 5328: 5225: 4671: 4669: 4365:British patent 189612039 Marconi, Guglielmo 4185: 4183: 4181: 4179: 2649: 1262: 7933:Global telecommunications regulation bodies 6603: 6601: 6537: 6495: 6383:"Marconi´s 200kW transatlantic transmitter" 5963: 5909: 5907: 5859: 5857: 5855: 5853: 5784:The Worldwide History of Telecommunications 5698: 5696: 5694: 5334:US Patent no. 609,154 Oliver Joseph Lodge, 5237:System of transmission of electrical energy 5096:Biographical Encyclopedia of American Radio 5088: 5086: 5072:On light and other high frequency phenomena 4988: 4986: 4903:. New York: Moffat, Yard, and Co. pp. 4900:Wireless Telegraphy: An Elementary Treatise 4845: 4557:The Worldwide History of Telecommunications 4453:The Worldwide History of Telecommunications 4196:. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 159. 3873: 3824: 3391: 3389: 3344: 3342: 3201: 3199: 3197: 2185:, UK. Marconi was pressed for time because 1992:) between the primary and secondary coils. 1017:Microwave spark oscillator demonstrated by 766:In a transmitter with a "rotary" spark gap 516:of the resonant circuit, determined by the 433:to a very low level (usually less than one 62:or "spark" era, the first three decades of 7969: 6925: 6911: 6773:"TIG Welding Series: The Power to Perform" 6374: 6242: 6240: 6238: 6184: 6010:Public 264 S. 6412 approved 13 August 1912 5950:10.1038/scientificamerican06191909-390supp 5874: 5768: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5609: 5607: 5605: 5603: 5593:The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy 5585: 5583: 5581: 5579: 5577: 5575: 5573: 5528: 5155: 5153: 5151: 5149: 5147: 5145: 5143: 4868: 4866: 4771:. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. pp. 4760: 4758: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4709: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4623: 4621: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4548: 4481: 4479: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4438: 4380: 4275: 4092: 4090: 3909:. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co. pp. 3884: 3835: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3759: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3751: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3733: 3731: 3729: 3727: 3725: 3723: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3608:. New York: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 3567: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3559: 3557: 3555: 3545:The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy 3443: 2827:, only a few miles away, did not hear the 2486:1 kilowatt rotary spark transmitter, 1914. 2440: 2325:separated by thin insulating mica washers 1965:. However, Tesla was mainly interested in 6893:Radio Technology in common use circa 1914 6872:The new England Wireless and Steam Museum 6804: 6713:"Flotsam & Jetsam – Control by Radio" 6510: 6469: 6426: 6380: 6136: 6130: 6086: 6080: 5883: 5798: 5796: 5794: 5751: 5631: 5549: 5352: 5350: 5348: 5346: 5344: 5166:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 196–199. 4965: 4666: 4597: 4595: 4593: 4456:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 207–209. 4449: 4306: 4189: 4176: 4155: 4149: 3923: 3921: 3799: 3797: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3601: 3595: 3395: 3348: 3260: 1635:A more significant drawback of the large 610: 6731: 6598: 6516: 6409: 6267: 6006:"An act to regulate radio communication" 5931: 5904: 5850: 5711: 5691: 5670: 5664: 5416: 5414: 5404:US Patent no. 714,756, John Stone Stone 5185: 5183: 5092: 5083: 4983: 4896: 4890: 4854:British patent GB189711575 Lodge, O. J. 4675: 4030: 4028: 4000: 3998: 3996: 3994: 3992: 3990: 3988: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3903:Zenneck, Jonathan Adolf Wilhelm (1915). 3637: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3619: 3535: 3386: 3339: 3286: 3284: 3263:"The spark era - the beginning of radio" 3254: 3194: 3029: 2837: 2361:Ordinary inductively coupled transmitter 2329:to make multiple microscopic spark gaps 2130: 2122: 2032:Stone's inductively coupled transmitter 1912:). Both circuits were tuned to the same 1884:" transmitter. See circuit diagram. The 1843: 1680: 1676: 1626: 1580: 1423:) in the upper atmosphere, later called 1107: 1025: 997:in 1894 was the first person to produce 628:with a steady frequency, so it could be 366: 211: 29: 6825: 6738:Findlay, David A. (September 1, 1957). 6737: 6704: 6653: 6632: 6435: 6295: 6235: 6214: 6157: 6052: 6046: 6029: 5927: 5925: 5717: 5621: 5600: 5589: 5570: 5502: 5210: 5159: 5140: 5064: 5027: 5012: 4992: 4936: 4930: 4924:Syntony and Spark: The origins of radio 4863: 4794: 4749: 4728: 4700: 4627: 4610: 4492:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 30–33. 4470: 4421:Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio 4244:Bose, Jagadish Chandra (January 1897). 4193:The Britannica Guide to Sound and Light 4124: 4122: 4120: 4087: 4062: 4060: 4058: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3956: 3954: 3902: 3896: 3571: 3552: 3541: 3514: 3210:Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Technology 2975:atmosphere to excite oscillations in a 2959:(Poulsen arc) transmitter, invented by 1848:Inductively coupled spark transmitter. 871: 837:proposed in 1864 by Scottish physicist 14: 7997: 6932: 6710: 6659: 6638: 6607: 6578: 6549: 6415: 6273: 6166:"Section 12: Radio at Sea (1891-1922)" 6053:Coursey, Phillip R. (September 1919). 6035: 5978: 5863: 5791: 5487: 5341: 5249: 5243: 5074:", in Thomas Cummerford Martin (1894) 5022:" three concepts in wireless theory: " 4914: 4800: 4764: 4731:"Aerials, Attachments, and Audibility" 4590: 4563: 4533: 4485: 4417: 4210: 4096: 3918: 3846: 3794: 3680: 3665: 3581:The history of QST Vol. 1 - Technology 3456: 3290: 3233: 2089:First transatlantic radio transmission 1969:and never developed a practical radio 699:one of three types of power circuits: 477:wave that increases rapidly to a high 382:Audio of Massie spark gap transmission 136: 6906: 6740:"Radio Controlled Toys Use Spark Gap" 6670: 6584: 6246: 6163: 5984: 5802: 5671:Margolis, Laurie (11 December 2001). 5622:Belrose, John S. (5 September 1995). 5420: 5411: 5356: 5307: 5301: 5193:Radio: The Life Story of a Technology 5189: 5180: 4976:Signaling through space without wires 4972: 4937:Crookes, William (February 1, 1892). 4569: 4489:Array and Phased Array Antenna Basics 4221: 4025: 3932: 3931:, Vol. 31, p. 421, 1887 reprinted in 3852: 3803: 3641: 3616: 3422: 3416: 3359: 3314: 3312: 3281: 3227: 2193:, in a bid to be first (this was the 1904:) was connected to the wire antenna ( 1831: 861:had calculated the output power of a 752: 654:of repetition (spark rate) is in the 421:of the spark gap, the air in the gap 7979: 6676: 6588:The Radio Amateur's Handbook, 1st Ed 6105:"Great Wireless Stations: Carnarvon" 5922: 5823: 5516:. Findlaw.com website. June 21, 1943 5514:United States Supreme Court decision 5357:White, Thomas H. (1 November 2012). 5274: 5234:US Patent No. 645576, Nikola Tesla, 4779: 4506: 4327: 4243: 4237: 4234:translated to English by D. E. Jones 4117: 4055: 4004: 3951: 3948:translated to English by D. E. Jones 3653:. American Radio Relay League: 29–32 2474:Small rotary spark transmitter, 1918 2297:oscillation transformer, Leyden jars 1481:Marconi's transmitter in July 1897. 1172:experiments with radio waves, using 1034:was applied, it produced waves at a 733:maximum voltage, at peaks of the AC 6813:. New York: Wiley. pp. 275–363 5461: 5280: 5119: 5113: 4993:Marconi, Guglielmo (May 24, 1901). 4939:"Some Possibilities of Electricity" 4628:Thrower, K. R. (5 September 1995). 4333: 4128: 4066: 2914: 2790:from early automobiles such as the 2672:, in which 1500 people were saved. 761: 371:Demonstration of the restored 1907 325:which acts as a voltage-controlled 160:, can be generated by time-varying 24: 6798: 6381:Pickworth, George (January 1994). 5250:Wunsch, A. David (November 1998). 3355:. The Gregg Press. pp. 26–30. 3309: 1862:inductively (magnetically) coupled 1569:in Germany who in 1903 formed the 1531:Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company 853:could travel through space as an " 354: 25: 8036: 6848: 6811:Principles of Radio Communication 6253:United States Early Radio History 6194:Principles of Radio Communication 6170:United States Early Radio History 5456:Apparatus for wireless telegraphy 5363:United States Early Radio History 5093:Sterling, Christopher H. (2013). 4678:"United States Radio Development" 4676:Marriott, Robert H. (June 1917). 3605:Principles of Radio Communication 3523:. C. F. Codella's private website 3291:Terman, Frederick Emmons (1937). 723: 702: 681:that breaks the primary circuit. 156:, electromagnetic waves of radio 77:; they are unable to produce the 7978: 7968: 7959: 7958: 7947: 7568:Free-space optical communication 6663:Electrotherapy and Light Therapy 6639:Strong, Frederick Finch (1908). 6560:from the original on 2014-07-07. 6296:Codella, Christopher F. (2016). 6215:Codella, Christopher F. (2016). 6197:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 6172:. T. H. White's personal website 6143:Australian Amateur Radio History 5932:von Arco, Georg (19 June 1909). 5590:Fleming, John Archibald (1906). 5365:. T. H. White's personal website 4765:Jansky, Cyril Methodius (1919). 4729:Codella, Christopher F. (2016). 3542:Fleming, John Archibald (1906). 3515:Codella, Christopher F. (2016). 3261:Champness, Rodney (April 2010). 2618: 2602: 2590: 2506: 2491: 2479: 2467: 2455: 2368: 2354: 2338: 2314: 2302: 2282: 2270: 2256:could have mistaken atmospheric 2109: 2097: 2045: 2025: 2013: 1997: 1888:of the oscillation transformer ( 1808: 1795: 1779: 1767: 1576: 1494: 1474: 1454: 1434: 1361: 1349: 1333: 1317: 1305: 1010: 987: 975: 940: 920: 905: 888:in 1864, in which he discovered 386: 6888:The Sparks Telegraph Key Review 6805:Morecroft, John Harold (1921). 6711:Parker, John (September 2017). 6645:. New York: Rebman Co. p. 6496:Lescarboura, Austin C. (1922). 5287:. McFarland. pp. 111–113. 5099:. Routledge. pp. 382–383. 4897:Kennelly, Arthur Edwin (1906). 4833:(15): 596–597. October 12, 1901 4374:Transmitting electrical signals 4228:. Dover Publications. pp. 4135:. McFarland. pp. 4–6, 13. 3939:. Dover Publications. pp. 3234:Morris, Christopher G. (1992). 3213:. Routledge. pp. 649–650. 3205:"Radio Transmitters, Early" in 3025: 2875:to link the possessions of the 1240:, differing only in frequency. 685:Charging circuit and spark rate 260:(in early days a type called a 6585:Handy, Frances Edward (1926). 6436:Leggett, Bernard John (1921). 6280:. U.S. Navy. pp. 69, 117. 5938:Scientific American Supplement 5718:Leggett, Bernard John (1921). 5427:. Academic Press. p. 37. 4995:"Syntonic Wireless Telegraphy" 3642:Hyder, Harry R. (March 1992). 3463:. Princeton University Press. 2289:Tuned circuit of transmitter. 1924:capacitor banks filling rooms 13: 1: 6419:Practical Wireless Telegraphy 6118:(78): 301–307. September 1919 6087:Goldsmith, Alfred N. (1918). 6039:Practical Wireless Telegraphy 4768:Principles of Radiotelegraphy 4162:. Da Capo Press. p. 52. 3644:"The final days of ham spark" 3583:. American Radio Relay League 3574:"How spark transmitters work" 3396:Ellingson, Steven W. (2016). 3187: 2151:with two cascaded spark gaps 272:of the radio waves produced. 120:disaster. After World War I, 7954:Telecommunication portal 7735:Telecommunications equipment 6677:Carr, Joseph J. (May 1990). 6550:Larmor, Joseph, Ed. (1902). 6517:Headrick, Daniel R. (1988). 5406:Method of electric signaling 5314:. Dockside Consultants Inc. 5311:Lightning: Fire from the Sky 4450:Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). 3883:, 1883, p.405, reprinted in 3349:Schroeder, Peter B. (1967). 2813:distress calls summoned the 2557:Marconi's timed spark system 1573:Co., Marconi's chief rival. 304:that induced current in the 131:radio frequency interference 7: 8005:History of radio technology 7471:Alexander Stepanovich Popov 6327:"To Check Wireless Anarchy" 6304:. Codella's private website 6223:. Codella's private website 5160:Rockman, Howard B. (2004). 4737:. Codella's private website 4519:. OUP Oxford. p. 251. 4486:Visser, Hubregt J. (2006). 4216:Hertz, H., "On radiation", 3885:Fitzgerald, George (1902). 3836:Fitzgerald, George (1902). 3602:Morecroft, John H. (1921). 3150: 2774:Spark transmitters and the 2745:Moderate size land stations 2548:" (this is equivalent to a 2264:Quenched-spark transmitters 1945:wireless power transmission 718:mercury turbine interrupter 10: 8041: 7175:Telecommunications history 6679:"Early radio transmitters" 5833:Electrochemical Dictionary 5803:Burns, Russell W. (2004). 5123:Tesla, Master of Lightning 4570:Burns, Russell W. (2004). 4418:Aitken, Hugh G.J. (1985). 4103:. Murray Hill Books, Inc. 3457:Aitken, Hugh G.J. (2014). 2865:submarine telegraph cables 2702: 2433:The German wireless giant 2375:Quenched-spark transmitter 2141:submarine telegraph cables 2135:View of Poldhu transmitter 782: 778: 745:with its shaft turning an 8020:Electric power conversion 7942: 7884: 7821: 7783:Public Switched Telephone 7743: 7707: 7664: 7605: 7595:telecommunication circuit 7556:Fiber-optic communication 7539: 7301:Francis Blake (telephone) 7248: 7096:Optical telecommunication 6940: 6855:Alternator, Arc and Spark 6416:Bucher, Elmer E. (1917). 6247:White, Thomas H. (2003). 6164:White, Thomas H. (2003). 6137:MacKinnon, Colin (2004). 6036:Bucher, Elmer E. (1917). 5988:Radio: Beam and Broadcast 5890:. IET. pp. 194–197. 5556:. IET. pp. 192–194. 5496:Radio: Beam and Broadcast 5284:Wireless Radio: A History 4949:: 174–176. Archived from 4542:Radio: Beam and Broadcast 4424:. Princeton Univ. Press. 4313:. IET. pp. 186–190. 4262:10.1080/14786449708620959 4156:Weightman, Gavin (2009). 4132:Wireless Radio: A History 3399:Radio Systems Engineering 3083: 2844:Nauen Transmitter Station 2677: 2222:Signal Hill, Newfoundland 2008:patented 2 September 1897 1817:Nauen Transmitter Station 1368:Early vertical antennas. 1312:Hertz's dipole oscillator 1263:Non-syntonic transmitters 807:electromagnetic induction 632:in a radio receiver by a 539:of the capacitor and the 27:Type of radio transmitter 7694:Orbital angular-momentum 7131:Satellite communications 6970:Communications satellite 6870:Massie Spark Transmitter 6660:Kovács, Richard (1945). 5864:Rupert, Stanley (1919). 5782:Huurdeman, Anton (2003) 5308:Smith, Craig B. (2008). 5217:Cheney, Margaret (2011) 4682:Proceedings of the I.R.E 4555:Huurdeman, Anton (2003) 4222:Hertz, Heinrich (1893). 4190:Gregersen, Erik (2011). 4097:Donald, McNicol (1946). 3933:Hertz, Heinrich (1893). 3141:gas tungsten arc welding 2871:, which constructed the 2246:Kennelly–Heaviside layer 2040:patented 8 February 1900 1984:, in November 1899, and 1823:and vertical spark gaps 1485:4 ball Righi spark gap, 171:An electrically charged 122:vacuum tube transmitters 7573:Molecular communication 7396:Gardiner Greene Hubbard 7225:Undersea telegraph line 6960:Cable protection system 6642:High Frequency Currents 6471:2027/mdp.39015063598398 6298:"The first regulations" 5914:Bernard Leggett (1921) 5884:Beauchamp, Ken (2001). 5753:2027/mdp.39015063598398 5703:Bernard Leggett (1921) 5550:Beauchamp, Ken (2001). 5421:Orton, John W. (2009). 5042:10.1109/EE.1943.6435874 4714:Ashley, Hayward (1912) 4334:Lee, Thomas H. (2004). 4307:Beauchamp, Ken (2001). 4067:Lee, Thomas H. (2004). 3853:Nahin, Paul J. (2001). 3804:Nahin, Paul J. (2001). 3780:. John Wiley and Sons. 3423:Nahin, Paul J. (2001). 2984:Alexanderson alternator 2873:Imperial Wireless Chain 2641:Alexanderson alternator 2441:Rotary gap transmitters 1872:); this was called an " 1870:oscillation transformer 1214:television transmitters 1001:; his spark oscillator 803:electrostatic induction 375:spark gap transmitter 373:Massie Wireless Station 290:oscillation transformer 229:, to transform the low- 46:is an obsolete type of 7715:Communication protocol 7501:Charles Sumner Tainter 7316:Walter Houser Brattain 7261:Edwin Howard Armstrong 7069:Information revolution 6865:Brief history of spark 6719:. MyTimeMedia Ltd., UK 6614:. U.S. Navy. pp. 6608:Howeth, L. S. (1963). 6393:(1718). Archived from 6274:Howeth, L. S. (1963). 6255:. earlyradiohistory.us 5219:Tesla: Man Out Of Time 5030:Electrical Engineering 4973:Lodge, Oliver (1900). 4943:The Fortnightly Review 4807:. U.S. Navy. pp. 4801:Howeth, L. S. (1963). 4601:Nahin, Paul J. (2001) 4005:Hong, Sungook (2010). 3671:Nahin, Paul J. (2001) 3048:, invented in 1912 by 3035: 2851: 2250:Nobel Prize in Physics 2136: 2128: 2083:Nobel Prize in physics 1892:) with the capacitor ( 1857: 1694: 1632: 1616:", "inverted-L", and " 1586: 1413:horizontally polarized 1411:waves, instead of the 1278:Italian radio pioneer 1276: 1248:around 1894 generated 1118: 1039: 615: 556: 533: 506: 409: 218: 175:discharged through an 39: 7689:Polarization-division 7421:Narinder Singh Kapany 7386:Erna Schneider Hoover 7306:Jagadish Chandra Bose 7286:Alexander Graham Bell 7017:online video platform 5985:Morse, A. H. (1925). 5887:History of Telegraphy 5553:History of Telegraphy 5469:"Who invented radio?" 5190:Regal, Brian (2005). 4953:on September 29, 2018 4310:History of Telegraphy 3834:, 1883, reprinted in 3572:Kennedy, Hal (1990). 3046:electronic oscillator 3033: 2841: 2759:Transoceanic stations 2191:Long Island, New York 2134: 2126: 1847: 1684: 1677:Syntonic transmitters 1659:with each other. The 1630: 1584: 1445:and coherer receiver 1266: 1246:Jagadish Chandra Bose 1238:electromagnetic waves 1147:scientific phenomenon 1123:Jagadish Chandra Bose 1111: 1029: 995:Jagadish Chandra Bose 882:electromagnetic waves 783:Further information: 616: 557: 534: 507: 370: 292:. This was called an 215: 142:Electromagnetic waves 44:spark-gap transmitter 33: 18:Spark gap transmitter 7531:Vladimir K. Zworykin 7491:Almon Brown Strowger 7461:Charles Grafton Page 7116:Prepaid mobile phone 7044:Electrical telegraph 5120:Uth, Robert (1999). 4922:Aitken, Hugh (2014) 4909:selective signaling. 4885:selective signaling. 4786:Lee, Thomas H. 2004 3063:invented in 1906 by 2897:radiation resistance 2145:John Ambrose Fleming 2063:(J in circuit above) 1982:Karl Ferdinand Braun 1949:resonant transformer 1941:resonant transformer 1926:(see pictures above) 1866:resonant transformer 1758:tuned circuit using 1559:Karl Ferdinand Braun 1409:vertically polarized 1198:diffraction gratings 872:Hertzian oscillators 855:electromagnetic wave 569: 546: 523: 496: 458:electromagnetic wave 285:resonant transformer 201:Due to the inherent 7481:Johann Philipp Reis 7240:Wireless revolution 7202:The Telephone Cases 7059:Hydraulic telegraph 6832:Wireless Telegraphy 6717:Model Boats website 6686:Popular Electronics 6499:Radio for Everybody 6454:1921Natur.107..390. 5736:1921Natur.107..390. 5642:10.1049/cp:19950787 5336:Electric Telegraphy 5281:Coe, Lewis (2006). 4640:10.1049/cp:19950799 4218:Wiedemann's Annalen 4129:Coe, Lewis (2006). 3929:Wiedemann's Annalen 3906:Wireless Telegraphy 3777:History of Wireless 3267:Silicon Chip Online 2965:negative resistance 2885:Paper tape machines 1939:, who invented the 1874:inductively coupled 1514:General Post Office 1176:components such as 1070:harmonic oscillator 886:James Clerk Maxwell 843:Maxwell's equations 839:James Clerk Maxwell 820:David Edward Hughes 626:amplitude modulated 294:inductively-coupled 137:Theory of operation 60:wireless telegraphy 7679:Frequency-division 7656:Telephone exchange 7526:Charles Wheatstone 7456:Jun-ichi Nishizawa 7431:Innocenzo Manzetti 7366:Reginald Fessenden 7101:Optical telegraphy 6934:Telecommunications 6807:"Spark Telegraphy" 6331:San Francisco Call 5673:"Faking the waves" 3162:Invention of radio 3054:Alexander Meissner 3036: 3004:very low frequency 2992:Ernst Alexanderson 2988:Reginald Fessenden 2948:continuous waves. 2893:electrically short 2889:very low frequency 2852: 2447:Reginald Fessenden 2385:coupled oscillator 2242:Edward V. Appleton 2195:Wardenclyffe Tower 2137: 2129: 1980:in February 1898, 1914:resonant frequency 1858: 1832:Inductive coupling 1721:resonant frequency 1695: 1633: 1587: 1551:Reginald Fessenden 1119: 1091:resonant frequency 1040: 1038:of roughly 50 MHz. 789:Invention of radio 753:Quenched spark gap 611: 552: 529: 514:resonant frequency 502: 485:to zero, called a 410: 310:resonant frequency 219: 85:(sound) in modern 40: 8010:Radio electronics 7992: 7991: 7730:Store and forward 7725:Data transmission 7639:Network switching 7590:Transmission line 7436:Guglielmo Marconi 7401:Internet pioneers 7266:Mohamed M. Atalla 7235:Whistled language 6883:on July 18, 2011. 6827:Zenneck, Jonathan 6448:(2691): 299–305. 6387:Electronics World 6302:Ham Radio History 6221:Ham Radio History 5321:978-0-615-24869-1 4735:Ham Radio History 4631:History of tuning 3521:Ham Radio History 3294:Radio Engineering 3056:, which used the 2963:in 1904 used the 2879:, and the German 2809:radio operator's 2776:crystal receivers 2772: 2771: 2533:synchronous motor 2428:(see lower graph) 2201:using an untuned 1990:mutual inductance 1896:) and spark gap ( 1591:resonant circuits 1535:Lloyd's of London 1401:monopole antennas 1280:Guglielmo Marconi 1273:Guglielmo Marconi 1135:Frederick Trouton 1131:George Fitzgerald 1064:(Ruhmkorff coil) 955:, induction coil 876:German physicist 859:George Fitzgerald 824:carbon microphone 785:Timeline of radio 608: 607: 591: 555:{\displaystyle L} 532:{\displaystyle C} 505:{\displaystyle f} 419:breakdown voltage 391: 306:secondary winding 246:resonant circuits 241:(Ruhmkorff coil). 196:electric currents 162:electric currents 110:Guglielmo Marconi 48:radio transmitter 16:(Redirected from 8032: 7982: 7981: 7972: 7971: 7962: 7961: 7952: 7951: 7950: 7823:Notable networks 7813:Wireless network 7753:Cellular network 7745:Types of network 7720:Computer network 7607:Network topology 7521:Thomas A. Watson 7376:Oliver Heaviside 7361:Philo Farnsworth 7336:Daniel Davis Jr. 7311:Charles Bourseul 7271:John Logie Baird 6980:Data compression 6975:Computer network 6927: 6920: 6913: 6904: 6903: 6884: 6879:. Archived from 6844: 6842: 6840: 6822: 6820: 6818: 6792: 6791: 6786: 6784: 6769: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6758: 6744: 6735: 6729: 6728: 6726: 6724: 6708: 6702: 6701: 6699: 6697: 6683: 6674: 6668: 6667: 6657: 6651: 6650: 6636: 6630: 6629: 6605: 6596: 6595: 6593: 6582: 6576: 6575: 6569: 6561: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6514: 6508: 6507: 6493: 6484: 6483: 6473: 6462:10.1038/107390b0 6433: 6424: 6423: 6413: 6407: 6406: 6404: 6402: 6378: 6372: 6371: 6369: 6367: 6357: 6349: 6343: 6342: 6340: 6338: 6323: 6314: 6313: 6311: 6309: 6293: 6282: 6281: 6271: 6265: 6264: 6262: 6260: 6244: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6228: 6217:"The Squeak Box" 6212: 6203: 6202: 6188: 6182: 6181: 6179: 6177: 6161: 6155: 6154: 6152: 6150: 6134: 6128: 6127: 6125: 6123: 6109: 6101: 6095: 6094: 6084: 6078: 6077: 6075: 6073: 6059: 6050: 6044: 6043: 6033: 6027: 6021: 6019: 6017: 6002: 5993: 5992: 5982: 5976: 5967: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5956: 5929: 5920: 5911: 5902: 5901: 5881: 5872: 5871: 5861: 5848: 5847: 5827: 5821: 5820: 5800: 5789: 5779: 5766: 5765: 5755: 5744:10.1038/107390b0 5715: 5709: 5700: 5689: 5688: 5686: 5684: 5668: 5662: 5661: 5635: 5619: 5598: 5597: 5587: 5568: 5567: 5547: 5526: 5525: 5523: 5521: 5506: 5500: 5491: 5485: 5484: 5482: 5480: 5465: 5459: 5448: 5439: 5438: 5418: 5409: 5402: 5393: 5384: 5375: 5374: 5372: 5370: 5354: 5339: 5332: 5326: 5325: 5305: 5299: 5298: 5278: 5272: 5271: 5269: 5267: 5247: 5241: 5232: 5223: 5214: 5208: 5207: 5187: 5178: 5177: 5157: 5138: 5137: 5117: 5111: 5110: 5090: 5081: 5068: 5062: 5061: 5016: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5005: 4990: 4981: 4980: 4969: 4963: 4962: 4960: 4958: 4934: 4928: 4918: 4912: 4911: 4894: 4888: 4887: 4870: 4861: 4852: 4843: 4842: 4840: 4838: 4827:Electrical World 4819: 4813: 4812: 4798: 4792: 4783: 4777: 4776: 4762: 4747: 4746: 4744: 4742: 4726: 4720: 4711: 4698: 4697: 4695: 4693: 4673: 4664: 4660: 4658: 4656: 4625: 4608: 4599: 4588: 4587: 4567: 4561: 4552: 4546: 4537: 4531: 4530: 4510: 4504: 4503: 4483: 4468: 4467: 4447: 4436: 4435: 4415: 4378: 4363: 4352: 4351: 4331: 4325: 4324: 4304: 4273: 4272: 4270: 4268: 4241: 4235: 4233: 4214: 4208: 4207: 4187: 4174: 4173: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4126: 4115: 4114: 4094: 4085: 4084: 4064: 4053: 4052: 4032: 4023: 4022: 4002: 3949: 3947: 3945:heinrich hertz . 3925: 3916: 3914: 3900: 3894: 3892: 3877: 3871: 3870: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3828: 3822: 3821: 3801: 3792: 3791: 3771: 3678: 3669: 3663: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3648: 3639: 3614: 3613: 3599: 3593: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3578: 3569: 3550: 3549: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3512: 3475: 3474: 3454: 3441: 3440: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3393: 3384: 3383: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3346: 3337: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3316: 3307: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3288: 3279: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3231: 3225: 3224: 3203: 3157:History of radio 3118:William T. Bovie 2977:resonant circuit 2967:of a continuous 2961:Valdemar Poulsen 2915:Continuous waves 2833: 2675: 2622: 2606: 2594: 2510: 2495: 2483: 2471: 2459: 2425: 2404:magnetic blowout 2392:(see top graphs) 2372: 2358: 2342: 2318: 2306: 2286: 2274: 2234:Oliver Heaviside 2113: 2101: 2068:US Supreme Court 2049: 2029: 2017: 2001: 1986:John Stone Stone 1838:resonant circuit 1812: 1799: 1783: 1771: 1712:resonant circuit 1622:corona discharge 1557:in America, and 1498: 1478: 1458: 1438: 1365: 1353: 1337: 1321: 1309: 1274: 1095:half-wave dipole 1014: 999:millimeter waves 991: 979: 944: 924: 909: 835:electromagnetism 762:Rotary spark gap 739:motor–alternator 644:crystal detector 620: 618: 617: 612: 609: 606: 595: 594: 592: 590: 579: 561: 559: 558: 553: 538: 536: 535: 530: 511: 509: 508: 503: 393: 392: 164:, consisting of 146:electric charges 144:are radiated by 79:continuous waves 50:which generates 21: 8040: 8039: 8035: 8034: 8033: 8031: 8030: 8029: 7995: 7994: 7993: 7988: 7948: 7946: 7938: 7880: 7817: 7739: 7703: 7660: 7609: 7601: 7542: 7535: 7441:Robert Metcalfe 7296:Tim Berners-Lee 7244: 7064:Information Age 6936: 6931: 6875: 6851: 6838: 6836: 6816: 6814: 6801: 6799:Further reading 6796: 6795: 6782: 6780: 6771: 6770: 6766: 6756: 6754: 6742: 6736: 6732: 6722: 6720: 6709: 6705: 6695: 6693: 6681: 6675: 6671: 6658: 6654: 6637: 6633: 6626: 6606: 6599: 6591: 6583: 6579: 6563: 6562: 6542: 6538: 6531: 6515: 6511: 6494: 6487: 6434: 6427: 6414: 6410: 6400: 6398: 6379: 6375: 6365: 6363: 6360:New York Herald 6355: 6351: 6350: 6346: 6336: 6334: 6325: 6324: 6317: 6307: 6305: 6294: 6285: 6272: 6268: 6258: 6256: 6245: 6236: 6226: 6224: 6213: 6206: 6189: 6185: 6175: 6173: 6162: 6158: 6148: 6146: 6135: 6131: 6121: 6119: 6107: 6103: 6102: 6098: 6090:Radio Telephony 6085: 6081: 6071: 6069: 6057: 6051: 6047: 6034: 6030: 6015: 6013: 6004: 6003: 5996: 5983: 5979: 5968: 5964: 5954: 5952: 5930: 5923: 5912: 5905: 5898: 5882: 5875: 5862: 5851: 5844: 5828: 5824: 5817: 5801: 5792: 5780: 5769: 5730:(2691): 51–55. 5716: 5712: 5701: 5692: 5682: 5680: 5669: 5665: 5633:10.1.1.205.7281 5620: 5601: 5588: 5571: 5564: 5548: 5529: 5519: 5517: 5508: 5507: 5503: 5492: 5488: 5478: 5476: 5467: 5466: 5462: 5449: 5442: 5435: 5419: 5412: 5403: 5396: 5385: 5378: 5368: 5366: 5355: 5342: 5333: 5329: 5322: 5306: 5302: 5295: 5279: 5275: 5265: 5263: 5248: 5244: 5233: 5226: 5215: 5211: 5204: 5188: 5181: 5174: 5158: 5141: 5134: 5118: 5114: 5107: 5091: 5084: 5069: 5065: 5017: 5013: 5003: 5001: 4999:The Electrician 4991: 4984: 4970: 4966: 4956: 4954: 4935: 4931: 4919: 4915: 4895: 4891: 4871: 4864: 4853: 4846: 4836: 4834: 4821: 4820: 4816: 4799: 4795: 4784: 4780: 4763: 4750: 4740: 4738: 4727: 4723: 4712: 4701: 4691: 4689: 4674: 4667: 4654: 4652: 4650: 4626: 4611: 4600: 4591: 4584: 4568: 4564: 4553: 4549: 4538: 4534: 4527: 4511: 4507: 4500: 4484: 4471: 4464: 4448: 4439: 4432: 4416: 4381: 4364: 4355: 4348: 4332: 4328: 4321: 4305: 4276: 4266: 4264: 4242: 4238: 4215: 4211: 4204: 4188: 4177: 4170: 4154: 4150: 4143: 4127: 4118: 4111: 4095: 4088: 4081: 4065: 4056: 4049: 4033: 4026: 4019: 4003: 3952: 3926: 3919: 3901: 3897: 3878: 3874: 3867: 3851: 3847: 3829: 3825: 3818: 3802: 3795: 3788: 3772: 3681: 3670: 3666: 3656: 3654: 3646: 3640: 3617: 3600: 3596: 3586: 3584: 3576: 3570: 3553: 3540: 3536: 3526: 3524: 3513: 3478: 3471: 3455: 3444: 3437: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3394: 3387: 3380: 3369:College Physics 3364: 3360: 3347: 3340: 3330: 3328: 3319: 3317: 3310: 3300: 3298: 3289: 3282: 3272: 3270: 3259: 3255: 3248: 3232: 3228: 3221: 3204: 3195: 3190: 3153: 3090:radio operators 3086: 3077:broadcast radio 3050:Edwin Armstrong 3028: 3002:current in the 3000:radio frequency 2917: 2869:Marconi Company 2831: 2697: 2692: 2687: 2652: 2650:The "spark" era 2647: 2646: 2645: 2644: 2628: 2627: 2626: 2623: 2615: 2614: 2607: 2599: 2598: 2595: 2563:continuous wave 2559: 2514: 2511: 2502: 2496: 2487: 2484: 2475: 2472: 2463: 2460: 2443: 2423: 2380: 2379: 2378: 2377: 2376: 2373: 2364: 2363: 2362: 2359: 2346: 2343: 2334: 2319: 2310: 2307: 2298: 2287: 2278: 2275: 2266: 2230:Arthur Kennelly 2121: 2120: 2119: 2118: 2117: 2114: 2106: 2105: 2102: 2091: 2053: 2050: 2041: 2030: 2021: 2018: 2009: 2002: 1886:primary winding 1878:coupled circuit 1834: 1827: 1813: 1804: 1800: 1791: 1784: 1775: 1772: 1700:William Crookes 1679: 1661:radio receivers 1606:electric charge 1579: 1547:Eugène Ducretet 1543:Alexander Popov 1519:English Channel 1512:of the British 1506: 1505: 1504: 1503: 1502: 1499: 1491: 1490: 1479: 1471: 1470: 1459: 1451: 1450: 1439: 1389: 1388: 1387: 1386: 1385: 1366: 1358: 1357: 1354: 1346: 1345: 1338: 1330: 1329: 1322: 1314: 1313: 1310: 1301: 1300: 1284:radiotelegraphy 1275: 1272: 1265: 1022: 1015: 1006: 1003:(in box, right) 992: 983: 980: 971: 959:, auto battery 945: 936: 925: 916: 910: 874: 851:magnetic fields 791: 781: 764: 755: 726: 705: 687: 599: 593: 583: 578: 570: 567: 566: 547: 544: 543: 524: 521: 520: 497: 494: 493: 460:; a radio wave. 429:, reducing its 408: 407: 406: 405: 404: 394: 387: 384: 357: 355:Operation cycle 298:primary winding 250:radio frequency 225:A high-voltage 192:radio frequency 139: 95:radiotelegraphy 54:by means of an 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8038: 8028: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 7990: 7989: 7987: 7986: 7976: 7966: 7956: 7943: 7940: 7939: 7937: 7936: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7909: 7908: 7907: 7902: 7894: 7888: 7886: 7882: 7881: 7879: 7878: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7827: 7825: 7819: 7818: 7816: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7780: 7775: 7770: 7765: 7760: 7755: 7749: 7747: 7741: 7740: 7738: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7722: 7717: 7711: 7709: 7705: 7704: 7702: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7674:Space-division 7670: 7668: 7662: 7661: 7659: 7658: 7653: 7652: 7651: 7646: 7636: 7635: 7634: 7624: 7619: 7613: 7611: 7603: 7602: 7600: 7599: 7598: 7597: 7587: 7586: 7585: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7564: 7563: 7553: 7547: 7545: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7511:Camille Tissot 7508: 7503: 7498: 7493: 7488: 7486:Claude Shannon 7483: 7478: 7476:Tivadar Puskás 7473: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7446:Antonio Meucci 7443: 7438: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7416:Charles K. Kao 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7391:Harold Hopkins 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7291:Emile Berliner 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7252: 7250: 7246: 7245: 7243: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7230:Videotelephony 7227: 7222: 7221: 7220: 7215: 7205: 7198: 7193: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7166: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7145: 7144: 7143: 7133: 7128: 7126:Radiotelephone 7123: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7098: 7093: 7092: 7091: 7081: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7030: 7029: 7024: 7019: 7014: 7012:Internet video 7004: 7003: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6946: 6944: 6938: 6937: 6930: 6929: 6922: 6915: 6907: 6901: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6885: 6873: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6850: 6849:External links 6847: 6846: 6845: 6823: 6800: 6797: 6794: 6793: 6779:on 16 May 2006 6764: 6730: 6703: 6669: 6652: 6631: 6625:978-1365493225 6624: 6597: 6577: 6536: 6530:978-0198021780 6529: 6509: 6485: 6425: 6408: 6373: 6344: 6315: 6283: 6266: 6234: 6204: 6183: 6156: 6129: 6112:Wireless World 6096: 6079: 6062:Wireless World 6045: 6028: 5994: 5977: 5962: 5921: 5903: 5897:978-0852967928 5896: 5873: 5849: 5843:978-3642295515 5842: 5822: 5816:978-0863413278 5815: 5790: 5767: 5710: 5690: 5663: 5599: 5569: 5563:978-0852967928 5562: 5527: 5501: 5486: 5460: 5440: 5434:978-0080963907 5433: 5410: 5394: 5376: 5340: 5327: 5320: 5300: 5294:978-0786426621 5293: 5273: 5242: 5224: 5209: 5203:978-0313331671 5202: 5179: 5173:978-0471697398 5172: 5139: 5133:978-0760710050 5132: 5112: 5106:978-1136993756 5105: 5082: 5063: 5036:(8): 355–357. 5011: 4982: 4964: 4929: 4913: 4889: 4862: 4844: 4814: 4793: 4778: 4748: 4721: 4699: 4665: 4648: 4609: 4589: 4583:978-0863413278 4582: 4562: 4547: 4532: 4526:978-0191533457 4525: 4505: 4499:978-0470871188 4498: 4469: 4463:978-0471205050 4462: 4437: 4431:978-1400857883 4430: 4379: 4353: 4347:978-0521835398 4346: 4326: 4320:978-0852967928 4319: 4274: 4236: 4209: 4203:978-1615303007 4202: 4175: 4169:978-0786748549 4168: 4148: 4142:978-0786426621 4141: 4116: 4109: 4086: 4080:978-0521835398 4079: 4054: 4048:978-9401588553 4047: 4024: 4017: 3950: 3917: 3895: 3872: 3866:978-0387951508 3865: 3845: 3823: 3817:978-0387951508 3816: 3793: 3787:978-0471783015 3786: 3679: 3664: 3615: 3594: 3551: 3534: 3476: 3470:978-1400854608 3469: 3442: 3436:978-0387951508 3435: 3415: 3409:978-1316785164 3408: 3385: 3379:978-0495386933 3378: 3358: 3338: 3308: 3280: 3253: 3247:978-0122004001 3246: 3226: 3220:978-1135455514 3219: 3192: 3191: 3189: 3186: 3185: 3184: 3179: 3174: 3169: 3164: 3159: 3152: 3149: 3129:remote control 3122:electrosurgery 3114:electric shock 3085: 3082: 3027: 3024: 3008: 3007: 2980: 2916: 2913: 2877:British Empire 2788:ignition coils 2780:radio amateurs 2770: 2769: 2766: 2763: 2760: 2756: 2755: 2752: 2749: 2746: 2742: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2728: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2720:500, 660, 1000 2718: 2714: 2713: 2710: 2707: 2704: 2700: 2699: 2694: 2689: 2684: 2680: 2679: 2651: 2648: 2630: 2629: 2624: 2617: 2616: 2613:one foot thick 2608: 2601: 2600: 2596: 2589: 2588: 2587: 2586: 2585: 2558: 2555: 2542: 2541: 2526: 2523:Nonsynchronous 2516: 2515: 2512: 2505: 2503: 2497: 2490: 2488: 2485: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2454: 2442: 2439: 2374: 2367: 2366: 2365: 2360: 2353: 2352: 2351: 2350: 2349: 2348: 2347: 2344: 2337: 2335: 2320: 2313: 2311: 2308: 2301: 2299: 2293:quenched gap, 2288: 2281: 2279: 2276: 2269: 2265: 2262: 2115: 2108: 2107: 2103: 2096: 2095: 2094: 2093: 2092: 2090: 2087: 2055: 2054: 2051: 2044: 2042: 2031: 2024: 2022: 2019: 2012: 2010: 2003: 1996: 1967:wireless power 1833: 1830: 1829: 1828: 1814: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1794: 1792: 1788:(center right) 1785: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1766: 1678: 1675: 1653:radio spectrum 1578: 1575: 1567:Georg von Arco 1510:William Preece 1500: 1493: 1492: 1480: 1473: 1472: 1460: 1453: 1452: 1440: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1429: 1367: 1360: 1359: 1355: 1348: 1347: 1339: 1332: 1331: 1323: 1316: 1315: 1311: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1298: 1297: 1296: 1295: 1270: 1264: 1261: 1218:standing waves 1083:standing waves 1062:induction coil 1044:dipole antenna 1024: 1023: 1016: 1009: 1007: 993: 986: 984: 981: 974: 972: 946: 939: 937: 935:induction coil 926: 919: 917: 911: 904: 878:Heinrich Hertz 873: 870: 780: 777: 763: 760: 754: 751: 743:electric motor 725: 724:AC transformer 722: 709:induction coil 704: 703:Induction coil 701: 686: 683: 642:, such as the 622: 621: 605: 602: 598: 589: 586: 582: 577: 574: 551: 528: 501: 481:and decreases 471: 470: 461: 454:electric field 450:magnetic field 446: 438: 427:electric spark 425:, starting an 415: 395: 385: 380: 379: 378: 377: 376: 362:radio receiver 356: 353: 352: 351: 341: 330: 319: 318: 317: 302:magnetic field 280: 242: 239:induction coil 177:electric spark 148:when they are 138: 135: 81:used to carry 68:Heinrich Hertz 56:electric spark 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8037: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8015:Electric arcs 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8002: 8000: 7985: 7977: 7975: 7967: 7965: 7957: 7955: 7945: 7944: 7941: 7934: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7897: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7889: 7887: 7883: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7828: 7826: 7824: 7820: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7751: 7750: 7748: 7746: 7742: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7712: 7710: 7706: 7700: 7699:Code-division 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7684:Time-division 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7671: 7669: 7667: 7663: 7657: 7654: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7641: 7640: 7637: 7633: 7630: 7629: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7614: 7612: 7610:and switching 7608: 7604: 7596: 7593: 7592: 7591: 7588: 7584: 7581: 7580: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7562: 7561:optical fiber 7559: 7558: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7551:Coaxial cable 7549: 7548: 7546: 7544: 7538: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7494: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7466:Radia Perlman 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7356:Lee de Forest 7354: 7352: 7351:Thomas Edison 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7341:Donald Davies 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7326:Claude Chappe 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7253: 7251: 7247: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7210: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7203: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7170:Smoke signals 7168: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7150: 7149: 7148:Semiconductor 7146: 7142: 7139: 7138: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7090: 7087: 7086: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7009: 7008: 7007:Digital media 7005: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6982: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6947: 6945: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6928: 6923: 6921: 6916: 6914: 6909: 6908: 6905: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6874: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6852: 6839:September 14, 6834: 6833: 6828: 6824: 6817:September 12, 6812: 6808: 6803: 6802: 6790: 6778: 6774: 6768: 6752: 6748: 6741: 6734: 6718: 6714: 6707: 6691: 6687: 6680: 6673: 6665: 6664: 6656: 6648: 6644: 6643: 6635: 6627: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6612: 6604: 6602: 6590: 6589: 6581: 6573: 6567: 6559: 6555: 6554: 6547: 6540: 6532: 6526: 6522: 6521: 6513: 6505: 6501: 6500: 6492: 6490: 6481: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6432: 6430: 6421: 6420: 6412: 6397:on 2002-10-20 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6377: 6361: 6354: 6348: 6332: 6328: 6322: 6320: 6303: 6299: 6292: 6290: 6288: 6279: 6278: 6270: 6254: 6250: 6243: 6241: 6239: 6222: 6218: 6211: 6209: 6200: 6196: 6195: 6187: 6171: 6167: 6160: 6144: 6140: 6133: 6117: 6113: 6106: 6100: 6092: 6091: 6083: 6068:(78): 310–316 6067: 6063: 6056: 6049: 6041: 6040: 6032: 6025: 6011: 6007: 6001: 5999: 5990: 5989: 5981: 5974: 5973: 5966: 5951: 5947: 5944:(1746): 390. 5943: 5939: 5935: 5928: 5926: 5919: 5917: 5910: 5908: 5899: 5893: 5889: 5888: 5880: 5878: 5869: 5868: 5860: 5858: 5856: 5854: 5845: 5839: 5835: 5834: 5826: 5818: 5812: 5808: 5807: 5799: 5797: 5795: 5787: 5785: 5778: 5776: 5774: 5772: 5763: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5714: 5708: 5706: 5699: 5697: 5695: 5678: 5674: 5667: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5625: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5606: 5604: 5595: 5594: 5586: 5584: 5582: 5580: 5578: 5576: 5574: 5565: 5559: 5555: 5554: 5546: 5544: 5542: 5540: 5538: 5536: 5534: 5532: 5515: 5511: 5505: 5499: 5497: 5494:Morse (1925) 5490: 5474: 5470: 5464: 5457: 5453: 5447: 5445: 5436: 5430: 5426: 5425: 5417: 5415: 5407: 5401: 5399: 5391: 5390: 5383: 5381: 5364: 5360: 5353: 5351: 5349: 5347: 5345: 5337: 5331: 5323: 5317: 5313: 5312: 5304: 5296: 5290: 5286: 5285: 5277: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5246: 5239: 5238: 5231: 5229: 5222: 5220: 5213: 5205: 5199: 5195: 5194: 5186: 5184: 5175: 5169: 5165: 5164: 5156: 5154: 5152: 5150: 5148: 5146: 5144: 5135: 5129: 5125: 5124: 5116: 5108: 5102: 5098: 5097: 5089: 5087: 5079: 5078: 5073: 5067: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5025: 5021: 5015: 5000: 4996: 4989: 4987: 4978: 4977: 4968: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4933: 4927: 4925: 4917: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4901: 4893: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4877: 4869: 4867: 4859: 4858: 4851: 4849: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4818: 4810: 4806: 4805: 4797: 4791: 4789: 4782: 4774: 4770: 4769: 4761: 4759: 4757: 4755: 4753: 4736: 4732: 4725: 4718: 4717: 4710: 4708: 4706: 4704: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4672: 4670: 4663: 4651: 4649:0-85296-649-0 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4632: 4624: 4622: 4620: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4606: 4605: 4598: 4596: 4594: 4585: 4579: 4575: 4574: 4566: 4560: 4558: 4551: 4545: 4543: 4540:Morse (1925) 4536: 4528: 4522: 4518: 4517: 4509: 4501: 4495: 4491: 4490: 4482: 4480: 4478: 4476: 4474: 4465: 4459: 4455: 4454: 4446: 4444: 4442: 4433: 4427: 4423: 4422: 4414: 4412: 4410: 4408: 4406: 4404: 4402: 4400: 4398: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4390: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4376: 4375: 4370: 4369: 4362: 4360: 4358: 4349: 4343: 4339: 4338: 4330: 4322: 4316: 4312: 4311: 4303: 4301: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4293: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4285: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4240: 4231: 4227: 4226: 4219: 4213: 4205: 4199: 4195: 4194: 4186: 4184: 4182: 4180: 4171: 4165: 4161: 4160: 4152: 4144: 4138: 4134: 4133: 4125: 4123: 4121: 4112: 4110:9780405060526 4106: 4102: 4101: 4093: 4091: 4082: 4076: 4072: 4071: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4050: 4044: 4040: 4039: 4031: 4029: 4020: 4018:9780262514194 4014: 4011:. MIT Press. 4010: 4009: 4001: 3999: 3997: 3995: 3993: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3955: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3937: 3930: 3924: 3922: 3912: 3908: 3907: 3899: 3890: 3889: 3882: 3876: 3868: 3862: 3858: 3857: 3849: 3841: 3840: 3833: 3827: 3819: 3813: 3809: 3808: 3800: 3798: 3789: 3783: 3779: 3778: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3760: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3734: 3732: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3676: 3675: 3668: 3652: 3645: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3611: 3607: 3606: 3598: 3582: 3575: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3560: 3558: 3556: 3547: 3546: 3538: 3522: 3518: 3517:"Spark Radio" 3511: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3472: 3466: 3462: 3461: 3453: 3451: 3449: 3447: 3438: 3432: 3428: 3427: 3419: 3411: 3405: 3401: 3400: 3392: 3390: 3381: 3375: 3371: 3370: 3362: 3354: 3353: 3345: 3343: 3326: 3322: 3315: 3313: 3301:September 14, 3296: 3295: 3287: 3285: 3268: 3264: 3257: 3249: 3243: 3239: 3238: 3230: 3222: 3216: 3212: 3211: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3193: 3183: 3182:Crystal radio 3180: 3178: 3175: 3173: 3172:Antique radio 3170: 3168: 3167:Amateur radio 3165: 3163: 3160: 3158: 3155: 3154: 3148: 3146: 3142: 3137: 3135: 3130: 3125: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3097: 3095: 3091: 3081: 3078: 3073: 3070: 3066: 3065:Lee de Forest 3062: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3044: 3041: 3032: 3023: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2957:arc converter 2954: 2953: 2952: 2949: 2946: 2942: 2937: 2934: 2929: 2926: 2922: 2912: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2849: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2830: 2826: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2802: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2767: 2765:20,000 - 1600 2764: 2761: 2758: 2757: 2753: 2750: 2747: 2744: 2743: 2739: 2736: 2733: 2730: 2729: 2725: 2723:600, 450, 300 2722: 2719: 2716: 2715: 2711: 2708: 2705: 2701: 2696:Typical power 2695: 2690: 2685: 2682: 2681: 2676: 2673: 2671: 2670: 2664: 2663: 2658: 2643:transmitters. 2642: 2638: 2634: 2621: 2612: 2605: 2593: 2584: 2582: 2577: 2572: 2571:superposition 2568: 2564: 2554: 2551: 2547: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2527: 2524: 2521: 2520: 2519: 2509: 2504: 2500: 2494: 2489: 2482: 2477: 2470: 2465: 2458: 2453: 2452: 2451: 2448: 2438: 2436: 2431: 2429: 2420: 2416: 2413:, called the 2412: 2407: 2405: 2401: 2400:Elihu Thomson 2395: 2393: 2390: 2386: 2371: 2357: 2341: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2317: 2312: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2285: 2280: 2273: 2268: 2267: 2261: 2259: 2253: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2225: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2175: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2149:(see circuit) 2146: 2142: 2133: 2125: 2112: 2100: 2086: 2084: 2079: 2077: 2071: 2069: 2064: 2061: 2048: 2043: 2039: 2036:and receiver 2035: 2028: 2023: 2016: 2011: 2007: 2000: 1995: 1994: 1993: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1972: 1971:communication 1968: 1964: 1960: 1959:Geissler tube 1956: 1955: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1855: 1851: 1846: 1842: 1839: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1811: 1806: 1798: 1793: 1789: 1782: 1777: 1770: 1765: 1764: 1763: 1761: 1760:loading coils 1756: 1752: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1724: 1722: 1719:"tuning" its 1717: 1713: 1709: 1706:(then called 1705: 1701: 1692: 1689:and receiver 1688: 1683: 1674: 1671: 1670:G. W. Pickard 1667: 1666:Lee de Forest 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1629: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1592: 1583: 1577:Disadvantages 1574: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1555:Lee de Forest 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1527: 1524: 1520: 1515: 1511: 1497: 1488: 1484: 1477: 1468: 1465:and receiver 1464: 1457: 1448: 1444: 1437: 1428: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1399: 1395: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1364: 1352: 1343: 1336: 1327: 1320: 1308: 1294: 1292: 1288: 1285: 1281: 1269: 1260: 1258: 1253: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1242:Augusto Righi 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1158: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1139:Augusto Righi 1136: 1132: 1128: 1127:Lord Rayleigh 1124: 1115: 1110: 1106: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1056: 1052: 1049: 1045: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1020: 1013: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 990: 985: 978: 973: 969: 966: 965:telegraph key 962: 958: 954: 950: 943: 938: 934: 930: 923: 918: 915: 908: 903: 902: 901: 899: 895: 891: 887: 884:predicted by 883: 879: 869: 866: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 841:, now called 840: 836: 831: 829: 825: 821: 816: 815:Thomas Edison 812: 811:Mahlon Loomis 808: 804: 799: 794: 790: 786: 776: 773: 769: 759: 750: 748: 744: 740: 736: 731: 721: 719: 714: 710: 700: 697: 692: 682: 680: 676: 672: 671:telegraph key 668: 663: 661: 657: 653: 649: 648:Fleming valve 645: 641: 638: 635: 631: 627: 603: 600: 596: 587: 584: 580: 575: 572: 565: 564: 563: 562:of the coil: 549: 542: 526: 519: 515: 499: 492: 488: 484: 483:exponentially 480: 476: 467: 462: 459: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 411: 402: 398: 383: 374: 369: 365: 363: 350: 346: 345:telegraph key 342: 339: 335: 331: 328: 324: 320: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 286: 281: 278: 274: 273: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 223: 222: 214: 210: 208: 204: 199: 197: 193: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 169: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 134: 132: 128: 123: 119: 118: 111: 106: 104: 100: 99:telegraph key 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 71: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 37: 32: 19: 7666:Multiplexing 7541:Transmission 7506:Nikola Tesla 7496:Henry Sutton 7451:Samuel Morse 7381:Robert Hooke 7346:Amos Dolbear 7281:John Bardeen 7200: 7180:Telautograph 7084:Mobile phone 7039:Edholm's law 7022:social media 6955:Broadcasting 6881:the original 6837:. Retrieved 6831: 6815:. Retrieved 6810: 6788: 6781:. Retrieved 6777:the original 6767: 6757:November 11, 6755:. Retrieved 6750: 6746: 6733: 6721:. Retrieved 6716: 6706: 6694:. Retrieved 6689: 6685: 6672: 6662: 6655: 6641: 6634: 6610: 6587: 6580: 6552: 6545: 6539: 6519: 6512: 6498: 6445: 6441: 6418: 6411: 6399:. Retrieved 6395:the original 6390: 6386: 6376: 6364:. Retrieved 6359: 6347: 6335:. Retrieved 6330: 6306:. Retrieved 6301: 6276: 6269: 6257:. Retrieved 6252: 6225:. Retrieved 6220: 6193: 6186: 6174:. Retrieved 6169: 6159: 6147:. Retrieved 6142: 6132: 6120:. Retrieved 6115: 6111: 6099: 6089: 6082: 6070:. Retrieved 6065: 6061: 6048: 6038: 6031: 6023: 6022:included in 6014:. Retrieved 6009: 5987: 5980: 5970: 5965: 5953:. Retrieved 5941: 5937: 5915: 5886: 5866: 5832: 5825: 5805: 5786:, p. 271-272 5783: 5727: 5723: 5713: 5704: 5681:. Retrieved 5677:The Guardian 5676: 5666: 5623: 5592: 5552: 5518:. Retrieved 5513: 5504: 5495: 5489: 5477:. Retrieved 5472: 5463: 5423: 5388: 5367:. 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