Southern Ming - Knowledge

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ordered that they be. The Tingzhou Hakka Liu Guoxuan, former Zhangzhou vice-garrison commander for the Qing, and the former Taizhou military commander for the Qing, northern Chinese Ma Xin defected to Koxinga's side. They rose to high ranks under Koxinga over his own Minnanese people because Koxinga held all power over them since they had no local base because they could not speak the dialects of coastal Fujian, where they were not born in. They were familiar with infantry war on land and knew how to fight the Qing. Most of his labor, taxpayers, sailors, and infantry troops were local Fujian coastal people. The Qing and Ming dynasty were based on the continent and stymied the activities of the coast while shipbuilding, cash cropping, sea trade, salt, and fishing were stimulated by Koxinga's rule. Koxinga, from his Jinmen and Xiamen island bases, went on the offensive, killing Zhejiang and Fujiang Qing governor-general Chen Jin, blockading Quanzhou, and taking over most of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou's counties in 1652. He controlled crucial coastal strips and islands on the Guangdong, Fujian, and Zhejiang coast where maritime trade occurred. The Yongli court was earlier regarded as more threatening by the Qing but now their attention was turned to the southeast coast by Koxinga's victories. The Qing were in no way ready to build a navy because of a lack of money and time. The Shunzhi emperor was more open to negotiations after regent Dorgon died in 1652. A ceasefire was issued by Shunzhi in 1653 after negotiations were started. He then sent Koxinga edicts. The Qing used Zheng Zhilong to send messages to his son and monitored the communications during negotiations. Koxinga rejected offers by the Qin, saying to his father "since my father has erred in front, how can I follow your footsteps?" The Qing offered him the status of Geng Jimao and Shang Kexi's Guangdong feudatories. He had to pay customs duties to the Qing while maintaining control of his maritime trading organization, the Qing would appoint civil officials in the four prefectures of Huizhou, Chaozhou, Quanzhou, and Zhangzhou which he would take control of while he would still command his army. The Qing ordered him to adopt the queue if he wanted to receive this deal. Adopting the queue could trigger revolt in his army if he conceded. Koxinga rejected the queue order and said that he would accept the same status of Korea, maintaining their hair and clothing and to "adopt the Qing calendar ... if not for the sake of the land and its mortals, then to bend on behalf of my father." if the Qing wanted him to agree to the 4 prefectures deal. Koxinga also said that if the Qing gave him what they offered to his father, total control of Guangdong, Zhejiang, and Fujiand, he would agree to adopt the queue. Negotiations were then terminated by the Qing after this counter-offer was rejected. European clothes were worn by Ma Xin when he fought. Koxinga held horseback riding and archery practice for coastal troops and naval practice for inland troops during training when they were not fighting. Confucian education and a stipend were provided for family of officers who died by the "Hall for Nourishing Descendants" in Xiamen. Koxinga implemented severe punishments and discipline for disobeying orders and other wrongs, like beatings, poisoning, forced suicide, and decapitation. If one of his underlings won a battle after they were given a suspended death sentence it could be lifted. There were also rewards which led to good battlefield performance. There was a dearth of food supply. Families of gentry, Ming princes, soldiers, and officers not engaged in work numbered 300,000 which he had to support with food. 1,500 soldiers in one southern Fujian town put a strain on food supply. They tried to solve the problem by looting Qing controlled prefectures for grain and raided Zhejiang, Guangdong, and Fujian 44 times in 1649–1660. Zheng forbade .... of women and said the rich should be plundered first by his soldiers. "Voluntary offers", "donations" and bullion and grain tax were extracted from people he ruled by Koxinga. The payments were taken to Xiamen via Haicheng port. 750,000 taels were paid by Quanzhou while 1,080,000 tales were paid by Zhangzhou in 1654. In Quanzhou and Zhangzhou his own fields were subject to intensified farming and in eastern Guangdong more farms were started by his soldiers. Koxinga seized more land during negotiations through military force and talks to take over independent militias and more land surrounding Jinmen and Xiamen. Administrative government offices were founded in 1654 by Koxinga. He officially titled them as Ming extensions but he also created new offices or changed the functions of offices. His headquarters was based in Siming, the new name for Xiamen. The Zheng organization started the Six offices as a regional variation of the central Ming Six Boards with the Yongli emperor's permission, they were personnel, military, revenue, punishment, rites, and works. Yongli court held civil service exams in southwest China where Koxinga sent students to after they were educated at his Xiamen-based Confucian academy. A total of 200 junks in the Western Sea Fleet and Eastern Sea Fleet reported to the five sea firms, trust, wisdom, propriety, righteousness, benevolence, reporting to the five mountain firms, earth, fire, water, wood, gold, reporting to the warehouse for nourishing the country, which reported to the Celestial Pier (Koxinga himself) or his generals and relatives who reported to the revenue office. Pass system was under the warehouse for benefiting the people which reported to private merchants which reported to the revenue office. Officials and gentry made up the workers in most offices which were only symbolic since Koxinga's forces mostly engaged in military occupation. Koxinga's mercantile followers and family made up the Revenue and Military offices. Trade and economic activity was controlled by the Revenue Office. Koxinga had 10 firms which sold and purchased products for his Celestial Pier company, which relied on funding from silver deposits with interest from the Warehouse for Nourishing the Country. In Qing areas there were branch offices conducting trade for Koxinga's five Mountain Firms. One branch office was in Beijing, and Nanjing and Suzhou had the other three which were run by assistant managers, reporting to Zeng Dinglao, chief manager at its Hangzhou headquarters. They pretended to be normal stores which trading foreign products and sending to Xiamen porcelain and silk while in Qing controlled areas. Zheng organization used gold plated bronze talleys and flag tokens for its spies, using both Buddhist monks and merchants in these firms for its spying activities. They reported on army movements by the Qing.

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order, saying "no person, wise or stupid, is willing to become a slave with a head that looks like a fly" and he wanted revenge against the Qing for the death of his mother. Koxinga was conflicted by filial piety and loyalty but never allowed himself to be used and used others. He gained control over thousands of men after originally having only 300. Koxinga's uncles Zheng Zhiwan and Zheng Hongkui pledged allegiance to him and his revenue came from the commercial network of his father Zheng Zhilong. He rallied in Anhai on the coast. Koxinga did not recognize the Prince of Lu as the Emperor and instead continued to use the reign title of the Longwu emperor in contrast to other coastal southeastern warlords. There was hostility between the prince of Lu and Longwu during their reigns and he did not want to have a powerful authority figure with him. He later pledged allegiance to the Yongli Emperor, Prince Zhu Youlang. Koxinga's goals were a Ming dynasty retaking control over China with himself as an autonomous feudal lord in control of Guangdong, Zhejiang, and Fujian on the coastal southeastern area. This may have been similar to the Tokugawa bakufu which controlled Japan while the emperor reigned and he was referred to as a feudatory by his followers and himself with the title "Generalissimo Who Summons and Quells" which was similar to the "barbarian-quelling generalissimo" title of the shogun. The Chinese mufu (tent government) was the model for the bakufu in Japan. Koxinga was an idealist who fought for restoring the Ming before 1651 but the disaster at Xiamen changed his tactics. Koxinga's uncles Zheng Hongkui and Zheng Zhiwan had allowed the Qing to attack and pillage Xiamen without a fight after the Qing threatened they would harm Zheng Zhilong and his family who were under house arrest in Beijing. This was directly disobeyed Koxinga's orders, while Koxinga was on his way to help the Yongli emperor. Because the uncles had their own command chain in their armies and they were of the older generation than Koxinga they decided they had the right to violate standing orders Koxinga's men forced him to turn back after they heard what happened to their homes and families in Xiamen so he returned. Zheng Zhiwan and his staff were executed by Koxinga and his own army absorbed Zhiwan's troops. Because Zheng Hongkui sided with Koxinga most of the time and was nice to him before he was not executed but he was scared and went into retirement, giving up control over his troops to Koxinga. He died in 1654 after living on an island for the rest of his life. Shi Lang had warned that Xiamen could be subjected to attack so Shi Lang's arrogance and habit of disobeying orders grew. Koxinga responded by jailing his brother, his father, and him on a ship in 1651 for violating orders. Shi Lang defected to the Qing after breaking out of the ship. Shi Lang's family was then executed by Koxinga. Koxinga then started the build up his organization and strengthening it and going through formal rituals to pay allegiance to the Yongli Emperor. Koxinga's underlings were people who used to work for his father and his family. They were very experienced at trading and sailing and familiar with the inlets and harbors of the coast of Minnan where they grew up and were merchants and military men. One of them was a pirate partner of Zhilong, Hong Xu. Wang Zhongxiao and Li Maochun, who were gentry of Minnan, and Xu Fuyuan, a bureaucrat in the Ming government were among the number of people in Koxinga's organization. Prince of Ningjing Zhu Shugui, the prince of Lu and other Ming princes came in 1652 with Zhang Huangyan and Zhang Mingzhen, part of the anti-Qing resistance. A separate command chain was kept by Zhang Huangyan and Zhang Mingzhen and the military men and merchants were looked down upon by the elites. There were regional rivalries between Koxinga's Minnan followers and the Zhejiang followers of the two Zhangs.

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Ming China. Japan and other maritime states with relations with Zheng organization were not previously part of the Ming system. He used "mutual dispatch of embassies according to a calendar of diplomatic ritual, cordial encounters, and equivalent treatment of these foreign rulers through regulation and practice." sizing up relations by power and status. Since the Yongli Emperor was the Zheng's overlord the Zheng organization itself could have equal diplomatic relations unlike the Ming with its tributary system placing itself at the top. Enemy states were treated as vassals as an insult by Koxinga in preparation for war. The Tokugawa Shogun Ietsuna received a diplomatic message of congratulations from Koxinga in 1651. The Zheng organization allied with Shogun Ietsuna. They were familiar with Japanese rules and were a united bloc of Chinese merchants under one leader. They served to balance against the Dutch. The Tokugawa bakufu gave asylum to Ming refugees, and allowed into Nagasaki to trade "only those Chinese merchants under anti- auspices" after the Manchu invasion since the majority of Japanese were pro-Ming and supported Koxinga. A fake uncle-nephew protocol was used by Ietsuna according to Chinese accounts with Koxinga.

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Tokugawa shogun received two requests for samurai mercenaries and weapons in Nagasaki in 1645-1646 from Zheng Zhilong. The Tokugawa Bakufu originally urged Japanese women who were married to Chinese men, to leave Japan when they enacted the maritime ban (after which was passed, they would not be allowed to leave Japan), but a lot of Japanese women who were married to Chinese men like Tagawa Matsu remained in Japan and did not leave when the ban was enacted. The Tokugawa allowed them to stay unlike how they violently ejected the Japanese wives and children of Europeans. After the ban was first passed five years elapsed until Zheng requested his Japanese wife Tagawa be allowed to come to China and they were unsure if they would let her come in violation of the maritime ban. The Tokugawa Shogunate decided to allow Tagawa Matsu, his Japanese wife to violate the ban, leave Japan and reunite with him in China. Zheng Zhilong and one of his underlings, Zhou Ghezhi, both had connections to daimyo and the bakufi after living in Japan. Zhou Hezhi sent a letter on the first request for help and the next one was sent to the Kyto-based Japanese Emperor and the Edo-based Tokugawa Shogun along with gifts from Zheng Zhilong.

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permit in Nagasaki in 1653. Wang was pardoned by Koxinga after Koxinga's brother Shichizaemon asked him to. The Japanese bakufu helped protect the Zheng network from Dutch violence through its law. Japanese Nagasaki magistrates received cases involving Dutch attacks on Koxinga ships, with Koxinga receiving help from his brother Shichizaemon in filing the cases. At the Malay peninsula around Johor, Chen Zhenguan, a Zheng agent whose junk was headed to Japan, was attacked by several Dutch ships in June 1657. The Dutch were heading for Taiwan with Chen's crew as prisoners but the Dutch ship Urk was blown to Kyushu in Japan by a storm. The Chinese sprang out and filed a case at the magistrates in Nagasaki on 23 August to the bakufu in Edo. They won the case and Japan threatened to kick out the Dutch if they attacked Japan bound junks and forced the Dutch to pay compensation to Chen. A silver tael payment of 20,000 was ordered by Japan to be paid to Chen by the Dutch in 1661. The Revenue Officer in Xiamen after 1657 was Zheng Tai, who also had been to Nagasaki and dealt with commerce related to Japan.

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officially by the bakufu, a lot of Japanese in the Tokugawa government privately supported going to war against the Manchus and support the Ming. Samurai and daimyo were to be subjected to full scale mobilization and attack routes along the coast of China were planned by the Tokugawa shogunate. It was the Qing take over of Fuzhou in 1646 which caused the plans to be cancelled. Further requests came between 1645 and 1692. Food and financial shortage led to abandonment of the Jiangxi-Fujian and Zhejiang-Fujian mountain passes by Zheng Zhilong because he could not afford to pay salaries or feed his soldiers all over Fujian. His soldiers were sent to guard the coast. He started negotiations with the Qing and the Shunzhi Emperor officially appointed him as ruler over Guangdong, Fujian, and Zhejiang as "King of Three Provinces". However it asked Zhilong to come to Beijing to meet Shunzhi.

2416:. The Qing sent the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives. Zheng Zhilong wrote "Grand Strategy for ordering the country". He argued that for the Southern Ming to retake the country, they should do it through regional military commanders all across China's provinces and not in a centralized fashion. This brought him at loggerheads with the Longwu Emperor. Famine also struck after drought and corps failed all along the southeastern coastal region. This led to outbreaks of banditry. Ports under Zheng Zhilong's control were running out of raw silk due to the Yangzi river delta under attack by the Qing. The Longwu emperor wanted the take over Huguang and Jiangxi provinces which were major producers of rice to help boost the southern Ming. Zhilong refused to expand out of Fujian to keep his control over the movement. 1970:

By the time he arrived in the vicinity of Nanjing, the prince could already count on the support of both Ma Shiying and Shi Kefa. He entered the city on June 5 and accepted the title "protector of the state" the next day. Prodded by some court officials, the Prince of Fu immediately begin to consider ascending the throne. The prince had a problematic reputation in terms of Confucian morality, so some members of the Donglin faction suggested the Prince of Lu as an alternative. Other officials noted that the Prince of Fu, as next in line by blood, was clearly the safer choice. In any case, the so-called "righteousness" faction was not keen to risk a confrontation with Ma, who arrived in Nanjing with a large fleet on June 17. The Prince of Fu was crowned as the Hongguang emperor on June 19. It was decided that the next lunar year would be the first year of the Hongguang reign.

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Vietnam. 1,563,259 silver taels worth of products were imported every year by Japan from Koxinga. Yongli coins and weapons required copper which Koxinga imported from Japan. He also imported resin, tar, cannons, muskets, armor, swords, knives, with the majority of imports at 70% being silver. Taels numbering 1,513,93 were profit out of the 2,350,386 taels Koxinga received from trading with Japan. Most of the Japanese products were used for his military or currency. They were also exported to Vietnam's civil war in Quang Nam and Tonkin. The Dutch tried to get a Chinese coastal base but could not, trying to get Chinese silk for themselves. The Zheng had a monopoly on Chinese silk and sold it at high prices to the Dutch. The Dutch obtained Tonkin silk by allying with the Trinh lords against the Nguyen Lords but it was not of consistent quality.

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Zheng agents also provided cargo space on their ships for a fee to private merchants. Japan bound Zheng Tai's dongli vessels also carried Celestial Pier products from Koxinga. Private businesses were also engaged in by official merchants. There was a major Southeast Asia and Japan based diaspora of Chinese with Ming loyalists and traders among them. There were official representatives of Koxinga, agents, and private traders among them. They sold permits and bought products for Koxinga and communicated between the European rulers of the colonies and Koxinga. The Revenue Office received reports from the family and patronage networks which synthesized them with the traditional bureaucracy of China.

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by Zheng junks. Cloth and silk from India were bought with this gold by the Dutch. Spanish Manila used American silver to buy porcelain and silk from the Zheng which were taken to the Americas and the Philippines. Dutch were not allowed to trade in Manila. The Zheng sent the silver to China or to buy products in Taiwan, Philippines, Southeast Asian islands, Vietnam, Cambodian and Siam. Timber and rice were bought by the Zheng and so were rhinoceros horns, ivory, and sappanwood to be brought to Japan and China, while deerskins, spices, pepper, and sugar were bought by both the Dutch and Zheng. The Western Ocean received 20 or 16 vessels by the Zheng each year.

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fierce fighting, and negotiations, a peace agreement was agreed on in 1649, and Milayan and Ding nominally pledged allegiance to the Qing and were given ranks as members of the Qing military. When other Ming loyalists in southern China made a resurgence and the Qing were forced to withdraw their forces from Gansu to fight them, Milayan and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled against the Qing. The Muslim Ming loyalists were then crushed by the Qing with 100,000 of them, including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay killed in battle.

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Koxinga. Chinese merchants at ports overseas paid fees and bough licenses from his agents. There were some ships outside of his control like northern Chinese ships, Chinese, Macanese, and Portuguese in Macao, and Guangzhou based ships of Geng Jimao and Shang Kexi, feudatories of the Qing. The Japanese market and East Asian trade saw a struggle between the Dutch East India Company and Zheng organization. Japanese merchants were allowed to buy silk directly after the silk allotment guild was ended by the bakufu in 1655

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traded with the Eastern Ocean Fleet. The junks operated in defensive quads of five or four and had cannons for defense. They two different fleets sometimes overlapped when going back. Koxinga's relative Zheng Tai owned the Dongli firm while leader of the revenue office after 1657 and his predecessors Hong Xu had the Xuyuan firm. Thousands of silver taels annually were gained through trade by Chen Yonghua. Koxinga also employed official merchants who worked for him like Zheng Tai, an adopted son of his family.

2216: 81: 2338: 1846:. However, comprehensive central decision-making was beyond the technology of the time. The principle of uniformity meant that the lowest common denominator was often selected as the standard. The need to implement change on an empire-wide basis complicated any effort to reform the system, leaving administrators helpless to respond in an age of upheaval. 1835:, an extended period from 1645 to 1715 when sunspots were absent. Whatever the cause, the change in the climate reduced agricultural yields and cut state revenue. It also led to drought, which displaced many peasants. There were a series of peasant revolts in the late Ming, culminating in a revolt led by 2463:

Xiamen received the money from permits sold in Japan. To make it so he would take most of the trade he sold a maximum annually of 10 new permits. Payment of permits was enforced by Japanese Nagasaki magistrates. Zheng agents received custody of Wang Yunsheng after he tried using a 10 year old expired

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The Dutch Bengal factory found Bengali white silk and started export to Japan in 1655. However the Chinese silk always outsold it and Koxinga's revenue was more than half of the 708,564 taels worth of products the Dutch sold in Japan annually. Dutch Taiwan exchanged silver for gold from China brought

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Travel distance and vessel size were factors in the price of Koxinga's permits which he sold to people who wanted to engage in overseas commerce like when Zheng Zhilong ruled. Private loans ere given out by the Xiamen Warehouse for Benefiting the People. The five Sea Firms lent out ships for rent and

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The Ming regarded there to be two oceans, the Western Ocean and Eastern Ocean. Koxinga's firms had a fleet for each ocean made out of 60 ships, 12 junks per the 5 firms. Southeast Asia, Cambodia, Batavia, and Siam were traded with the Western Ocean Fleet, and Philippines, Dutch Taiwan, and Japan were

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The Prince of Lu was also treated as their real ruler by the Zhejiang gentry leaders while Yongli was officially regarded as their emperor. In 1652 the Prince of Lu gave up his titles under Koxinga's pressure. Koxinga sent him to Penghu and did not reinstate his titles in 1659 when the Yongli emperor

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The Portuguese in Macao provided military aid in the form of cannons to the two courts established by the Princes of Gui and Tang in exchange for tax exemption, more land around Macao and conversions to Catholicism. The Empress dowager, the two Empresses and the crown prince converted to Catholicism,

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Violent Dutch efforts to try to undercut Zheng's organization were countered by Koxinga with alliances and diplomacy. The violence of the VOC was dampened by the laws of Tokugawa Japan. A new system of diplomatic relations was implemented by Koxinga with modifications to the tributary system used by

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In 1650-1662 Nagasaki annually received 50 Chinese ships most of which bought Koxinga passes or were his ships. They sold books, medicine, porcelain, textiles, gold, and silk. Koxinga brought animal hides from Southeast Asia, and gold and silk from Quang Nam Nguyen lord Vietnam and Tonkin Trinh Lord

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Li Chengdong suppressed more loyalist resistance in Guangdong in 1647, but mutinied against the Qing in May 1648 because he resented having been named only regional commander of the province he had conquered. The concurrent rebellion of another former Ming general in Jiangxi helped the Yongli regime

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The literati in the provinces responded to the news from Yangzhou and Nanjing with an outpouring of emotion. Some recruited their own militia and became resistance leaders. Shi was lionized and there was a wave of hopeless sacrifice by loyalists who vowed to erase the shame of Nanjing. By late 1646,

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came up with a plan to defeat the Chinese pirates by sending more than 300 girls who were beautiful singing girls and prostitutes with red handkerchiefs to go to the Chinese pirate junks on small boats. The Chinese pirates and northern Vietnamese (Tonkinese) girls had sex but the women then wet the

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Because Ma was the emperor's main supporter, he started to monopolize the royal court's administration by reviving the functions of the remaining eunuchs. This resulted in rampant corruptions and illegal dealings. Moreover, Ma engaged in intense political bickering with Shi, who was affiliated with

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When the news of the Chongzhen emperor's death reached Nanjing in May 1644, the fate of the heir apparent was still unknown. But court officials quickly agreed that an imperial figure was necessary to rally loyalist support. In early June, a caretaker government led by the Prince of Fu was created.

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Koxinga created an economic unity of Chinese in Southeast Asia, Japan, and in the Qing. His five sea firms used its navy to escort merchants who bought his permits to avoid Dutch attacks on their ships. In China their relatives would be punished and fined if they were trading without a permit from

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province), he patiently built up his forces; only in late 1658 did well-fed and well-supplied Qing troops mount a multipronged campaign to take Guizhou and Yunnan. In late January 1659, a Qing army led by Manchu prince Doni took the capital of Yunnan, sending the Yongli emperor fleeing into nearby

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and proceeded to Fujian from a land route that went through northeastern Jiangxi and mountainous areas in northern Fujian. Protected by General Zheng Hongkui, on July 10 he proclaimed his intention to become regent of the Ming dynasty, a title that he formally received on July 29, a few days after

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continued to resist. Through Zheng networks, the Southern Ming continued to enjoy a privileged diplomatic position vis-a-vis Tokugawa Japan, who exempted Southern Ming ships from the ban on exports of weapons and strategic materials, and from the ban on Japanese wives of Southern Ming Chinese men

1951:(1640–1710) served with the Southern Ming loyalists against the Qing. Zhu Yu'ai, Prince of Gui was accompanied by Hui refugees when he fled from Huguang to the Burmese border in Yunnan and as a mark of their defiance against the Qing and loyalty to the Ming, they changed their surname to "Ming". 1853:

of righteous and unrighteous behavior, they were rarely as knowledgeable when it came to contemporary economic, social, or military matters. Unlike previous dynasties, the Ming had no prime minister. So when a young ruler retreated to the inner court to enjoy the company of his concubines, power

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Tagawa Matsu was ..... by the Manchus according to one account and she committed suicide. One confused Chinese account said that Koxinga cut out his mother's intestines and washed them, following the "barbarian" (Japanese) custom. This may have referred to sepukku. Koxinga referred to the queue

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Zheng Zhilong informed the Tokugawa Bakufu on how his son Koxinga rose through the ranks of the Ming military and asked for ten slaves and ...... in waiting and Shichizaemon to be allowed to come to China from Japan to help take care of his wife Tagawa Matsu. Although the requests were rejected

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in order to drive the Qing out and restore Zhu Shichuan, Prince of Yanchang to the throne as the emperor. The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Hami's Sultan Sa'id Baba (巴拜汗) and his son Turumtay (土倫泰). The Muslim Ming loyalists were joined by Tibetans and Han Chinese in the revolt. After

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Zheng tried to solve the problem by extorting and taxation and then seeking aid from Tokugawa Japan. He tried to solve the problem by extorting and taxation and then seeking aid from Tokugawa Japan. Sekisai Ugai said that Zheng Zhilong's brother had 1,000 musket armed Japanese mercenaries. The

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immediately moved toward Nanjing, which surrendered without a fight on June 8, 1645. A detachment of Qing soldiers then captured the fleeing emperor on June 15, and he was brought back to Nanjing on June 18. The fallen emperor was later transported to Beijing, where he died the following year.

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Zheng Zhilong refused to go because he most likely though it was a trap. Zheng Zhilong commanded his army not to fight against the Qing as they took over Fuzhou after coming into Fujian in 1646. The Longwu emperor was either killed or escaped and was never again found as he tried to escape to

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as the Hongguang Emperor, marking the start of the Southern Ming. The Nanjing regime lasted until 1645, when Qing forces captured Nanjing. Zhu fled before the city fell, but was captured and executed shortly thereafter. Later figures continued to hold court in various southern Chinese cities,

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sent the Zhejiang regime of Prince Lu into disarray and proceeded to attack the Longwu regime in Fujian. Zheng Zhilong, the Longwu emperor's main military defender, fled to the coast. On the pretext of relieving the siege of Ganzhou in southern Jiangxi, the Longwu court left their base in

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is still under debate in academia. The controversy mainly focused on whether the regime should be regarded as a direct continuation of the legitimate dynastic historiography of the Ming dynasty (including the Southern Ming), or treating it as simply an independent polity ruled by the

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would be required to fund military activity alone. Revenue of 6 million taels was anticipated based on normal receipts from the areas under Nanjing's control. Severe drought, rebellion, and unsettled conditions combined to ensure that actual revenue was only a fraction of this

2501:. The Chinese pirates having sex with north Vietnamese women may also have transmitted a deadly epidemic from China which ravaged the Tonkin regime of north Vietnam. French and Chinese sources say a typhoon contributed to the loss of ships along with the disease. The 1732:

The Nanjing regime lacked the resources to pay and supply its soldiers, who were left to live off the land and pillaged the countryside. The soldiers' behavior was so notorious that they were refused entry by those cities in a position to do so. Court official

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to retake most of southern China, leaving the Qing in control of only a few enclaves in Guangdong and southern Jiangxi. But this resurgence of loyalist hopes was short-lived. New Qing armies managed to reconquer the central provinces of Huguang (present-day

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Jiangxi. The Qing invited Zheng Zhilong to a banquet for negotiations. His son Koxinga and brother Zheng Hongkui cried and beseeched Zheng Zhilong not to go. He had 500 war junks and army which he could still use to rule. They also knew of the queue order.

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conquest that followed was a period of catastrophic war and population decline in China. China experienced a period of extremely cold weather from the 1620s until the 1710s. Some modern scholars link the worldwide drop in temperature at this time to the

1745:. The cannons mowed down a large number of Qing soldiers, but this only enraged those who survived. After the Yangzhou city fell in May 1645, the Manchus started a general massacre pillage and enslaved all the women and children in the notorious 2805:"Government finance under the Ming represented an attempt to impose and extremely ambitious centralized system on an enormous empire before its level of technology had made such a degree of centralization practical." Ray Huang, 2065:

who had been put under house arrest in 1636 by the Chongzhen emperor. He was pardoned and restored to his princely title by the Hongguang emperor. When Nanjing fell in June 1645, he was in Suzhou en route to his new fiefdom in

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In February 1646, Qing armies seized land west of the Qiantang River from the Lu regime and defeated a ragtag force representing the Longwu emperor in northeastern Jiangxi. In May of that year Qing forces besieged

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The Hongguang court proclaimed that its goal was "to ally with the Tartars to pacify the bandits," that is, to seek cooperation with Qing military forces in order to annihilate rebel peasant militia led by

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In the late summer of 1664, Li Lai-heng and his remaining followers were surrounded on one of these mountains. Unable to escape, Li gave orders to build a fire and then threw himself into the flames.

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was the last and also the longest reigning Emperor of the dynasty (1646–1662) and managed to fight against the Qing forces alongside the peasant armies in southwestern China prior to his capture in

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Though the Qing under the leadership of Prince Regent Dorgon (1612–1650) had successfully pushed the Southern Ming deep into southern China, Ming loyalism was not dead yet. In early August 1652,

2086:, a Chinese sea trader with exceptional organizational skills who had surrendered to the Ming in 1628 and recently been made an earl by the Hongguang emperor. Zheng Zhilong and his Japanese wife 2489:

navy then attacked the Chinese pirate fleet which was unable to fire back with their wet guns. The Chinese pirate fleet, originally 206 junks, was reduced to 50–80 junks by the time it reached

2017:, written under Qing sponsorship in the eighteenth century, blames Ma's lack of foresight, his hunger for power and money, and his thirst for private revenge for the fall of the Nanjing court. 2636:

because Yousong's father was not Wanli's eldest son. Although this was three generations earlier, Donglin officials in Nanjing nonetheless feared that the prince might retaliate against them.

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province) from the Qing. Within a month, most of the commanders who had been supporting the Qing in Guangxi reverted to the Ming side. Despite occasional successful military campaigns in

1858:. Only the eunuchs had access to the inner court, but the eunuch cliques were distrusted by the officials who were expected to carry out the emperor's decrees. Officials educated at the 1350: 2185:

established the Yongli (永曆) regime in the same vicinity. The two Ming regimes fought each other until 20 January 1647, when a small Qing force led by former Southern Ming commander

2774: 4857: 2117:, and thus represented another center of loyalist resistance. But the two regimes failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even lower than they already were. 345: 331: 306: 5589: 2079:. He was enthroned as emperor on August 18, 1645. Most Nanjing officials had surrendered to the Qing, but some followed the Prince of Tang in his flight to Fuzhou. 1849:

Civil servants were selected by an arduous examination system which tested knowledge of classic literature. While they might be adapt at citing precedents from the

4795: 2539: 153: 5976: 2252:" who would rebel against the Qing in 1673 – captured Guangzhou after a ten-month siege and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people. 1343: 5572: 5044: 5971: 2544: 5609: 2139:

remaining in Japan. The Zheng were also able to recruit Japanese troops, particularly from their strongest sympathizers, the Satsuma and Mito domains.

2094:. The pretender, who was childless, adopted Zheng Zhilong's eldest son Zheng Sen, granted him the imperial surname, and gave him a new personal name: 5336: 1336: 1939:

In 1644, Muslim Ming loyalists in Gansu led by Muslim leaders Milayin (米喇印) and Ding Guodong (丁國棟) led a revolt in 1646 against the Qing during the

5072: 3584:

Friars, Nobles and Burghers – Sermons, Images and Prints: Studies of Culture and Society in Early-Modern Europe – In Memoriam István György Tóth

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of Shaowu (紹武) on 11 December 1646. Short of official costumes, the court had to purchase robes from local theater troupes. On 24 December,

5996: 4930: 3150: 5468: 2771: 5035: 1316: 1256: 6016: 5621: 2130:

northeastern Fujian in late September 1646, but the Qing army caught up with them. Longwu and his empress were summarily executed in

6011: 5030: 3804: 5767: 5674: 3428:, pp. 667–669 (for their failure to cooperate), 669–674 (for the deep financial and tactical problems that beset both regimes). 946: 1997:

and the death of Shi in May 1645. It also led directly to the demise of the Nanjing regime. After the Qing armies crossed the

6006: 5662: 5510: 5271: 5134: 5008: 4983: 4746: 4704: 4662: 4620: 4578: 4536: 4494: 4452: 4410: 4368: 4326: 4284: 4242: 4200: 4158: 4116: 4074: 4032: 3990: 3948: 3906: 3864: 3822: 3783: 3749: 3160: 2715: 1581: 1246: 2476:(Dương Ngạn Địch) and his fleet sailed to Vietnam to leave the Qing dynasty in March 1682, first appearing off the coast of 80: 5712: 5567: 819: 809: 24: 5382: 5276: 2158: 1288: 450: 4784: 5679: 5106: 4871: 4834: 3591: 3566: 3513: 3330: 3126: 3089: 3051: 3013: 2979: 2945: 2911: 2877: 2843: 2749: 2573: 440: 2134:(western Fujian) on 6 October. After the fall of Fuzhou on 17 October, Zheng Zhilong defected to the Qing but his son 5211: 5054: 1117: 2485:

gun barrels of the pirates ships with their handkerchiefs which they got wet. They then left in the same boats. The

5847: 4829:. China Southeast Asia History (illustrated, reprint ed.). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 199. 1940: 2189:(李成棟) captured Guangzhou, causing the Shaowu Emperor to commit suicide, and sending the Yongli emperor fleeing to 1789:) claimed to be the rightful successor to the throne of Ming until 1683, although he lacked real political power. 1749:. Nanjing was captured by the Qing on June 6 and the Hongguang Emperor was taken to Beijing and executed in 1646. 5402: 4901:(organized by the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: 10–11. 2632:(r. 1573–1620). Wanli's attempt to name Yousong's father as heir apparent had been thwarted by supporters of the 1576: 871: 5311: 5081:] (in Chinese), Shanghai, China: East China Normal University Press, CSBN: 11135.24 / F552.9, archived from 6021: 5362: 4902: 3506:

Conflict and commerce in maritime East Asia: The Zheng family and the shaping of the modern world, c. 1620–1720

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Conflict and commerce in maritime East Asia: The Zheng family and the shaping of the modern world, c. 1620–1720

2619:. The Yongli Emperor was the last generally recognized sovereign of the Southern Ming before his death in 1662. 2157:

A cannon cast in 1650 by the southern Ming when remnants of the Ming regime were based in Guangdong. (From the

1634: 1309: 1261: 1842:

Ming ideology emphasized authoritarian and centralized administration, referred to as "imperial supremacy" or

5894: 5616: 2210: 1626: 1283: 1209: 1144: 363: 5874: 5652: 5520: 5490: 5204: 5174: 2901: 2534: 1814:. With agriculture devastated by a severe drought, there was manpower available for numerous rebel armies. 1803: 1682: 1561: 1409: 1360: 1219: 222: 5991: 5884: 5869: 5604: 5236: 2480:

in northern Vietnam. According to the Vietnamese account, Vũ Duy Chí (武惟志), a minister of the Vietnamese

2020: 1964: 1271: 1028: 409: 20: 2318:. The last sovereign of the Southern Ming stayed there until 1662, when he was captured and executed by 5695: 5417: 5316: 2261: 2034: 1276: 5453: 5082: 3118:

Charities in the Non-Western World: The Development and Regulation of Indigenous and Islamic Charities

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the heroics had petered out and the Qing advance had resumed. Notable Ming "pretenders" held court in

5864: 5700: 5626: 5397: 5387: 2166: 2148: 1960: 1551: 1402: 1302: 1239: 1204: 777: 473: 383: 983: 5927: 5806: 5705: 5392: 5306: 2556: 1478: 973: 622: 5889: 2506: 5837: 5746: 5412: 5266: 3440:, pp. 670 (seizing land west of the Qiantang River) and 673 (defeating Longwu forces in Jiangxi). 2386: 2240:), Jiangxi, and Guangdong in 1649 and 1650. The Yongli emperor fled to Nanning and from there to 2110: 2038: 1566: 1199: 5020: 2510: 2393:

on the site of the former Dutch colony. The Ming princes who accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan were

5966: 5774: 5722: 5530: 5422: 4924: 1877:

and some court ministers then sought refuge in the southern part of China and regrouped around

1534: 1251: 1229: 1214: 700: 419: 5127:

The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China

5092: 4820: 3116: 2935: 2833: 2735: 5986: 5981: 5879: 5857: 5842: 5483: 5463: 5341: 5301: 5291: 4969: 3003: 2867: 2509:, which had been newly acquired from the Khmers. Duong's followers named their settlement as 2323: 1794: 1224: 641: 4785:""Righteous Yang": Pirate, Rebel, and Hero on the Sino-Vietnamese Water Frontier, 1644–1684" 3081: 3043: 2969: 6026: 5910: 5478: 5377: 5256: 5025: 3559:

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and the Jesuit missionaries carried letters to the Pope and the Portuguese asking for aid.

1993:

This displacement of troops facilitated the Qing capture of Yangzhou. This resulted in the

1426: 1266: 479: 2341:

Depiction of a Southern Ming soldier and a Chinese man and his wife, by Georg Franz Müller

2049: 8: 5760: 5599: 5542: 5495: 5427: 5281: 5188: 4769: 4727: 4685: 4643: 4601: 4559: 4517: 4475: 4433: 4391: 4349: 4307: 4265: 4223: 4181: 4139: 4097: 4055: 4013: 3971: 3929: 3887: 3845: 2607: 2561: 2390: 2350: 1778: 1710: 1556: 1483: 1473: 1390: 431: 338: 5331: 4858:"8 Epidemics, Trade, and Local Worship in Vietnam, Leizhou peninsula, and Hainan island" 4821:"8 Epidemics, Trade, and Local Worship in Vietnam, Leizhou peninsula, and Hainan island" 5372: 5326: 5286: 4756: 4714: 4672: 4630: 4588: 4546: 4504: 4462: 4420: 4378: 4336: 4294: 4252: 4210: 4168: 4126: 4084: 4042: 4000: 3958: 3916: 3874: 3832: 1807: 1799: 1666: 1524: 1504: 1494: 1489: 1468: 1234: 414: 5505: 3348:, p. 665, note 24 (ninth-generation descendant), and p. 668 (release and pardon). 1514: 1448: 5584: 5321: 5261: 5130: 5102: 5050: 5004: 4979: 4867: 4830: 4742: 4700: 4658: 4616: 4574: 4532: 4490: 4448: 4406: 4364: 4322: 4280: 4238: 4196: 4154: 4112: 4070: 4028: 3986: 3944: 3902: 3860: 3818: 3779: 3745: 3587: 3562: 3509: 3326: 3156: 3122: 3085: 3047: 3009: 2975: 2941: 2907: 2873: 2839: 2745: 2711: 2551: 2249: 1994: 1870: 1746: 1698: 1463: 1458: 1453: 1162: 730: 710: 485: 367: 3372:, pages 660 (date of the fall of Hangzhou) and 665 (route of his retreat to Fujian). 2790:

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of southern Vietnam allowed Yang (Duong) and his surviving followers to resettle in

1873:

committed suicide the next day to avoid humiliation at their hands. Remnants of the

5753: 5562: 5525: 5515: 5500: 5473: 5458: 5296: 5151: 5122: 3717:

Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science: Extra volumes

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Letter from the Empress Dowager Helena Wang (the "honorary mother"(孝正皇太后王氏) of the

2178: 2125:, the last Ming bastion in Jiangxi. In July, a new Southern Campaign led by Manchu 1987: 1678: 1604: 1571: 1539: 1529: 1443: 1438: 841: 399: 391: 51: 3609:, pp. 760–761 (Ming resistance in late 1647) and 765 (Li Chengdong's mutiny). 3075: 3037: 2153: 5944: 5796: 5739: 5657: 5432: 5407: 5096: 4973: 4861: 4824: 2792: 2778: 2739: 2707: 2663: 2490: 2473: 2315: 2271: 2095: 1979: 1859: 1832: 1770: 1586: 2741:

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Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864

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Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864

2409: 2405: 2294: 2220: 2071: 1811: 743: 660: 5019: 2389:, defeating the Dutch and driving them out of Taiwan. He then established the 2224: 1720:, in hope of using them to annihilate the Shun forces. Ming loyalists fled to 5960: 5801: 5594: 2731: 2629: 2413: 2412:

with the title Duke of Hanjun and he and his soldiers were inducted into the

2363: 2126: 2083: 2062: 2006: 1998: 1882: 1717: 1519: 1509: 1499: 533: 500: 4895:"Epidemics in late pre-modern Vietnam and their links with her neighbours 1" 2481: 2322:, whose surrender to the Qing in April 1644 had allowed Dorgon to start the 5577: 5227: 5184: 5167: 5156: 2616: 2527: 2522: 2502: 2498: 2223:) to the Pope with a request for help. November 1650. Latin translation by 2087: 1916: 1912: 1890: 1874: 1862:

were known for accusing the eunuchs and others of a lack of righteousness.

1850: 1827: 1823: 1714: 1706: 1690: 1674: 1414: 1397: 1380: 1108: 1084: 1071: 1058: 1002: 961: 899: 613: 603: 580: 324: 311: 95: 30: 5636: 2005:

on June 1, the emperor fled Nanjing. Qing armies led by the Manchu prince

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On April 24, 1644, Li's soldiers breached the walls of the Ming capital

5811: 5667: 2394: 2267: 2245: 2109:

In October 1645, the Longwu Emperor heard that another Ming pretender,

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Koxinga then decided to take Taiwan from the Dutch. He launched the

5095:, in Frederic W. Mote; Denis Twitchett; John King Fairbank (eds.), 4978:, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 73–119, 2298: 2114: 1742: 1734: 146: 130: 2169:, who had fled Fuzhou by sea, soon founded another Ming regime in 2023:, declared himself regent in 1645, but surrendered the next year. 5098:

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in the next two years, Li failed to retake important cities.

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Routledge. pp. 35–36. 2667:(2011) by Jose Rabasa, p. 37. 2643: 2211:Zhu Changqing, Prince of Huai 2205:The Nanning court (1646–1651) 1955:The Nanjing court (1644–1645) 1817: 1705:then opened the gates of the 627: 586: 562: 539: 515: 456: 6007:1644 establishments in China 5875:Covered jar with carp design 5491:Transition from Ming to Qing 5175:Dynasties in Chinese history 5071:Lin, Renchuan (林仁川) (1987), 4893:Li, Tana (28–29 June 2012). 2708:10.1017/CBO9781316401224.007 2648: 2535:Transition from Ming to Qing 2293:In 1653, the Qing court put 2248:– the father of one of the " 2029:The Fuzhou court (1645–1646) 1741:and organized resistance at 1689:who founded the short-lived 223:Transition from Ming to Qing 7: 5870:Ming presentation porcelain 5469:Japanese invasions of Korea 5018:Kennedy, George A. (1943). 4999:Hucker, Charles O. (1985), 4860:. In Mair, Victor H (ed.). 3744:. Routledge. pp. 57–. 3233:, pp. 345 and 346, note 86. 2934:Millward, James A. (1998). 2832:Millward, James A. (1998). 2606:The historical position of 2516: 2021:Zhu Changfang, Prince of Lu 1965:Zhu Changfang, Prince of Lu 59: 21:History of the Ming dynasty 10: 6043: 5732:Compilations and Documents 5363:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns 4968:Dennerline, Jerry (2002), 4960: 3121:. Routledge. p. 152. 2968:Dwyer, Arienne M. (2007). 2688:Wakeman, Volume 1, p. 354. 2608:Koxinga's regime on Taiwan 2362:(Zheng Chenggong), son of 2344: 2262:Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui 2259: 2208: 2183:Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui 2177:Province, proclaiming the 2146: 2042: 2035:Zhu Yujian, Prince of Tang 2032: 1958: 364:People's Republic of China 28: 18: 5936: 5903: 5865:Chinese lacquerware table 5825: 5784: 5731: 5688: 5645: 5627:Embroidered Uniform Guard 5555: 5441: 5388:Prince of Anhua rebellion 5350: 5244: 5235: 5181: 5172: 5164: 3221:, p. 149 (item 840). 2149:Zhu Yuyue, Prince of Tang 1961:Zhu Yousong, Prince of Fu 1919:, as well as many of the 1667:imperial dynasty of China 1656: 1608: 1552:Manchuria under Ming rule 1370: 1131: 1053: 933: 866: 796: 670: 359: 283: 279: 266: 249: 232: 228: 218: 214: 202: 190: 178: 166: 162: 152: 142: 101: 90: 78: 73: 38: 5928:Great Ming Treasure Note 5807:Ming Ancestors Mausoleum 5590:Administrative divisions 5393:Prince of Ning rebellion 3675:, p. 973, note 194. 3321:Dillon, Michael (2016). 2579: 2557:Koxinga Ancestral Shrine 29:Not to be confused with 5747:The Hundred-word Eulogy 5413:Great Rites Controversy 5267:Ming conquest of Yunnan 3738:Pao Chao Hsieh (2013). 3272:, pp. 396 and 404. 3149:Michael Dillon (2013). 2387:Siege of Fort Zeelandia 2111:Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu 2039:Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu 1724:, where they enthroned 5785:Palaces and Mausoleums 5775:Ming Veritable Records 5423:Luso-Chinese agreement 4926:公餘捷記 • Công dư tiệp ký 2342: 2228: 2162: 2054: 1781:(based in present-day 1567:2nd invasion of Joseon 1562:1st invasion of Joseon 6022:17th century in China 5880:Yongning Temple Stele 5617:Imperial Commissioner 5342:Reign of Ren and Xuan 5302:Ming treasure voyages 5292:Dao Ganmeng rebellion 5123:Wakeman, Frederic Jr. 5091:Struve, Lynn (1988), 5026:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 4970:"The Shun-chih Reign" 3772:Pao C. Hsieh (1967). 2545:Emperor's family tree 2340: 2324:Qing conquest of Ming 2218: 2156: 2052: 1795:The Peach Blossom Fan 1122:(mainland, 1912–1949) 5479:Sino-Dutch conflicts 5378:Rebellion of Cao Qin 5307:Ming–Turpan conflict 5257:Red Turban Rebellion 2734:; Xing Hang (2016), 1875:Ming imperial family 1362:Ming−Qing transition 5826:Society and Culture 5761:Yongle Encyclopedia 5600:Imperial Clan Court 5543:Kingdom of Tungning 5496:Jurchen unification 5428:Jiajing wokou raids 5317:Battle of Palembang 5282:Battle of Buir Lake 5189:Kingdom of Tungning 5093:"The Southern Ming" 5043:Khánh Trần (1993). 5021:"Chu Yu-sung" 3648:, pp. 767–768. 3479:, pp. 675–676. 3185:, pp. 641–642. 2562:Kingdom of Tungning 2404:Koxinga's grandson 2391:Kingdom of Tungning 2351:Kingdom of Tungning 1804:Ming–Qing cataclysm 1779:Kingdom of Tungning 1635:traditional Chinese 1557:Jurchen unification 339:Kingdom of Tungning 5992:Dynasties of China 5675:Military conquests 5521:Peasant rebellions 5398:Capture of Malacca 5373:Defense of Beijing 5287:Lin Kuan rebellion 5085:on August 15, 2007 5038:. pp. 195–96. 3504:Xing Hang (2015), 2777:2016-11-10 at the 2368:Marquis of Weiyuan 2343: 2229: 2163: 2055: 1808:global temperature 1800:Chinese literature 1775:Prince of Ningjing 1651:), officially the 1627:simplified Chinese 1410:Peasant rebellions 1137: 947:Five Dynasties and 939: 874:Southern dynasties 802: 701:Chu–Han Contention 693:(206 BCE – 220 CE) 94:Rump state of the 5954: 5953: 5663:Gunpowder weapons 5622:Grand coordinator 5585:Grand Secretariat 5551: 5550: 5445:(1572–1683) 5354:(1435–1572) 5322:Battle of Kherlen 5272:Ming–Mong Mao War 5262:Wu Mian rebellion 5248:(1368–1435) 5195: 5194: 5182:Succeeded by 5136:978-0-520-04804-1 5010:978-0-8047-1193-7 4985:978-0-521-24334-6 4951:Khánh Trần (1993) 4856:Li, Tana (2016). 4819:Li, Tana (2015). 4748:978-1-107-12184-3 4706:978-1-107-12184-3 4664:978-1-107-12184-3 4622:978-1-107-12184-3 4580:978-1-107-12184-3 4538:978-1-107-12184-3 4496:978-1-107-12184-3 4454:978-1-107-12184-3 4412:978-1-107-12184-3 4370:978-1-107-12184-3 4328:978-1-107-12184-3 4286:978-1-107-12184-3 4244:978-1-107-12184-3 4202:978-1-107-12184-3 4160:978-1-107-12184-3 4118:978-1-107-12184-3 4076:978-1-107-12184-3 4034:978-1-107-12184-3 3992:978-1-107-12184-3 3950:978-1-107-12184-3 3908:978-1-107-12184-3 3866:978-1-107-12184-3 3824:978-1-107-12184-3 3785:978-0-7146-1026-9 3751:978-1-136-90274-1 3162:978-1-136-80940-8 3077:Great Entereprise 2717:978-1-107-12184-3 2679:, pt. 1, p. 645). 2552:History of Taiwan 2376:Prince of Yanping 2250:Three Feudatories 2173:, the capital of 1995:Yangzhou massacre 1941:Milayin rebellion 1871:Chongzhen Emperor 1765:(1652–1659). The 1761:(1646–1647), and 1747:Yangzhou massacre 1699:Chongzhen Emperor 1596: 1595: 1327: 1326: 1284:Transport history 1210:Education history 1182: 1181: 1177: 1176: 1163:Republic of China 1145:People's Republic 1118:Republic of China 1097: 1096: 1046: 1045: 1041: 1040: 926: 925: 859: 858: 854: 853: 790: 789: 623:Spring and Autumn 486:Liao civilization 377: 376: 368:Republic of China 355: 354: 351: 350: 317: 316: 253:Hongguang Emperor 204:• 1646–1662 192:• 1646–1647 180:• 1645–1646 173:Hongguang Emperor 168:• 1644–1645 6034: 5754:Huang-Ming Zuxun 5526:Jiashen Incident 5516:She-An Rebellion 5501:Seven Grievances 5474:Donglin movement 5459:Bozhou rebellion 5446: 5355: 5332:Lam Sơn uprising 5312:Ming–Đại Ngu War 5297:Jingnan campaign 5249: 5242: 5241: 5221: 5214: 5207: 5198: 5197: 5165:Preceded by 5162: 5161: 5139: 5117: 5116: 5115: 5086: 5067: 5065: 5063: 5039: 5023: 5013: 4994: 4993: 4992: 4954: 4948: 4942: 4941: 4939: 4938: 4921: 4915: 4914: 4912: 4910: 4890: 4884: 4883: 4881: 4880: 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2759: 2758: 2728: 2722: 2721: 2695: 2689: 2686: 2680: 2674: 2668: 2659: 2637: 2634:Donglin movement 2626: 2620: 2613:House of Koxinga 2604: 2598: 2590: 2401:, Prince of Lu. 2355:House of Koxinga 2301:(in what is now 2015:official history 1988:Donglin movement 1854:devolved to the 1822:The fall of the 1737:obtained modern 1679:Jiashen Incident 1669:and a series of 1663: 1658: 1649: 1640: 1632: 1619: 1610: 1572:Seven Grievances 1427:She–An Rebellion 1365: 1363: 1353: 1346: 1339: 1330: 1329: 1319: 1312: 1305: 1247:Military history 1205:Economic history 1193:Related articles 1170: 1152: 1134: 1133: 1129: 1128: 1123: 1090: 1077: 1064: 1051: 1050: 1034: 1021: 1008: 989: 979: 967: 954: 936: 935: 931: 930: 915: 905: 892: 879: 864: 863: 847: 842:Sixteen Kingdoms 825: 815: 799: 798: 794: 793: 783: 749: 736: 726: 716: 715:(202 BCE – 9 CE) 706: 694: 681: 668: 667: 646: 638: 636: 632: 629: 619: 609: 597: 595: 591: 588: 573: 571: 567: 564: 550: 548: 544: 541: 526: 524: 520: 517: 467: 465: 461: 458: 402: 392:History of China 379: 378: 347: 346: 333: 332: 321: 320: 308: 307: 301: 300: 285: 284: 268:• Death of 115: 83: 68: 62: 55: 47: 46: 36: 35: 6042: 6041: 6037: 6036: 6035: 6033: 6032: 6031: 5957: 5956: 5955: 5950: 5945:History of Ming 5932: 5899: 5821: 5797:Chaotian Palace 5780: 5740:History of Yuan 5727: 5684: 5641: 5547: 5447: 5444: 5437: 5433:Single whip law 5408:Ningbo incident 5383:Miao rebellions 5356: 5353: 5346: 5250: 5247: 5231: 5225: 5191: 5187: 5178: 5170: 5148: 5143: 5137: 5113: 5111: 5109: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5011: 4990: 4988: 4986: 4963: 4958: 4957: 4949: 4945: 4936: 4934: 4923: 4922: 4918: 4908: 4906: 4891: 4887: 4878: 4876: 4874: 4854: 4850: 4841: 4839: 4837: 4817: 4813: 4804: 4802: 4798: 4787: 4781: 4777: 4765: 4763: 4754: 4753: 4749: 4739: 4735: 4723: 4721: 4712: 4711: 4707: 4697: 4693: 4681: 4679: 4670: 4669: 4665: 4655: 4651: 4639: 4637: 4628: 4627: 4623: 4613: 4609: 4597: 4595: 4586: 4585: 4581: 4571: 4567: 4555: 4553: 4544: 4543: 4539: 4529: 4525: 4513: 4511: 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articles: 2031: 1980:Zhang Xianzhong 1967: 1959:Main articles: 1957: 1937: 1911:The Manchu-led 1860:Donglin Academy 1833:Maunder Minimum 1820: 1798:, a classic of 1597: 1592: 1591: 1587:Great Clearance 1488: 1366: 1361: 1359: 1357: 1323: 1294: 1293: 1289:Women's history 1195: 1194: 1185: 1184: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1166: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1126: 1121: 1112: 1111: 1100: 1099: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1080: 1075: 1067: 1062: 1048: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1024: 1019: 1011: 1006: 998: 992: 987: 977: 965: 957: 952: 948: 928: 927: 922: 913: 903: 895: 890: 882: 877: 873: 861: 860: 855: 850: 845: 837: 834: 828: 823: 813: 791: 786: 781: 773: 747: 739: 734: 724: 714: 704: 692: 684: 679: 664: 663: 652: 651: 644: 634: 630: 625: 617: 607: 593: 589: 584: 576: 569: 565: 560: 547: 1046 BCE 546: 542: 537: 529: 523: 1600 BCE 522: 518: 513: 504: 503: 492: 491: 464: 2000 BCE 463: 459: 454: 446: 435: 434: 370: 366: 344: 330: 305: 272: 259: 242: 205: 193: 181: 169: 138: 110: 86: 69: 57: 56: 49: 41: 34: 27: 17: 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1254: 1249: 1244: 1243: 1242: 1232: 1227: 1222: 1220:Jewish history 1217: 1212: 1207: 1202: 1196: 1192: 1191: 1190: 1187: 1186: 1180: 1179: 1175: 1174: 1172: 1171: 1158: 1156: 1154: 1153: 1151:(1949–present) 1140: 1138: 1132: 1125: 1124: 1113: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1102: 1101: 1095: 1094: 1092: 1091: 1079: 1078: 1066: 1065: 1054: 1044: 1043: 1039: 1038: 1036: 1035: 1025: 1022: 1012: 1009: 999: 995: 993: 991: 990: 980: 969: 968: 956: 955: 942: 940: 934: 924: 923: 921: 920: 919: 918: 917: 916: 894: 893: 881: 880: 867: 857: 856: 852: 851: 849: 848: 838: 835: 831: 829: 827: 826: 816: 805: 803: 797: 788: 787: 785: 784: 772: 771: 751: 750: 744:Three Kingdoms 738: 737: 727: 717: 707: 696: 695: 683: 682: 671: 665: 659: 658: 657: 654: 653: 650: 649: 648: 647: 642:Warring States 639: 635: 476 BCE 610: 608:(1046–771 BCE) 599: 598: 594: 256 BCE 575: 574: 552: 551: 528: 527: 505: 499: 498: 497: 494: 493: 490: 489: 469: 468: 445: 444: 436: 430: 429: 428: 425: 424: 423: 422: 420:Historiography 417: 412: 404: 403: 395: 394: 388: 387: 375: 374: 361: 357: 356: 353: 352: 349: 348: 341: 335: 334: 327: 318: 315: 314: 309: 297: 296: 291: 281: 280: 277: 276: 273: 270:Yongli Emperor 267: 264: 263: 260: 250: 247: 246: 243: 233: 230: 229: 226: 225: 220: 219:Historical era 216: 215: 212: 211: 209:Yongli Emperor 206: 203: 200: 199: 197:Shaowu Emperor 194: 191: 188: 187: 185:Longwu Emperor 182: 179: 176: 175: 170: 167: 164: 163: 160: 159: 156: 150: 149: 144: 140: 139: 137: 136: 135: 134: 128: 122: 116: 105: 103: 99: 98: 92: 88: 87: 84: 76: 75: 71: 70: 42: 39: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6039: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5967:Southern Ming 5965: 5964: 5962: 5947: 5946: 5942: 5941: 5939: 5935: 5929: 5926: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5913: 5912: 5909: 5908: 5906: 5902: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5845: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5830: 5828: 5824: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5802:Ming Xiaoling 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5789: 5787: 5783: 5777: 5776: 5772: 5770: 5769: 5765: 5763: 5762: 5758: 5756: 5755: 5751: 5749: 5748: 5744: 5742: 5741: 5737: 5736: 5734: 5730: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5697: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5687: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5669: 5666: 5665: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5650: 5648: 5644: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5611: 5610:Vassal prince 5608: 5607: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5595:Eastern Depot 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5565: 5564: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5554: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5538:Southern Ming 5536: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5493: 5492: 5489: 5485: 5482: 5481: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5451: 5449: 5440: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5360: 5358: 5349: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5234: 5229: 5222: 5217: 5215: 5210: 5208: 5203: 5202: 5199: 5190: 5186: 5177: 5176: 5169: 5163: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5149: 5138: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5110: 5104: 5100: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5075: 5069: 5058: 5056:9789813016675 5052: 5048: 5047: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5016: 5012: 5006: 5002: 4997: 4987: 4981: 4977: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4965: 4953:, p. 15. 4952: 4947: 4932: 4928: 4927: 4920: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4889: 4875: 4869: 4865: 4864: 4859: 4852: 4838: 4832: 4828: 4827: 4822: 4815: 4797: 4793: 4786: 4779: 4771: 4758: 4750: 4744: 4737: 4729: 4716: 4708: 4702: 4695: 4687: 4674: 4666: 4660: 4653: 4645: 4632: 4624: 4618: 4611: 4603: 4590: 4582: 4576: 4569: 4561: 4548: 4540: 4534: 4527: 4519: 4506: 4498: 4492: 4485: 4477: 4464: 4456: 4450: 4443: 4435: 4422: 4414: 4408: 4401: 4393: 4380: 4372: 4366: 4359: 4351: 4338: 4330: 4324: 4317: 4309: 4296: 4288: 4282: 4275: 4267: 4254: 4246: 4240: 4233: 4225: 4212: 4204: 4198: 4191: 4183: 4170: 4162: 4156: 4149: 4141: 4128: 4120: 4114: 4107: 4099: 4086: 4078: 4072: 4065: 4057: 4044: 4036: 4030: 4023: 4015: 4002: 3994: 3988: 3981: 3973: 3960: 3952: 3946: 3939: 3931: 3918: 3910: 3904: 3897: 3889: 3876: 3868: 3862: 3855: 3847: 3834: 3826: 3820: 3813: 3806: 3801: 3787: 3781: 3777: 3776: 3768: 3753: 3747: 3743: 3742: 3734: 3719: 3718: 3710: 3703: 3698: 3691: 3686: 3684: 3682: 3674: 3669: 3662: 3657: 3655: 3647: 3642: 3635: 3630: 3628: 3620: 3615: 3608: 3603: 3595: 3589: 3585: 3578: 3570: 3564: 3560: 3553: 3546: 3541: 3534: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3517: 3511: 3507: 3500: 3493: 3488: 3486: 3478: 3473: 3466: 3461: 3459: 3451: 3446: 3439: 3434: 3427: 3422: 3415: 3410: 3408: 3406: 3398: 3393: 3386: 3381: 3379: 3371: 3366: 3359: 3354: 3347: 3342: 3334: 3328: 3324: 3317: 3310: 3305: 3298: 3293: 3291: 3283: 3278: 3271: 3266: 3259: 3254: 3247: 3242: 3240: 3232: 3227: 3220: 3215: 3208: 3203: 3197:, p. 642 3196: 3191: 3184: 3179: 3164: 3158: 3154: 3153: 3145: 3130: 3124: 3120: 3119: 3111: 3104: 3093: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3078: 3070: 3055: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3040: 3032: 3017: 3011: 3007: 3006: 2998: 2983: 2977: 2973: 2972: 2964: 2949: 2943: 2939: 2938: 2930: 2915: 2909: 2905: 2904: 2896: 2881: 2875: 2871: 2870: 2862: 2847: 2841: 2837: 2836: 2828: 2821: 2818:Tong, James, 2815: 2808: 2802: 2795: 2794: 2787: 2780: 2776: 2773: 2767: 2753: 2747: 2743: 2742: 2737: 2733: 2732:Tonio Andrade 2727: 2719: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2694: 2685: 2678: 2673: 2666: 2665: 2658: 2654: 2635: 2631: 2630:Wanli Emperor 2625: 2618: 2614: 2609: 2603: 2595: 2589: 2585: 2575: 2572: 2570: 2569:Iquan's Party 2567: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2554: 2553: 2550: 2546: 2543: 2542: 2541: 2538: 2536: 2533: 2529: 2526: 2525: 2524: 2521: 2520: 2514: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2491:South Vietnam 2488: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2415: 2414:Eight Banners 2411: 2407: 2402: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2372:Duke of Zhang 2369: 2365: 2364:Zheng Zhilong 2361: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2339: 2330: 2327: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2263: 2253: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2226: 2222: 2217: 2212: 2202: 2198: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2160: 2155: 2150: 2140: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2107: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2084:Zheng Zhilong 2080: 2078: 2073: 2069: 2064: 2063:Zhu Yuanzhang 2060: 2051: 2046: 2040: 2036: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2016: 2011: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1999:Yangtze River 1996: 1991: 1989: 1983: 1981: 1977: 1971: 1966: 1962: 1952: 1950: 1945: 1942: 1929: 1925: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1887: 1886: 1884: 1883:Yangtze River 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1863: 1861: 1857: 1852: 1847: 1845: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1829: 1825: 1815: 1813: 1810:known as the 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1796: 1790: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1773:in 1662. The 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1757:(1645–1646), 1756: 1750: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1730: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1654: 1650: 1644: 1636: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1614: 1606: 1602: 1601:Southern Ming 1588: 1585: 1583: 1580: 1578: 1575: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1432: 1431: 1428: 1425: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1412: 1411: 1408: 1404: 1401: 1400: 1399: 1396: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1386:Southern Ming 1384: 1383: 1382: 1379: 1378: 1374: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1354: 1349: 1347: 1342: 1340: 1335: 1334: 1331: 1320: 1315: 1313: 1308: 1306: 1301: 1300: 1298: 1297: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1252:Naval history 1250: 1248: 1245: 1241: 1238: 1237: 1236: 1235:Music history 1233: 1231: 1230:Media history 1228: 1226: 1223: 1221: 1218: 1216: 1215:Legal history 1213: 1211: 1208: 1206: 1203: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1189: 1188: 1169:1949–present) 1165: 1164: 1160: 1159: 1157: 1149: 1148: 1142: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1135: 1130: 1120: 1119: 1115: 1114: 1110: 1104: 1103: 1087: 1086: 1082: 1081: 1074: 1073: 1069: 1068: 1061: 1060: 1056: 1055: 1052: 1031: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1018: 1017: 1013: 1010: 1005: 1004: 1000: 997: 996: 994: 986: 985: 984:Southern Song 981: 976: 975: 974:Northern Song 971: 970: 964: 963: 959: 958: 951: 950: 944: 943: 941: 938: 937: 932: 912: 909: 908: 907: 906: 902: 901: 897: 896: 889: 888: 884: 883: 876: 875: 869: 868: 865: 844: 843: 839: 836: 833: 832: 830: 822: 821: 817: 812: 811: 807: 806: 804: 801: 800: 795: 780: 779: 775: 774: 770: 769: 764: 763: 758: 757: 753: 752: 746: 745: 741: 740: 733: 732: 728: 723: 722: 718: 713: 712: 708: 705:(206–202 BCE) 703: 702: 698: 697: 691: 690: 686: 685: 680:(221–207 BCE) 678: 677: 673: 672: 669: 662: 656: 655: 645:(475–221 BCE) 643: 640: 624: 621: 620: 618:(771–256 BCE) 616: 615: 611: 606: 605: 601: 600: 583: 582: 578: 577: 559: 558: 554: 553: 536: 535: 531: 530: 512: 511: 507: 506: 502: 496: 495: 488: 487: 482: 481: 476: 475: 471: 470: 453: 452: 448: 447: 443: 442: 438: 437: 433: 427: 426: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 407: 406: 405: 401: 397: 396: 393: 390: 389: 385: 381: 380: 373: 369: 365: 362: 360:Today part of 358: 342: 340: 337: 336: 328: 326: 323: 322: 319: 313: 310: 303: 302: 299: 298: 295: 292: 290: 287: 286: 282: 278: 274: 271: 265: 261: 258: 255:enthroned in 254: 248: 244: 241: 237: 231: 227: 224: 221: 217: 213: 210: 207: 201: 198: 195: 189: 186: 183: 177: 174: 171: 165: 161: 157: 155: 151: 148: 145: 141: 132: 129: 126: 123: 120: 117: 113: 109: 108: 107: 106: 104: 100: 97: 93: 89: 82: 77: 72: 66: 61: 53: 37: 32: 26: 22: 5987:Qing dynasty 5982:Ming dynasty 5943: 5937:Other topics 5848:Four Masters 5773: 5766: 5759: 5752: 5745: 5738: 5578:House of Zhu 5537: 5531:Shanhai Pass 5511:Great Plague 5454:Jianzhou war 5228:Ming dynasty 5185:Qing dynasty 5173: 5168:Ming dynasty 5126: 5112:, retrieved 5097: 5083:the original 5078: 5073: 5060:. Retrieved 5045: 5029: 5000: 4989:, retrieved 4974: 4946: 4935:. Retrieved 4925: 4919: 4907:. Retrieved 4898: 4888: 4877:. Retrieved 4862: 4851: 4840:. Retrieved 4825: 4814: 4803:. Retrieved 4794:(11): 4–30. 4791: 4778: 4736: 4694: 4652: 4610: 4568: 4526: 4484: 4442: 4400: 4358: 4316: 4274: 4232: 4190: 4148: 4106: 4064: 4022: 3980: 3938: 3896: 3854: 3812: 3800: 3789:. Retrieved 3774: 3767: 3755:. Retrieved 3740: 3733: 3722:. Retrieved 3720:. p. 57 3716: 3709: 3697: 3673:Wakeman 1985 3668: 3646:Wakeman 1985 3641: 3634:Wakeman 1985 3619:Wakeman 1985 3614: 3607:Wakeman 1985 3602: 3583: 3577: 3558: 3552: 3545:Wakeman 1985 3540: 3533:Wakeman 1985 3505: 3499: 3472: 3445: 3433: 3421: 3392: 3365: 3353: 3341: 3322: 3316: 3309:Kennedy 1943 3304: 3297:Wakeman 1985 3282:Wakeman 1985 3277: 3270:Wakeman 1985 3265: 3253: 3246:Wakeman 1985 3231:Wakeman 1985 3226: 3214: 3202: 3190: 3178: 3166:. Retrieved 3151: 3144: 3132:. Retrieved 3117: 3110: 3102: 3095:. Retrieved 3076: 3069: 3057:. 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