History of the Ming dynasty

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telling his nobles and generals to be loyal to the throne; this was in effect a veiled threat to Cao Qin, after the latter had his associate in the Jinyiwei beaten to death to cover up crimes of illegal foreign transactions. Due to the earlier demise of General Shi Heng in 1459, in a similar warning involving an imperial edict, Cao Qin was to take no chances in allowing himself to be ruined in similar fashion. The loyalty of Cao's Mongol-officer clients was secure due to circumstances of thousands of military officers who had to accept demotions in 1457 because of earlier promotions in aiding the Jingtai Emperor's succession. Robinson states that "Mongol officers no doubt expected that if Cao fell from power, they would soon follow." Cao either planned to kill Ma Ang and Sun Tang as they were to depart the capital with 15,000 troops to Shaanxi on the morning of 7 August, or he simply planned to take advantage of their leave. The conspirators are said to have planned to place their heir apparent on the throne and demote the Tianshun Emperor's position to "grand senior emperor", the title granted to him during the years of his house arrest.

1659:; officials were certainly capable of funding their own public works projects, a symbol of their virtuous political leadership. However, by the second half of the Ming era it became common for officials to solicit money from merchants in order to fund their various projects, such as building bridges or establishing new schools of Confucian learning for the betterment of the gentry. From that point on the gazetteers began mentioning merchants and often in high esteem, since the wealth produced by their economic activity produced resources for the state as well as increased production of books needed for the education of the gentry. Merchants began taking on the highly cultured, connoisseur's attitude and cultivated traits of the gentry class, blurring the lines between merchant and gentry and paving the way for merchant families to produce scholar-officials. The roots of this social transformation and class indistinction could be 1881:(r. 1398–1402) after the Hongwu Emperor's death in 1398. In a prelude to a three-year-long civil war beginning in 1399, The Jianwen Emperor became engaged in a political showdown with his uncle Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan. The emperor was aware of the ambitions of his princely uncles, establishing measures to limit their authority. The militant Zhu Di, given charge over the area encompassing Beijing to watch the Mongols on the frontier, was the most feared of these princes. After the Jianwen Emperor arrested many of Zhu Di's associates, Zhu Di plotted a rebellion. Under the guise of rescuing the young Jianwen Emperor from corrupt officials, Zhu Di personally led forces in the revolt; the palace in Nanjing was burned to the ground, along with the Jianwen Emperor, his wife, mother, and courtiers. Zhu Di assumed the throne as the 1773: 2940: 66: 1909: 1476:. Roughly half a million more Chinese settlers came in later periods; these migrations caused a major shift in the ethnic make-up of the region, since more than half of the roughly 3,000,000 inhabitants at the beginning of the Ming dynasty were non-Han peoples. In this region, the Ming government adopted a policy of dual administration. Areas with majority ethnic Chinese were governed according to Ming laws and policies; areas where native tribal groups dominated had their own set of laws while tribal chiefs promised to maintain order and send tribute to the Ming court in return for needed goods. From 1464 to 1466, the 3072:. Famine, alongside tax increases, widespread military desertions, a declining relief system, and natural disasters such as flooding and inability of the government to properly manage irrigation and flood-control projects caused widespread loss of life and normal civility. The central government was starved of resources and could do very little to mitigate the effects of these calamities. Making matters worse, a widespread epidemic spread across China from Zhejiang to Henan, killing a large but unknown number of people. The famine and drought in late 1620s and 1630s contributed to the rebellions that broke out in 2127: 1855: 7631: 1279: 2893:

copper and cast-iron pots. . .wheat flour, preserves made of orange, peach, pair, nutmeg and ginger, and other fruits of China; salt pork and other salt meats; live fowl of good breed and many fine capons...chestnuts, walnuts...little boxes and writing cases; beds, tables, chairs, and gilded benches, painted in many figures and patterns. They bring domestic buffaloes; geese that resemble swans; horses, some mules and asses; even caged birds, some of which talk, while others sing, and they make them play innumerable tricks...pepper and other spices.

2692:(c. 1520 – 5 February 1570) traveled to Guangzhou in 1556 and wrote the first book on China and the Ming dynasty that was published in Europe (fifteen days after his death); it included information on its geography, provinces, royalty, official class, bureaucracy, shipping, architecture, farming, craftsmanship, merchant affairs, clothing, religious and social customs, music and instruments, writing, education, and justice. In 1557 the Portuguese managed to convince the Ming court to agree on a legal port treaty that would establish 2797: 26: 1174: 1327:(618–907). The goal was to have soldiers become self-reliant farmers in order to sustain themselves while not fighting or training. This system was also similar to the Yuan dynasty military organization of a hereditary caste of soldiers and a hereditary nobility of commanders. The system of the self-sufficient agricultural soldier, however, was largely a farce; infrequent rations and awards were not enough to sustain the troops, and many deserted their ranks if they weren't located in the heavily supplied frontier. 2206: 2388: 1991:. Yet the scholar-officials were not the only political group that the Yongle Emperor had to cooperate with and appease. Historian Michael Chang points out that the Yongle Emperor was an "emperor on horseback" who often traversed between two capitals like in the Mongol tradition and constantly led expeditions into Mongolia. This was opposed by the Confucian establishment while it served to bolster the importance of eunuchs and military officers whose power depended upon the emperor's favor. 1696:(1454–1504) remarked in 1488 how the locals along the eastern coasts of China did not know the exact distances between certain places, which was virtually exclusive knowledge of the Ministry of War and courier agents. This was in stark contrast to the late Ming period, when merchants not only traveled further distances to convey their goods, but also bribed courier officials to use their routes and even had printed geographical guides of commercial routes that imitated the couriers' maps. 3347: 2150:(1398–1457) gained control of the Ming armed forces. Holding the Emperor Yingzong of Ming in captivity was a useless bargaining chip by the Mongols as long as another sat on his throne, so they released him back into the Ming dynasty. The Zhengtong Emperor was placed under house arrest in the palace until the coup against the Jingtai Emperor in 1457, which is known as the Duomen Coup ("Wresting the Gate Incident"). The Emperor Yingzong of Ming retook the throne (r. 1457–1464). 2006: 2183:, Yang Ning (1400–1458), suggested to the Jingtai Emperor that these Mongols be dispersed amongst the local battalions, a proposal that the emperor agreed to (the exact number of Mongols resettled in this fashion is unknown). Despite this, Mongols continued to migrate to Beijing. A massive drought in August 1457 forced over five hundred Mongol families living on the steppe to seek refuge in Ming territories, entering through the Piantou Pass of northwestern 2915:(in office from 1572 to 1582) built up an effective network of alliances with senior officials. However, there was no one after him skilled enough to maintain the stability of these alliances; officials soon banded together in opposing political factions. Over time, the Wanli Emperor grew tired of court affairs and frequent political quarreling amongst his ministers, preferring to stay behind the walls of the Forbidden City and out of his officials' sight. 2986:". He ordered temples built in his honor throughout the Ming Empire, and built personal palaces created with funds allocated for building the previous emperor's tombs. His friends and family gained important positions without qualifications. Wei also published a historical work lambasting and belitting his political opponents. The instability at court came right as natural calamity, pestilence, rebellion, and foreign invasion came to a peak. Although the 3311:(1606–1644) mutinied with his fellow soldiers in western Shaanxi in the early 1630s after the government failed to ship much-needed supplies there. In 1634 he was captured by a Ming general and released only on the terms that he return to service. The agreement soon broke down when a local magistrate had thirty-six of his fellow rebels executed; Li's troops retaliated by killing the officials and continued to lead a rebellion based in Rongyang, central 1445: 2187:. According to the official report by the chief military officer of Piantou Pass, all of these Mongol families populated Beijing, where they were granted lodging and stipends. In July 1461, after Mongols had staged raids in June into Ming territory along the northern tracts of the Yellow River, the Minister of War Ma Ang (1399–1476) and General Sun Tang (died 1471) were appointed to lead a force of 15,000 troops to bolster the defenses of 1705: 2999: 2931:, refused to read petitions and other state papers, and stopped filling the recurrent vacancies of vital upper level administrative posts. Scholar-officials lost prominence in administration as eunuchs became intermediaries between the aloof emperor and his officials; any senior official who wanted to discuss state matters had to persuade powerful eunuchs with a bribe simply to have his demands or message relayed to the emperor. 3296: 2732: 7643: 3124: 2247:

brother, Cao Duo, while attempting to flee out of Beijing by the Chaoyang Gate. Cao fled with his remaining forces to fortify his residential compound in Beijing; Ming troops stormed the residence and Cao Qin committed suicide by throwing himself down a well. As promised by Li Xian before they stormed the residence, imperial troops were allowed to confiscate the property of Cao Qin for themselves.

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preserved by the following Qing dynasty. The civil service dominated government to an unprecedented degree at this time. During the Ming dynasty, the territory of China expanded (and in some cases also retracted) greatly. For a brief period during the Ming dynasty northern Vietnam was included in the Ming dynasty's territory. Other important developments include the moving of the capital from

2123:. After the Emperor Yingzong of Ming's capture, Esen's forces plundered their way across the countryside and all the way to the suburbs of Beijing. Following this was another plundering of the Beijing suburbs in November of that year by local bandits and Ming dynasty soldiers of Mongol descent who dressed as invading Mongols. Many Han Chinese also took to brigandage soon after the Tumu incident. 1644: 2844:, foods that could be cultivated in lands where traditional Chinese staple crops—wheat, millet, and rice—couldn't grow, hence facilitating a rise in the population of China. In the Song dynasty (960–1279), rice had become the major staple crop of the poor; after sweet potatoes were introduced to China around 1560, it gradually became the traditional food of the lower classes. 2967:, excessive tyrannical eunuch power did not become evident until the 1590s when the Wanli Emperor increased their rights over the civil bureaucracy and granted them power to collect provincial taxes. Complaints about eunuchs abusing their powers of taxation, as well as tales of sexual predations and occult practices, surface in popular culture works such as Zhang Yingyu's " 2309: 3335:

revolts in the provinces, essentially fell apart. Unpaid, unfed, the army was defeated by Li Zicheng—now self-styled as the Prince of Shun—and deserted the capital without much of a fight. Li's forces were allowed into the city when the gates were treacherously opened from within. On 26 May 1644, Beijing fell to a rebel army led by Li Zicheng; during the turmoil,

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decline. In the 1630s, a string of one thousand copper coins was worth an ounce of silver; by 1640 this was reduced to the value of half an ounce; by 1643 it was worth roughly one-third of an ounce. For peasants this was an economic disaster, since they paid taxes in silver while conducting local trade and selling their crops with copper coins.

5903: 2191:. Historian David M. Robinson states that "these developments must also have fed suspicion about Mongols living in North China, which in turn exacerbated Mongol feelings of insecurity. However, no direct link can be found between the decision by the Ming Mongols in Beijing to join the coup and activities of steppe Mongols in the northwest." 5891: 1246:. After the dynastic head of the Red Turbans suspiciously died in 1367 while hosted as a guest of Zhu, the latter made his imperial ambitions known by sending an army toward the Yuan capital in 1368. The last Yuan emperor fled north into Mongolia and Zhu declared the founding of the Ming dynasty after razing the Yuan palaces in 3398:. One report says his death was a suicide; another states that he was beaten to death by peasants after he was caught stealing their food. Zhang Xianzhong was killed in January 1647 when one of his own officers, Liu Jinzhong defected to the Qing and pointed Zhang out to a Manchu archer after he fled Chengdu and employed a 2876:...raw silk in bundles...fine untwisted silk, white and of all colors...quantities of velvets, some plain and some embroidered in all sorts of figures, colors, and fashions, with body of gold and embroidered with gold; woven stuff and brocades, of gold and silver upon silk of various colors and patterns...damasks, satins, 2162:(r. 1470–1582) invaded the Ming dynasty and raided as far as the outskirts of Beijing. The Ming employed troops of Mongol descent to fight back Altan Khan's invasion, as well as Mongol military officers against Cao Qin's abortive coup of 1461. Mongol troops were also employed in the suppression of the 3334:

In 1640, masses of Chinese peasants who were starving, unable to pay their taxes, and no longer in fear of the frequently defeated Chinese army, began to form into huge bands of rebels. The Chinese military, caught between fruitless efforts to defeat the Manchu raiders from the north and huge peasant

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After the Chinese had banned direct trade by Chinese merchants with Japan, the Portuguese filled this commercial vacuum as intermediaries between China and Japan. The Portuguese bought Chinese silk and sold it to the Japanese in return for Japanese-mined silver; since silver was more highly valued in

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to counterattack. By midday, Sun Tang's forces had killed two of Cao Qin's brothers and severely wounded Cao in both his arms; his forces took up position in the Great Eastern Market and Lantern Market northeast of Dongan Gate, while Sun deployed artillery units against the rebels. Cao lost his third

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that measured 112 m (370 ft) to 134 m (440 ft) in length and 45 m (150 ft) to 54 m (180 ft) in width. The first voyage from 1405 to 1407 contained 317 vessels with a staff of 70 eunuchs, 180 medical personnel, 5 astrologers, and 300 military officers commanding

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It was said that the Hongwu Emperor forbade eunuchs to learn how to read or engage in politics. Whether or not these restrictions were carried out with absolute success in his reign, eunuchs in the Yongle era and after managed huge imperial workshops, commanded armies, and participated in matters of

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as the paramount commercial center of China. Despite greater efficiency, there were still factors which the government could not control that limited the transportation of taxed grain; for example, in 1420 a widespread crop failure and poor harvest dramatically reduced the tax grain delivered to the

1741:, argued that the state should only mitigate market affairs during times of pending crisis and that merchants were the best gauge in determining the strength of a nation's riches in resources. The government followed this guideline by the mid Ming era when it allowed merchants to take over the state 2287:

as a model for being familiar with both China and the steppe people. The legacy of the Mongol Khan's as supporters of both Eastern and western religions, ruler ship over the plains and steppes, was claimed by the Ming such as patronizing Islam and using the Chinese, Persian, and Mongol languages in

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continued Yuan practices such as hereditary military institutions, demanding Korean and Muslim concubines and eunuchs, having Mongols serve in the Ming military, patronizing Tibetan Buddhism, with the early Ming Emperors seeking to project themselves as "universal rulers" to various peoples such as

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declares that the early rulers faced the question "Was the Ming to be essentially a Chinese version of the Yuan, or was it to be something new?" The Tang dynasty provided an example of cosmopolitan and culturally flexible rule, but the Song dynasty, which never controlled key areas of Central Asia,

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to pardon Cao Qin for killing Lu Gao, head of the Jinyiwei who had been investigating him, Cao Qin began the assault on Dongan Gate, East Chang'an Gate, and West Chang'an Gate, setting fire to the western and eastern gates; these fires were extinguished later in the day by pouring rain. Ming troops

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writes that the Ming had no real administrative authority over Tibet since the various titles given to Tibetan leaders already in power did not confer authority as earlier Mongol Yuan titles had; according to him, "the Ming emperors merely recognized political reality." Some scholars argue that the

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Despite the loss of Beijing and the death of the emperor, Ming power was by no means totally destroyed. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi, and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance. However, there were several pretenders for the Ming throne, and their forces were divided. These scattered

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and ivory; many bed ornaments, hangings, coverlets and tapestries of embroidered velvet...tablecloths, cushions, and carpets; horse-trappings of the same stuffs, and embroidered with glass beads and seed-pearls; also pearls and rubies, sapphires and crystals; metal basins, copper kettles and other

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In 1479, the vice president of the Ministry of War burned the court records documenting Zheng He's voyages; it was one of many events signalling China's shift to an inward foreign policy. Shipbuilding laws were implemented that restricted vessels to a small size; the concurrent decline of the Ming

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The Emperor Yingzong of Ming's second reign was a troubled one and Mongol forces within the Ming military structure continued to be problematic. Mongols serving the Ming military also became increasingly circumspect as the Ming began to heavily distrust their Mongol subjects after the Tumu Crisis.

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after 1474. The Yongle Emperor's moving of the capital from Nanjing to Beijing was largely in response to the court's need of keeping a closer eye on the Mongol threat in the north. Scholar-officials also associated the lavish expense of the fleets with eunuch power at court, and so halted funding

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of Vietnam was recognized as an independent tribute state. There was also the threat and revival of Mongol power on the northern steppe which drew court attention away from other matters. The Yongle Emperor had staged enormous invasions deep into Mongol territory, competing with Korea for lands in

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Zhu Yuanzhang, founder of the Ming dynasty, drew on both past institutions and new approaches in order to create 'jiaohua' (meaning 'civilization') as an organic Chinese governing process. This included a building of schools at all levels and an increased study of the classics as well as books on

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Unable to attack the heart of Ming directly, the Manchu instead bided their time, developing their own artillery and gathering allies. They were able to enlist Ming government officials and generals as their strategic advisors. A large part of the Ming Army deserted to the Manchu banner. In 1632,

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he offered to lead his tribes in support of the Ming army. This offer was declined, but he was granted the title of dragon-tiger general for his gesture. Recognizing the weakness in the Ming authority in Manchuria at the time, he took control over all of the other unrelated tribes surrounding his

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in 1575, an act greatly appreciated by the Ming admiral who had been sent to capture Limahong. In fact, the Chinese admiral invited the Spanish to board his vessel and travel back to China, a trip which included two Spanish soldiers and two Christian friars eager to spread the faith. However, the

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On 7 August 1461, the Chinese general Cao Qin (died 1461) and his Ming troops of Mongol descent staged a coup against the Emperor Yingzong of Ming out of fear of being next on his purge-list of those who aided him in the Wresting the Gate Incident. On the previous day, the emperor issued an edict

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in the early 16th century as well as the Liu Brothers and Tiger Yang in a 1510 rebellion. The Mongol incursions prompted the Ming authorities to construct the Great Wall from the late 15th century to the 16th century; John Fairbank notes that "it proved to be a futile military gesture but vividly

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regime of Japan shut down most of its foreign trade with European powers, causing a halt of yet another source of silver coming into China. However, the greatest stunt to the flow of silver came from the Americas, while Japanese silver still came into China in limited amounts. Some scholars even

2049:—culminating in the Song and Yuan dynasties—but no government-sponsored tributary mission of this grandeur size had ever been assembled before. To service seven different tributary missions abroad, the Nanjing shipyards constructed two thousand vessels from 1403 to 1419, which included the large 1691:

and lowly retail merchants should have the right to travel far outside their home town. Despite his efforts to impose this view, his building of an efficient communication network for his military and official personnel strengthened and fomented the rise of a potential commercial network running

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These events occurring at roughly the same time caused a dramatic spike in the value of silver and made paying taxes nearly impossible for most provinces. People began hoarding precious silver as there was progressively less of it, forcing the ratio of the value of copper to silver into a steep

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of salt production. This was a gradual process where the state supplied northern frontier armies with enough grain by granting merchants licenses to trade in salt in return for their shipping services. The state realized that merchants could buy salt licenses with silver and in turn boost state

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Officials aggravated the Wanli Emperor about which of his sons should succeed to the throne; he also grew equally disgusted with senior advisors constantly bickering about how to manage the state. There were rising factions at court and across the intellectual sphere of China stemming from the

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system and thus allowing this disaster to occur. The historian Tanaka Masatoshi regarded "Deng's uprising as the first peasant rebellion that resisted the class relationship of rent rather than the depredations of officials, and therefore as the first genuinely class-based 'peasant warfare' in

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in Beijing during the first quarter of the 15th century. The Ming dynasty is, for many reasons, generally known as a period of stable effective government. It had long been the most secure and unchallenged ruling house that China had known up until that time. Its institutions were generally

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rejected eunuch influence at court and rejected this new foreign embassy by the Portuguese once Malaccan ambassadors arrived in China damning the Portuguese for deposing their king; the Portuguese diplomatic mission languished in a Chinese prison where they died. Simão de Andrade, brother to

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The Hongwu Emperor was unaware of economic inflation even as he continued to hand out multitudes of banknotes as awards; by 1425, paper currency was worth only 0.025% to 0.014% its original value in the 14th century. The value of standard copper coinage dropped significantly as well due to

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or by several different inland canals that necessitated the transferring of grain onto several different barge types in the process, including shallow and deep-water barges. William Atwell quotes Ming dynasty sources that state the amount of collected tax grain was actually 30 million

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significant religious nature of the relationship of the Ming court with Tibetan lamas is underrepresented in modern scholarship. Others underscore the commercial aspect of the relationship, noting the Ming dynasty's insufficient number of horses and the need to maintain the

2374:) the Japanese fought with the Korean and Ming armies. Though initially successful, the Japanese forces were pushed back southward after the intervention of Ming China. With the combined strength of Ming and Korean forces on land, and the naval prowess of Korean admiral 1500:, and Guizhou revolted against what they saw as oppressive government rule; in response, the Ming government sent an army of 30,000 troops (including 1,000 Mongols) to join the 160,000 local troops of Guangxi and crushed the rebellion. After the scholar and philosopher 2175:

One method to ensure that Mongols could not band together in significant numbers in the north was a scheme of relocation and sending their troops on military missions to southern China. In January 1450, two thousand Mongol troops stationed in Nanjing were sent to

1663:(960–1279), but it became much more pronounced in the Ming. Writings of family instructions for lineage groups in the late Ming period display the fact that one no longer inherited his position in the categorization of the four occupations (in descending order): 2171:

expressed China's siege mentality." Yet the Great Wall was not meant to be a purely defensive fortification; its towers functioned rather as a series of lit beacons and signalling stations to allow rapid warning to friendly units of advancing enemy troops.

2712:'s Moon Harbor in 1623 in order to force local authorities there to allow them to trade, while local Chinese merchants sent urgent petitions to the provincial governor pleading for him to allow the Dutch entry into port. China defeated the Dutch in the 2118:

in charge of affairs as temporary regent. In the battle that ensued, his force of 50,000 troops were decimated by Esen's army. On 3 September 1449, the Emperor Yingzong of Ming was captured and held in captivity by the Mongols—an event known as the

3186:. Although he was named field marshal of all the northeastern forces in 1628, he was executed in 1630 on trumped-up charges of colluding with the Manchus as they staged their raids. Succeeding generals proved unable to eliminate the Manchu threat. 1425:

from the Oirat Mongol ruler Henshen. Ali traded control of Hami with the Ming, then Henshen's Mongols, in numerous battles spanning the reigns of his son Ahmed and his grandson Mansur in a drawn-out and complex series of conflicts now known as the

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as a result of the abandonment of irrigation projects. Consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dikes of the Yellow River.

2363:. Even then the Japanese were only allowed into port once every ten years and were allowed to bring a maximum of three hundred men on two ships; these laws encouraged many Chinese merchants to engage in widespread illegal trade and smuggling. 2378:

at sea, the campaign ended in defeat for the Japanese and their armies were forced to withdraw from the Korean peninsula. However, the victory came at relatively large cost to the Ming government's treasury: some 26,000,000 ounces of silver.

3374:(1612–1650) and Wu Sangui approached Beijing after the army sent by Li was destroyed at Shanhaiguan; the Prince of Shun's army fled the capital on the fourth of June. On 6 June the Manchus and Wu entered the capital and proclaimed the young 2334:

Instead of mounting a counterattack, Ming authorities chose to shut down coastal facilities and starve the pirates out; all foreign trade was to be conducted by the state under the guise of formal tribute missions. These were known as the

5752:"A Eunuch Cooks Boys to Make a Tonic of Male Essence," in Zhang Yingyu, "The Book of Swindles: Selections from a Late Ming Collection," translated by Christopher Rea and Bruce Rusk (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017), pp. 138-141. 2653:

ambassador Fernão Pires de Andrade, had also stirred Chinese speculation that the Portuguese were kidnapping Chinese children to cook and eat them; Simão had purchased children as slaves who were later found by Portuguese authorities in

1528:— the official history of the Ming dynasty compiled later by the Qing court in 1739—states that the Ming established itinerant commanderies overseeing Tibetan administration while also renewing titles of ex-Yuan dynasty officials from 2755:

alone handled the trade of 6 million porcelain items from China to Europe between the years 1602 to 1682. After noting the variety of silk goods traded to Europeans, Ebrey writes of the considerable size of commercial transactions:

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in favor of bolstering the Ming emperor's prestige and reputation at all costs obfuscates the nuanced history of Sino-Tibetan relations during the Ming era. Modern scholars still debate on whether or not the Ming dynasty really had

3370:. This occurred shortly after he learned about the fate of the capital and an army of Li Zicheng marching towards him; weighing his options of alliance, he decided to side with the Manchus. The Manchu army under the Manchu Prince 1257:

Instead of the traditional way of naming a dynasty after the first ruler's home district, Zhu Yuanzhang's choice of 'Ming' or 'Brilliant' for his dynasty followed a Mongol precedent of an uplifting title. Zhu Yuanzhang also took

1814:), with food supplies supported by local wealthy elites, to put down Deng's rebellion and execute the so-called "King Who Eliminates Evil" in the spring of 1449. Many ministers blamed ministers such as Liu Hua for promoting the 1569:

states that the Ming upheld the facade of rule over Tibet through periodic missions of "tribute emissaries" to the Ming court and by granting nominal titles to ruling lamas, but did not actually interfere in Tibetan governance.

2872:, who precariously mentions porcelain only once, even though at this time it is becoming one of the greatest export items to Europe from China. From his observation of textiles in the Manila inventory, the Spanish were buying: 1219:. Zhu Yuanzhang was a penniless peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352, but soon gained a reputation after marrying the foster daughter of a rebel commander. In 1356 Zhu's rebel force captured the city of 2647:

was able to meet the Zhengde Emperor while the latter was touring Nanjing in May 1520, Pires de Andrade's mission waited in Beijing to meet the Zhengde Emperor once more, but the emperor died in 1521. The new Grand Secretary

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The beginning of relations between the Spanish and Chinese were much warmer than when the Portuguese were first given a reception in China. In the Philippines, the Spanish defeated the fleet of the infamous Chinese pirate

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In this early half of the 17th century, famines became common in northern China because of unusual dry and cold weather that shortened the growing season; these were effects of a larger ecological event now known as the

1802:, abused local landlords who attempted to have him arrested; Deng responded by killing the local magistrate in 1447 and started a rebellion. By 1448, Deng's forces took control of several counties and were besieging the 1736:

The scholar-officials' dependence upon the economic activities of the merchants became more than a trend when it was semi-institutionalized by the state in the mid Ming era. Qiu Jun (1420–1495), a scholar-official from

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During the last years of the Wanli Emperor's reign and those of his two successors, an economic crisis developed that was centered around a sudden widespread lack of the empire's chief medium of exchange: silver. The

1651:, built in 1579; the Chinese believed that building pagodas on certain sites according to geomantic principles brought about auspicious events; merchant-funding for such projects was needed by the late Ming period. 2955:

appointment and promotion of officials. The eunuchs developed their own bureaucracy that was organized parallel to but was not subject to the civil service bureaucracy. Not all eunuchs worked inside the palace;

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in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups. Jurchen (Manchu) women married most of the Han Chinese defectors in Liaodong. Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese generals

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Outside of metropolitan areas, Ming China was divided into thirteen provinces for administrative purposes. These provinces were divided along traditional and to a degree also natural lines. These include

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degree were incompetent ministers. After the examinations were reinstated in 1384, he had the chief examiner executed after it was discovered that he allowed only candidates from the south to be granted

2772:, transported via Manila. Chinese merchants were active in these trading ventures, and many emigrated to such places as the Philippines and Borneo to take advantage of the new commercial opportunities. 1266:. Although the White Lotus had fomented his rise to power, the emperor later denied that he had ever been a member of their organization and suppressed the religious movement after he became emperor. 2255:

Ming rulers faced the challenge of balancing Central Asian trade and military threats against dangerous but profitable sea powers. The questions were cultural, political, and economic. The historian

1769:(r. 1435–1449) emperors attempted to cut the flow of silver into the economy in favor of paper currency, yet mining the precious metal simply became a lucrative illegal pursuit practiced by many. 1981:—in order to assist those who studied for the civil service examinations. The Yongle Emperor commissioned two thousand scholars to create a 50-million-word (22,938-chapter) long encyclopedia—the 2057:

The enormous tributary missions were discontinued after the death of Zheng He, yet his death was only one of many culminating factors which brought the missions to an end. The Ming Empire had

5159: 2700:. The Chinese found the Portuguese settlement useful in expelling hostile Japanese sailors, as well as a useful tool to control other aggressive European powers since the Portuguese repelled 6110: 2158:

The Mongol threat to the Ming dynasty was at its greatest level in the 15th century, although periodic raiding continued throughout the dynasty. Like in the Tumu Crisis, the Mongol leader

2990:(r. 1627–1644) had Wei dismissed from court—which led to Wei's suicide shortly after—the problem with court eunuchs persisted until the dynasty's collapse less than two decades later. 2781:—the Portuguese intermediary trade was trumped by the prime source of incoming silver to China from the Spanish Americas. Although it is unknown just how much silver flowed from the 6823:

Wade, Geoff. 2008. "Engaging the South: Ming China and Southeast Asia in the Fifteenth Century". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 51 (4). BRILL: 578–638.

5094: 2114:(r. 1435–1449) to personally lead a force to face the Mongols after a recent Ming defeat; marching off with 50,000 troops, the emperor left the capital and put his half-brother 6216: 2911:(r. 1572–1620). In the beginning of his reign, the emperor surrounded himself with able advisors and made a conscientious effort to handle state affairs. His Grand Secretary 1835:). This was an effort to aid tax collection in counties where transportation of grain was made difficult by terrain, as well as provide tax relief to landowners. In 1581 the 3682:

Denis C Twitchett, Frederick W. Mote (The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK: 1998) pg. 16

3673:

Denis C Twitchett, Frederick W. Mote (The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK: 1998) pg. 14

3664:

Denis C Twitchett, Frederick W. Mote (The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK: 1998) pg. 12

3655:

Denis C Twitchett, Frederick W. Mote (The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK: 1998) pg. 11

3646:

Denis C Twitchett, Frederick W. Mote (The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK: 1998) pg. 10

2446:) named "Nieh-ku-lun" (捏古倫). In September 1371 he had this man sent back to his native country with a letter announcing the founding of the Ming dynasty to his ruler (i.e. 2260:

offered an example that was culturally Han Chinese. The dynasty was basically reshaped by it successes and frustrations in dealing with the two sides of the outside world.

3637:

Denis C Twitchett, Frederick W. Mote (The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK: 1998) pg. 9

1417:) under his authority in 1472. Asserting his newfound power, Ḥājjī `Ali sought redress of old grievances between the Turpanians and Ming China began over the restrictive 1969:, who refused to draft the proclamation of his succession—the emperor had a different attitude about the scholar-officials. He had a selection of texts compiled from the 1040:

of 1,000,000 troops. Although private maritime trade and official tribute missions from China took place in previous dynasties, the size of the tributary fleet under the

2853:

friars returned to the Philippines after it became apparent that their preaching was unwelcome; Matteo Ricci would fare better in his trip of 1582. The Augustinian monk

1574:

and Nyima Gyaincain disagree, stating that Ming China had sovereignty over Tibetans who did not inherit Ming titles, but were forced to travel to Beijing to renew them.

1590:

The Ming initiated sporadic armed intervention in Tibet during the 14th century, while at times the Tibetans also used successful armed resistance against Ming forays.

7252: 3541:

with the title Duke of Hanjun. The Qing sent the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives. In 1725, the

2391:

Military command centers in 1580, concentrated mostly along the seacoast, the northern border, and the southwest; major courier routes shown are based on a map from

1905:, the palatial residence of the emperor and his family. By 1553, the Outer City was added to the south, which brought the overall size of Beijing to 4 by 4½ miles. 1405:) in 1404 and turned it into Hami Prefecture In 1406, the Ming dynasty defeated the ruler of Turpan., which would lead to a lengthy war. The Moghul ruler of Turpan 2927:. Annoyed by all of this, the Wanli Emperor began neglecting his duties, remaining absent from court audiences to discuss politics, lost interest in studying the 1029:. At its height, the Ming dynasty had a population of 160 million people, while some assert the population could actually have been as large as 200 million. 2777:

China, the Portuguese could then use Japanese silver to buy even larger stocks of Chinese silk. However, by 1573—after the Spanish established a trading base in

1270:

morality. Also included was the distribution of Neo-Confucian ritual manuals and a new civil service examination system for recruitment into the bureaucracy.

7235: 1598:, Wang Jiawei, and Nyima Gyaincain all point out that the Ming dynasty did not garrison permanent troops in Tibet, unlike the former Mongol Yuan dynasty. The 1367:

and assumed this role as chief executive and emperor. With a growing amount of suspicion for his ministers and subjects, the Hongwu Emperor established the

1897:. Construction of a new city there lasted from 1407 to 1420, employing hundreds of thousands of workers daily. At the center was the political node of the 2907:

The financial drain of the Imjin War in Korea against the Japanese was one of the many problems—fiscal or other—facing Ming China during the reign of the

1618:

sect. By the late 16th century, the Mongols proved to be successful armed protectors of the Yellow Hat Dalai Lama after their increasing presence in the

3221:

to the Manchu in 1618 and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and

1885:(r. 1402–1424); his reign is universally viewed by scholars as a "second founding" of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father's policies. 1827:

minting; by the 16th century, new maritime trade contacts with Europe provided massive amounts of imported silver, which increasingly became the common

7272: 2142:

The Mongols held the Emperor Yingzong of Ming for ransom. However, this scheme was foiled once the emperor's younger brother assumed the throne as the

6999: 2968: 1627: 1504:(1472–1529) suppressed another rebellion in the region, he advocated joint administration of Chinese and local ethnic groups in order to bring about 1223:, which he would later establish as the capital of the Ming dynasty. Zhu enlisted the aid of many able advisors, including the artillery specialists 5168: 5130:"The Relations Between The Chinese Ming Dynasty and the Tibetan Ruling House Of Phag-Mo-Gru in the Years 1368–1434: Political And Religious Aspects" 1375:

drawn from his own palace guard. They were partly responsible for the loss of 100,000 lives in several major purges over three decades of his rule.

1580: 1566: 2724:

in 1633. Chinese trade relations with the Dutch began to improve after 1637 and in 1639 the Japanese cut off trade with the Portuguese due to the

1389:

Multiple conflicts arose with the Ming dynasty fighting against the Uyghur Kingdom of Turpan and Oirat Mongols on the Northwestern Border, near

3159:

and broke relations with the Ming court; in 1618 he openly renounced the Ming overlordship and demanded the Ming pay tribute to him to redress

2857:

wrote an influential work on China in 1585, remarking that the Ming dynasty was the best-governed kingdom he was aware of in the known world.

1338:

and was not afraid to have them beaten in court for offenses. In favor of Confucian learning and the civil service, the emperor ordered every

7479: 6881: 3414:, the Yongli Emperor, was captured and executed. Despite the Ming defeat, smaller loyalist movements continued until the proclamation of the 1655:

In the first half of the Ming era, scholar-officials would rarely mention the contribution of merchants in society while writing their local

6568:

Robinson, David M. "Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China: The Capital Region during the Middle Ming Period (1450–1525),"

3138:

Originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial Ming power,

2339:

laws, a strict ban on private maritime activity until its formal abolishment in 1567. In this period government-managed overseas trade with

2688:—reestablished a positive image of Portuguese in the eyes of the Chinese and reopened relations with Ming officials. The Portuguese friar 1928:

was restored under the Yongle Emperor's rule from 1411 to 1415. The impetus for restoring the canal was to solve the perennial problem of

1794:

system of communal self-defense units to patrol areas and arrest 'mining bandits' (kuangzei). Deng Maoqi (died 1449), an overseer in this

7131: 3151: 3163:

which he documented and sent to the Ming court, effectively declaring war with the Ming who were not about to pay money to the Manchus.

1893:

The Yongle Emperor demoted Nanjing as a secondary capital and in 1403 announced the new capital of China was to be at his power base in

5103: 4088:-Geography I "明史•地理一": 東起朝鮮，西據吐番，南包安南，北距大磧。; Geography III "明史•地理三": 七年七月置西安行都衛於此，領河州、朵甘、烏斯藏、三衛。; Western territory III "明史•列傳第二百十七西域三" 3227: 2635:

to trade with the Chinese merchants there. During this expedition the Portuguese attempted to send an inland delegation in the name of

2331:—began staging raids on Chinese ships and coastal communities, although much of the acts of piracy were carried out by native Chinese. 1987:—from seven thousand books. This surpassed all previous encyclopedias in scope and size, including the 11th-century compilation of the 982: 922: 3467: 7284: 1753:(1402–1424); production of mined silver rose from 3007 kg (80,185 taels) in 1403 to 10,210 kg (272,262 taels) in 1409. The 1051:

in the 15th century surpassed all others in grandeur. There were enormous projects of construction, including the restoration of the

2808:

in 1602; Ricci (1552–1610) was the first European allowed into the Forbidden City, taught the Chinese how to construct and play the

1810:

units against Deng was largely a failure; in the end it took 50,000 government troops (including later Mongol rebels who sided with

1161:

that stirred resentment and rebellion, other explanations for the Yuan's demise included overtaxing areas hard-hit by crop failure,

1603: 3257:, which had fallen to the Manchu in 1621 and was made their capital in 1625. Huang Taiji also adopted the Chinese imperial title 2946:

teacups, from the Nantoyōsō Collection in Japan; the Tianqi Emperor was heavily influenced and largely controlled by the eunuch

7430: 7337: 6556:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic

3201:

Han defectors played a massive role in the Qing conquest of China. Han Chinese generals who defected to the Manchu were often

612: 1949:), much larger than what Brook notes. The Yongle Emperor commissioned some 165,000 workers to dredge the canal bed in western 1157:(1279–1368) ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty. Alongside institutionalized ethnic discrimination against the 7325: 7173: 6934: 6796: 6775: 6610: 6524: 6472: 6271: 6202: 6120: 5370: 5316: 3964: 3442: 2451: 912: 1957:. The reopening of the Grand Canal had implications for Nanjing as well, as it was surpassed by the well-positioned city of 7375: 7230: 5847:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Denis C. Twitchett, John K. Fairbank, p. 29

2062: 485: 475: 6677:

Wang, Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain. (1997). The Historical Status of China's Tibet. China Intercontinental Press (五洲传播出版社).

7668: 7045: 6939: 3452: 3055:

assert that the price of silver rose in the 17th century due to a falling demand for goods, not declining silver stocks.

2034: 954: 116: 4033: 3988: 3954: 7342: 6185:

Atwell, William S. "Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the "Great Depression" of the Mid-Fifteenth Century,"

5832: 5335:

China and the Roman Orient: Researches Into Their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as Represented in Old Chinese Records

106: 1660: 6874: 6739: 6720: 6704: 6682: 6645: 6506: 6488: 6450: 6401: 6386: 6371: 6356: 6341: 6289: 6255: 6240: 6225: 6179: 6161: 5343: 4043: 3998: 3930: 3415: 2963:

were admirals. Although there were several dictatorial eunuchs throughout the Ming, such as Wang Zhen, Wang Zhi, and

1729: 1128:. These provinces were vast areas, each being at least as large as England. The longest Ming reign was that of the 783: 3410:. Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing until 1662, when the last Southern Ming emperor, 2229:

dynasties, the vast majority of the brick and stone Great Wall as it is seen today is a product of the Ming dynasty.

1831:. As far back as 1436, a portion of the southern grain tax was commuted to silver, known as the Gold Floral Silver ( 1772: 1765:(r. 1425–1435), remedied by continuing the Yongle Emperor's silver mining scheme. The governments of the Hongwu and 7510: 6549:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics

6033:

Parsons, James B. (1957). "The culmination of a Chinese peasant rebellion: Chang Hsien-chung in Szechwan 1644–46".

3573:, and the title passed on through twelve generations of Ming descendants until the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912. 5272:"East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." 3009:(1494–1552); excessive luxury and decadence were hallmarks of the late Ming period, spurred by the enormous state 2288:

edicts on Islam which were also used by the Yuan to show the Ming were the heirs to this Yuan legacy. Inspired by

7065: 3472: 3284: 2982:(r. 1620–1627) and had his political rivals tortured to death, mostly the vocal critics from the faction of the " 1243: 537: 6974: 7025: 6668: 6418: 2366:

The low point in relations between Ming China and Japan occurred during the rule of the great Japanese warlord

1290:

The Hongwu Emperor immediately set to rebuilding state infrastructure. He built a 48 km (30 mi) long

975: 927: 3130:

along the Great Wall, the gate where the Manchus were repeatedly repelled before being finally let through by

2065:

in 1407, but Ming troops were pushed out in 1428 with significant costs to the Ming treasury; in 1431 the new

1587:

successive ruling families of Tibet, the Phagmodru (1354–1436), Rinbung (1436–1565), and Tsangpa (1565–1642).

1342:

to open a Confucian school in 1369—following the tradition of a nationwide school system first established by

7557: 7279: 4337: 1936:(one shi is equal to 107 liters) was made difficult with an inefficient system of shipping grain through the 1785: 949: 875: 810: 6697:

The History of Tibet: Volume 2, The Medieval Period: c. AD 850–1895, the Development of Buddhist Paramountcy

6542:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering

1784:

The failure of these stern regulations against silver mining prompted ministers such as the censor Liu Hua (

1583:

with Tibet. Scholars also debate on how much power and influence—if any—the Ming dynasty court had over the

7537: 7315: 7183: 7153: 6867: 6852: 6152:

An, Jiayao (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China", in Juliano, Annette L. and Judith A. Lerner (ed.),

3920: 3553:, Zhu Zhilian, who received a salary from the Qing government and whose duty was to perform rituals at the 3093: 2505:—who became the first known European explorer to land on the southern coast of mainland China and trade in 885: 3406:

Ming remnants in southern China after 1644 were collectively designated by 19th-century historians as the

3050:

towards China, in favor of shipping American-mined silver directly from Spain to Manila. In 1639, the new

2939: 7547: 7532: 7267: 6631: 6575:

Robinson, David M. "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China: Mongols and the Abortive Coup of 1461,"

3427: 2404: 2146:(r. 1449–1457); the Mongols were also repelled once the Jingtai Emperor's confidant and defense minister 2042: 1965:

Although the Yongle Emperor ordered episodes of bloody purges like his father—including the execution of

937: 694: 75: 3182:. Using European firearms acquired from his cook, he was able to stave off Nurhaci's advances along the 2854: 1908: 1460:, which was annihilated by the Mongols in the 1250s and became established as the Yunnan Province under 7621: 7358: 7080: 6979: 3457: 3447: 3432: 3340: 3205:

while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Manchu leader

2370:, who in 1592 announced he was going to conquer China. In two campaigns (now known collectively as the 2297: 2269: 942: 7116: 6688:

Wakeman, Frederick Jr. "Rebellion and Revolution: The Study of Popular Movements in Chinese History,"

6535:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth

3783:

Sarah Shneewind, Community Schools and the State in Ming China (Stanford University Press, 2006) pg. 2

2644: 1452:, which was established as a Chinese-style city in 1382 shortly after the Ming conquest of the region. 7527: 7363: 7289: 7060: 7050: 6637: 6211: 3566: 3558: 3533:. Zhu Shugui proclaimed that he acted in the name of the deceased Yongli Emperor. Koxinga's grandson 3156: 3114: 2420: 2392: 1339: 968: 905: 870: 443: 139: 49: 6807: 6786: 6765: 6479:

Mawer, Granville Allen (2013), "The Riddle of Cattigara", in Nichols, Robert; Woods, Martin (eds.),

5308: 2273: 1421:. Tensions rose, and in 1473 he led a campaign east to confront China, even succeeding in capturing 1363:

executed upon suspicion of a conspiracy plot to overthrow him; after that the emperor abolished the

649: 16:

This article is about the history of the Ming dynasty. For the historical text and source book, see

7590: 7469: 7368: 7055: 6969: 6563:

Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 2: Agriculture

6427:

Hargett, James M. "Some Preliminary Remarks on the Travel Records of the Song Dynasty (960–1279),"

6235:. Cambridge: Published by Harvard University Asia Center; distributed by Harvard University Press. 5129: 3039: 2867: 2752: 2713: 2131: 2111: 1988: 1517: 1427: 1384: 639: 288: 7552: 2074:

as well. To face the Mongol threat to the north, a massive amount of funds were used to build the

1668: 7500: 7409: 7075: 6929: 2284: 2243: 1898: 1676: 1464:

later on. By the end of the 14th century, some 200,000 military colonists settled some 2,000,000

1439: 1044: 865: 3034:-based empires of Spain and Portugal in order to weaken their global economic power. Meanwhile, 2860:

Displaying a multitude of items exported from China to the Spanish base at Manila, Brook quotes

1672: 7437: 7385: 7193: 7085: 5193: 3477: 2674: 2474:

ceased after this point, whereas diplomats and other people of the great western sea (i.e. the

2416: 2238: 2126: 1970: 1664: 1033: 917: 895: 880: 366: 85: 6600: 5927: 5822: 5360: 1854: 7663: 7542: 7520: 7505: 7146: 7126: 7004: 6964: 6954: 5915: 5333: 3437: 2928: 2721: 2670: 2662: 2050: 1633: 1347: 1239: 890: 307: 6711:

Yü, Ying-shih (1986), "Han Foreign Relations", in Twitchett, Denis and Michael Loewe (ed.),

5301: 3170:(1584–1630), the Ming were able to repeatedly fight off the Manchus, notably in 1626 at the 1606:

initiated in 1578, the latter of which affected the foreign policy of the subsequent Manchu

1456:

In 1381, the Ming dynasty annexed the areas of the southwest that had once been part of the

7573: 7141: 7040: 6919: 2636: 2537: 2502: 2478:) did not appear in China again until the 16th century, with the Italian Jesuit missionary 2463: 2408: 2200: 2017:

in the twelfth year of Yongle (1414); the Chinese associated the giraffe with the mythical

1811: 1291: 1200: 1052: 932: 145: 6248:

Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492; 30th Anniversary Edition

2680:

Despite initial hostilities, by 1549 the Portuguese were sending annual trade missions to

1278: 8: 7423: 7262: 7205: 7158: 7090: 6944: 3530: 3383: 3147: 3118: 3103: 3043: 2764:

carried over 50,000 pairs of silk stockings. In return China imported mostly silver from

2725: 2612: 2561: 2321: 2210: 2075: 2058: 2046: 1983: 1925: 1721: 1575: 1343: 1331: 1056: 97: 6994: 5271: 2743:

and in the same year that the city began to decline due to halt of trade shipments from

7035: 6989: 6949: 6824: 6588: 6321: 6313: 6058: 6050: 5278: 4031: 3179: 3171: 3051: 3035: 3027: 2521: 2498: 2447: 2107: 1828: 1803: 1728:(1426–1435). The imperial workshops in the Ming era were overseen by a eunuch bureau. ( 1364: 1132:, who ruled for forty-eight years. (1572–1620). The shortest was his son's reign, the 1014: 900: 80: 7168: 1418: 7247: 6984: 6924: 6792: 6771: 6735: 6716: 6700: 6678: 6664: 6657: 6641: 6606: 6520: 6502: 6484: 6468: 6446: 6414: 6397: 6382: 6367: 6352: 6337: 6325: 6285: 6267: 6251: 6236: 6233:

A Court on Horseback: Imperial Touring & the Construction of Qing Rule, 1680–1785

6221: 6198: 6175: 6157: 6116: 6062: 5828: 5366: 5339: 5312: 4039: 3994: 3960: 3926: 3542: 3346: 3336: 3143: 2987: 2685: 2681: 2525: 2510: 2494: 2475: 1840: 1766: 828: 396: 376: 151: 6619:

Song, Yingxing, translated with preface by E-Tu Zen Sun and Shiou-Chuan Sun (1966).

6172:

Autocracy and China's Rebel Founding Emperors: Comparing chairman Mao and Ming Taizu

2796: 1602:(r. 1572–1620) made attempts to reestablish Sino-Tibetan relations in the wake of a 1173: 25: 7416: 7225: 7188: 7178: 7163: 7136: 7121: 6959: 6788:

Confucianism and Autocracy: Professional Elites in the Founding of the Ming Dynasty

6580: 6305: 6042: 3570: 3482: 3287:. Shortly after the Koreans renounced their long-held loyalty to the Ming dynasty. 3259: 3160: 2983: 2924: 2861: 2740: 2599: 2443: 2293: 2289: 2030: 2000: 1978: 1872: 1777: 1537: 1533: 1263: 1234:

Zhu cemented his power in the south by eliminating his arch rival and rebel leader

1204: 1133: 1085: 507: 65: 57: 6443:

The History of Tibet: Volume 1, The Early Period to c. AD 850, the Yarlung Dynasty

4035:

From Ming to Ch'ing: Conquest, Region, and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century China

2486: 2029:(1371–1433) as the naval admiral for a gigantic new fleet of ships designated for 1846:(1525–1582) finally assessed taxes on the amount of land paid entirely in silver. 7607: 7459: 7402: 7320: 7095: 7070: 6843: 6626: 6514: 6408: 5212:"Paul: The "New Qing History" is not over yet, is the "New Ming History" coming?" 3491: 3462: 3375: 3316: 3300: 3081: 2889: 2736: 2705: 2697: 2640: 2603: 2553: 2427: 2279: 2143: 2135: 1878: 1836: 1558: 1524: 1457: 1296: 34: 17: 6732:

Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305

6296:

Dennerline, Jerry P. (1985). "The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve".

5211: 2205: 1757:(r. 1424–1425) attempted to scale back silver mining to restore the discredited 7647: 7583: 7578: 7454: 6652: 4937: 4935: 3538: 3534: 3399: 3387: 3272: 3191: 3167: 3069: 3023: 2979: 2943: 2829: 2769: 2761: 2701: 2689: 2617: 2577: 2533: 2459: 2296:" studies have also emerged, which similarly attempts to draw attention to the 2256: 2218: 1937: 1902: 1882: 1859: 1762: 1754: 1750: 1725: 1708:

The only surviving piece of furniture from the "Orchard Factory" (the Imperial

1591: 1335: 1283: 1259: 1060: 1010: 409: 326: 5093:

Robinson, David M. "Eight The Ming Court and the Legacy of the Yuan Mongols".

5035: 3339:, the last Ming emperor, accompanied only by a eunuch servant, hanged himself 2824:

Although the bulk of imports to China were silver, the Chinese also purchased

2387: 7657: 7464: 7257: 7200: 5058: 5056: 5010: 5008: 4829:

Robinson, "Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China," 533–534.

3562: 3497: 3407: 3195: 3099: 3047: 3019: 2975: 2947: 2920: 2912: 2908: 2490: 2025:

Beginning in 1405, the Yongle Emperor entrusted his favored eunuch commander

1843: 1789: 1599: 1501: 1372: 1317: 1235: 1150: 1129: 1037: 1006: 199: 166: 38: 4996: 4960: 4953: 4951: 4932: 4923: 4867: 4865: 4343:

The Ming Biographical History Project of the Association for Asian Studies,

2327:

navy allowed the growth of piracy along China's coasts. Japanese pirates—or

2066: 1623: 1308:, which was completed by 1397 and repeated certain clauses found in the old 7635: 7240: 6890: 4573: 4571: 3550: 3546: 3395: 3367: 3264: 3250: 3175: 3127: 2833: 2805: 2631:

The Portuguese sent a large subsequent expedition in 1517 to enter port at

2594: 2585: 2479: 2432: 2214: 1648: 1607: 1595: 1505: 1461: 1449: 1422: 1324: 1301: 1166: 1154: 1026: 1022: 1018: 997: 774: 750: 737: 724: 668: 627: 565: 279: 269: 246: 7299: 6713:

Cambridge History of China: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220

6366:(2006). Cambridge; London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 5053: 5044: 5026: 5005: 3279:. In 1638 the Manchu defeated and conquered Ming China's traditional ally 3202: 2106:

launched an invasion into the Ming dynasty in July 1449. The chief eunuch

1634:

The Hongwu Emperor's vision, commercialization, and reversing his policies

7495: 7030: 4987: 4969: 4948: 4874: 4862: 4838:

Robinson, "Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China," 534.

3411: 3295: 3268: 3246: 3210: 3031: 2782: 2649: 2625: 2621: 2517: 2348: 2226: 2222: 2120: 2103: 2093: 2038: 1966: 1929: 1824: 1693: 1571: 1550: 1477: 1410: 1212: 1208: 1183: 1158: 681: 552: 386: 354: 341: 175: 6828: 6715:, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, 6264:

A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)

6154:

Silk Road Studies: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road

4568: 3986: 2005: 1350:

in 1373 after complaining that the 120 scholar-officials who obtained a

7474: 7330: 6748:

Yuan, Zheng. "Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment,"

6592: 6317: 6054: 3554: 3522: 3394:

province, Li Zicheng died there in the summer of 1645, thus ending the

3359: 3308: 3235: 3231: 3183: 3077: 3038:(r. 1621–1665) began cracking down on illegal smuggling of silver from 2923:(1472–1529), the latter of whom rejected some of the orthodox views of 2817: 2728:, thus impoverishing Macau and leading to its decline as a major port. 2654: 2588:), a site that is one of the suggested locations for the port city of " 2375: 2283:

Central Asian Muslims, Tibetans, and Mongols. The Yongle Emperor cited

2159: 1954: 1913: 1611: 1554: 1541: 1481: 1406: 1360: 433: 222: 6859: 3174:

and in 1628. Under Yuan's command the Ming had securely fortified the

2785:

to China, it is known that the main port for the Mexican silver trade—

1444: 1401:. The Ming dynasty took control of Hami (under a small kingdom called 7515: 3487: 3363: 3239: 3222: 3131: 2825: 2801: 2709: 2632: 2589: 2506: 2455: 2371: 2367: 2360: 2356: 2163: 2071: 1877:

The Hongwu Emperor's grandson, Zhu Yunwen, assumed the throne as the

1699: 1656: 1489: 1398: 1330:

Although a Confucian, the Hongwu Emperor had a deep distrust for the

1309: 1247: 1228: 1192: 1162: 1093: 30: 6584: 6456:

Hucker, Charles O. "Governmental Organization of the Ming Dynasty,"

6309: 6046: 4032:

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3271:("Revering Virtue"), and changed the ethnic name of his people from 3194:, resulting in a large scale recruitment of Mongol troops under the 2765: 1704: 1312:

of 653. The Hongwu Emperor organized a military system known as the

1300:

states that as early as 1364 Zhu Yuanzhang had begun drafting a new

6396:. Translated by H. M. Wright. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 3502: 3379: 3254: 3218: 3006: 2998: 2956: 2849: 2786: 2666: 2569: 2514: 2115: 2079:

for these ventures as a means to curtail further eunuch influence.

2026: 1950: 1758: 1742: 1414: 1402: 1368: 1216: 1101: 1077: 1048: 6602:

Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800

5102:. Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 365–411. Archived from 5041:

Robinson, "Politics, Force, and Ethnicity in Ming China," 106–107.

3303:(r. 1644–1661), proclaimed the ruler of China on November 8, 1644. 1553:

over Tibet at all, as some believe it was a relationship of loose

6621:

T'ien-Kung K'ai-Wu: Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century

5071:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 108–109.

5032:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 104–105.

4898:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 83, 101.

4084: 3526: 3391: 3351: 3324: 3320: 3206: 3198:

and the securing of an additional route into the Ming heartland.

3178:, thus blocking the Manchus from crossing the pass to attack the 3139: 3073: 3010: 2964: 2960: 2877: 2607: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2336: 2188: 2180: 2147: 2010: 1917: 1894: 1749:

Silver mining was increased dramatically during the reign of the

1713: 1709: 1688: 1493: 1485: 1473: 1251: 1224: 1220: 1188: 1125: 1117: 1113: 1097: 1081: 1069: 1065: 576: 427: 421: 6695:

Wylie, Turrell V. (2003). "Lama Tribute in the Ming Dynasty" in

6394:

Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276

3549:

bestowed the hereditary title of marquis on a descendant of the

3537:

surrendered to the Qing dynasty in 1683 and was rewarded by the

1215:

beliefs in the struggle of good against evil and worship of the

5023:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 98–99.

5002:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 97–98.

4984:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 84–85.

4966:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 95–96.

4929:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 84–86.

4920:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 96–97.

3371: 3276: 3214: 2841: 2809: 2778: 2731: 2717: 2352: 2344: 2184: 2176: 2167: 2099: 2014: 1974: 1958: 1946: 1799: 1738: 1717: 1562: 1469: 1394: 1178: 1121: 1109: 1089: 1041: 33:

jar with a scene of cavalrymen fighting, from the reign of the

6767:

Ming China, 1368–1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire

6217:

The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China

5096:

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3956:

A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia: The Tarikh-I-Rashidi

3315:

province by 1635. By the 1640s, an ex-soldier and rival to Li—

3123: 2816:

and vice versa, and worked closely with his Chinese associate

2179:

in order to suppress a brigand army. The grand coordinator of

7380: 6156:, vol. 7, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, pp. 79–94, 6078: 5508: 5062:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 108.

5050:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 107.

5014:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 100.

3990:

International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania

3328: 3312: 3280: 3013:

of incoming silver and private transactions involving silver.

2837: 2813: 2789:—shipped between 150,000 and 345,000 kg (4 to 9 million 2744: 2693: 2658: 2581: 2573: 2529: 2436: 2412: 2340: 2328: 2313: 2018: 1615: 1529: 1497: 1390: 1105: 6818:

1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline

4993:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 97.

4975:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 96.

4957:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China", 95.

4880:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China", 81.

4871:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China", 83.

4795:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 80.

4577:

Robinson, "Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China," 99.

3952: 2303: 2153: 1761:, but this was a failure which his immediate successor, the 1643: 1638: 7294: 6483:, Canberra: National Library of Australia, pp. 38–39, 5710: 5708: 2884:

Other goods that Antonio de Morga mentioned included were:

2790: 2576:

dated to the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and his predecessor

2237:

After a failed plot to have Grand Secretary Li Xian send a

1746:

revenues to the point where buying grain was not an issue.

1619: 6332:

Ebrey, Patricia, Anne Walthall, and James Palais. (2006).

6195:

Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, 2nd Edition

3883: 3881: 2751:

From China the major exports were silk and porcelain. The

1242:

in 1363. This battle was—in terms of personnel—one of the

6129: 5074: 5705: 5679: 2308: 1692:

parallel to the courier network. The shipwrecked Korean

1682: 1359:

degrees. In 1380, the Hongwu Emperor had the Chancellor

6623:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 6441:

Hoffman, Helmut. (2003). "Early and Medieval Tibet" in

5473: 5234: 5232: 5230: 5228: 4812: 4810: 4718: 3878: 3525:, Prince of Ningjing and Zhu Honghuan, who stayed with 2568:. 146–168 AD). Although it could be coincidental, 2435:, describes how the Hongwu Emperor met with an alleged 2278:

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2082: 5303:

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4680: 4678: 4676: 4674: 4672: 4658: 4656: 4654: 4652: 4066: 4064: 4062: 3855: 3853: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3209:

married one of his granddaughters to the Ming general

1199:

A number of ethnic Han groups revolted, including the

7619: 6465:

The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama

5523:

Mote et al., The Cambridge History of China, 349–351.

3987:

Trudy Ring; Robert M. Salkin; Sharon La Boda (1996).

3607: 3605: 3603: 3030:

staged frequent raids and acts of piracy against the

2450:). It is speculated that the merchant was actually a 1924:

After lying dormant and dilapidated for decades, the

1888: 6334:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

5245: 5225: 4807: 4630: 4628: 4536: 4534: 3290: 2919:

philosophical debate for or against the teaching of

1409:, also known as Ḥājjī `Ali (ruled 1462–78), unified 793: 715: 595: 528: 458: 332: 6837:for "Fall of the Ming dynasty":- Dupuy and Dupuy's 6663:. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 6174:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc. 5820: 4732: 4730: 4669: 4649: 4059: 3850: 3750: 3723: 3697: 3203:

given women from the Aisin Gioro family in marriage

3150:to create a new Manchu ethnic identity. During the 2762:

galleon to the Spanish territories in the New World

2470:goes on to explain that contacts between China and 1294:, as well as new palaces and government halls. The 6809:Background Factors in the Rise of the Ming Dynasty 6656: 5517: 5495: 5300: 3618: 3600: 2696:as a Portuguese trade colony on the coasts of the 1700:An open market, silver, and Deng Maoqi's rebellion 1203:in 1351. The Red Turbans were affiliated with the 1059:as it is seen today, and the establishment of the 1001:(23 January 1368 – 25 April 1644), officially the 5270:Paul Halsall (2000) . Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). 5194:"The Islamic Heritage in China: A General Survey" 4642: 4640: 4625: 4531: 4524: 4522: 4520: 4518: 1687:The Hongwu Emperor believed that only government 1532:and conferring new princely titles on leaders of 7655: 6497:Mote, Frederick W. and Denis Twitchett. (1998). 6407:Goodrich, L. Carrington; Fang, Zhaoying (1976). 5568: 5566: 5265: 5263: 5261: 4782: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4764: 4762: 4760: 4727: 4589: 4179: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3690: 3688: 3331:with extended influence over Shaanxi and Henan. 2382: 1932:north to Beijing. Shipping the annual 4,000,000 6805: 6784: 6763: 6481:Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia 6362:Fairbank, John King and Merle Goldman. (1992). 5603: 5331: 5017: 4107: 3812: 3810: 3800: 3798: 2552:) in 166 AD, during the reigns of emperor 1561:(r. 1521–1567) persecuted Buddhism in favor of 6853:Ming History An Introductory Guide To Research 6850:Edward L. Farmer, Romeyn Taylor, Ann Waltner, 6565:. (Cambridge Eng: Cambridge University Press). 6558:. (Cambridge Eng: Cambridge University Press). 6551:. (Cambridge Eng: Cambridge University Press). 6544:. (Cambridge Eng: Cambridge University Press). 6537:. (Cambridge Eng: Cambridge University Press). 6108: 5644: 5637: 5635: 5633: 5538: 5460: 5447: 5358: 5352: 4637: 4515: 4292: 3786: 2684:. In the early 1550s, Leonel de Sousa—a later 2673:culverins were introduced to China, and again 2628:tomb of Guangzhou, along the South China Sea. 2584:, Vietnam (among other Roman artefacts in the 2343:was carried out exclusively at the seaport of 1849: 1610:(1644–1912) of China in their support for the 1273: 7480:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 6875: 6856:(Minneapolis, University of Minnesota, 1994). 6659:The Great Wall of China: From History to Myth 6436:Studies on the Population of China: 1368–1953 6429:Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews 6364:China: A New History; Second Enlarged Edition 6090: 6019: 6017: 6015: 6013: 6001: 5994: 5992: 5990: 5980: 5978: 5959: 5957: 5876: 5869: 5867: 5865: 5855: 5853: 5805: 5798: 5796: 5794: 5755: 5730: 5728: 5726: 5724: 5672: 5670: 5668: 5658: 5656: 5596: 5594: 5592: 5582: 5580: 5578: 5563: 5556: 5554: 5531: 5529: 5392: 5390: 5388: 5386: 5384: 5382: 5258: 4771: 4757: 4739: 4359: 4328: 4301: 4283: 4256: 4170: 4143: 4134: 4116: 3819: 3736: 3685: 3358:Seizing opportunity, the Manchus crossed the 3319:(1606–1647)—had created a firm rebel base in 2902: 2865: 2458:(Beijing) called Nicolaus de Bentra, sent by 2250: 976: 6752:(Volume 34, Number 2; Summer 1994): 193–213. 6406: 6261: 6220:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 5947: 5945: 5409: 5269: 4508: 4506: 4350: 4249: 4247: 4245: 4197: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4020: 3871: 3869: 3807: 3795: 3249:renamed his dynasty from the "Later Jin" to 2720:islands and again defeated the Dutch at the 2221:were combined into a unified wall under the 1920:; the site was chosen by the Yongle Emperor. 6381:. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. 6170:Andrew, Anita N. and John A. Rapp. (2000). 6112:Government of China 1644- Cb: Govt of China 5827:. Hackett Publishing Co. pp. 333–335. 5630: 5621: 5365:. Harvard University Press. pp. 170–. 5298: 5161:Delimiting the Realm under the Ming Dynasty 4943:Politics, Force and Ethnicity in Ming China 4709: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4555: 4543: 4467: 4449: 4404: 4319: 4265: 3591: 3390:, and finally along the northern border of 1144: 6882: 6868: 6579:(Volume 59, Number 1, June 1999): 79–123. 6499:The Cambridge History of China; Volume 7–8 6349:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 6295: 6102: 6084: 6010: 5987: 5975: 5954: 5933: 5862: 5850: 5791: 5773: 5764: 5737: 5721: 5665: 5653: 5589: 5575: 5551: 5526: 5379: 5362:The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire 5325: 5292: 4188: 4125: 3378:ruler of China. After being forced out of 2194: 1413:(roughly corresponding to today's Eastern 1139: 1136:, who ruled for only one month (in 1620). 983: 969: 6512: 6501:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6351:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6135: 5942: 5127: 4503: 4494: 4485: 4440: 4368: 4310: 4242: 4215: 4206: 4161: 4091: 3866: 2304:Illegal trade, piracy, and war with Japan 2154:Relocation, migration, and northern raids 1916:located 50 km (31 mi) north of 1639:Fusion of the merchant and gentry classes 1433: 1378: 1032:Ming rule saw the construction of a vast 6839:Collins Encyclopedia of Military History 6598: 6096: 4700: 4607: 4598: 4580: 4552: 4386: 4274: 4233: 4224: 4152: 3925:. Foreign Languages Press. p. 115. 3918: 3345: 3294: 3122: 2997: 2938: 2795: 2793:) of silver annually from 1597 to 1602. 2730: 2386: 2307: 2274:New Qing History § New Ming History 2204: 2138:, in 1457, he ascended the throne again. 2125: 2041:(202 BC–220 AD) and had been engaged in 2004: 1907: 1853: 1771: 1716:in the early Ming dynasty. Decorated in 1703: 1642: 1443: 1277: 1172: 24: 6889: 6699:, ed. Alex McKay. New York: Routledge. 6651: 6445:, ed. Alex McKay. New York: Routledge. 6413:. New York: Columbia University Press. 6410:Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644 6032: 5514:Association for Asian Studies, 410–411. 5191: 5080: 4377: 4077: 3768: 3521:The last Ming princes to hold out were 2978:(1568–1627) dominated the court of the 2134:; after deposing his half-brother, the 2054:a total estimated force of 26,800 men. 1511: 1468:(350,000 acres) of land in what is now 1021:and the predecessor of the short-lived 7656: 7431:Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty 6438:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 5716:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 5700:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 5240:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 4909:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 4686:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 4072:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 4038:. Yale University Press. p. 177. 3889:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 3861:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 3827:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 3763:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 3731:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 3718:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 3613:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 3283:with an army of 100,000 troops in the 3108: 2934: 2263: 1005:, founded by the peasant rebel leader 6863: 6729: 6516:Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan 6478: 5841: 5425: 5421: 3993:. Taylor & Francis. p. 323. 3953:Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlt (2008). 3443:List of tributaries of Imperial China 3155:homeland. In 1616 he established the 2993: 2661:. In 1521, Ming dynasty naval forces 1994: 1683:Courier network and commercial growth 1025:, which was in turn succeeded by the 6734:, London & New York: Routledge, 6336:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 6197:, London & New York: Routledge, 6192: 6189:(Volume 61, Number 1, 2002): 83–113. 5429: 5157: 5092: 3327:, while Li's center of power was in 3062: 2663:fought and repulsed Portuguese ships 2087: 2083:The Tumu Crisis and the Ming Mongols 1901:, and at the center of this was the 1346:(9 BC–5 AD). However, he halted the 6820:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 6246:Crosby, Alfred W., Jr. (2003). The 4014: 3453:Ming campaign against the Uriankhai 3087: 1806:capital. The mobilization of local 1557:which was largely cut off when the 13: 6791:. University of California Press. 6757: 6710: 6577:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6458:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6280:Douglas, Robert Kennaway. (2006). 6151: 6109:Pao Chao Hsieh (23 October 2013). 5441: 5405: 5359:Edward Luttwak (1 November 2009). 3565:. He was posthumously promoted to 3343:right outside the Forbidden City. 2704:invasions of Macau in 1601, 1607, 1889:A new capital and a restored canal 1195:before the latter's death in 1375. 14: 7680: 6460:(Volume 21, December 1958): 1–66. 6379:The Dynasties of China: A History 6347:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. (1999). 4859:Robinson (1999), 85, footnote 18. 3557:, and was also inducted into the 3382:by the Manchus, chased along the 3291:Rebellion, invasion, and collapse 2820:(1562–1633) on mathematical work. 2675:fought off the Portuguese in 1522 2242:poured into the area outside the 1788:graduate in 1430) to support the 7641: 7629: 6519:. New York: St. Martin's Press. 6250:. Westport: Praeger Publishers. 6069: 6026: 5966: 5921: 5909: 5897: 5885: 5814: 5782: 5746: 5692: 5612: 5486: 5435: 5415: 5399: 5204: 5185: 5151: 5121: 5086: 5065: 4978: 4914: 4901: 4892: 4883: 4853: 4841: 4832: 4823: 4798: 4789: 4748: 3515: 3366:(1612–1678) opened the gates at 3341:on a tree in the imperial garden 2812:, translated Chinese texts into 2031:international tributary missions 1866: 1244:largest naval battles in history 64: 7066:Japanese missions to Ming China 5492:Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 369. 5192:Garnaut, Anthony (March 2006). 4691: 4616: 4476: 4458: 4431: 4422: 4413: 4395: 4025: 3980: 3946: 3922:The Silk Road, past and present 3912: 3903: 3894: 3841: 3832: 3777: 3710: 3473:Ming dynasty military conquests 3285:Second Manchu invasion of Korea 2708:. The Dutch had even blockaded 2624:bowl has been unearthed from a 1798:defense units in Sha County of 1508:in the local peoples' culture. 6940:Campaign against the Uriankhai 6750:History of Education Quarterly 6599:Shepherd, John Robert (1993). 6144: 5546:The Cambridge History of China 5503:The Cambridge History of China 5481:The Cambridge History of China 5468:The Cambridge History of China 5455:The Cambridge History of China 4724:Atwell (2002), 84, footnote 2. 3676: 3667: 3658: 3649: 3640: 3631: 3559:Han Chinese Plain White Banner 3362:after the Ming border general 3354:'s soldiers with plate armour. 3350:17th-century Dutch drawing of 3166:Under the brilliant commander 3003:Spring morning in a Han palace 2864:(1559–1636), president of the 2739:in 1639, long after the first 1953:and built a series of fifteen 1262:', or 'Vastly Martial' as his 1165:, and massive flooding of the 1017:. It was the successor to the 923:Science and technology history 1: 7000:Campaigns against the Mongols 6605:. Stanford University Press. 6284:. Adamant Media Corporation. 6266:, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 3580: 2383:Trade and contact with Europe 2037:over land and west since the 293: 252: 228: 205: 181: 122: 7538:Covered jar with carp design 7154:Transition from Ming to Qing 6845:Dictionary of Ming Biography 6770:. Rowman & Littlefield. 6690:The Journal of Asian Studies 6513:Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). 6298:The Journal of Asian Studies 6187:The Journal of Asian Studies 6035:The Journal of Asian Studies 5821:Harold Miles Tanner (2009). 5167:, p. 22, archived from 4345:Dictionary of Ming Biography 3585: 3490:(for further information on 3094:Transition from Ming to Qing 3076:led by rebel leader such as 2431:, compiled during the early 7: 7533:Ming presentation porcelain 7132:Japanese invasions of Korea 6632:The Search For Modern China 6431:(CLEAR) (July 1985): 67–93. 6377:Gascoigne, Bamber. (2003). 6262:de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), 6115:. Routledge. pp. 57–. 4419:Brook, 90–93, 129–130, 151. 3428:Beijing city fortifications 3421: 3190:they had conquered much of 3152:Japanese invasions of Korea 3148:unified other Jurchen clans 2741:Portuguese settlement there 2405:Europeans in Medieval China 2298:Inner Asian characteristics 1850:Reign of the Yongle Emperor 1812:Cao Qin's rebellion in 1461 1316:, which was similar to the 1274:Reign of the Hongwu Emperor 10: 7685: 7669:History of China by period 7395:Compilations and Documents 7026:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns 6638:W. W. Norton & Company 6231:Chang, Michael G. (2007). 5128:Slobodnik, Martin (2004). 3458:Ming dynasty in Inner Asia 3448:Luchuan-Pingmian Campaigns 3267:, took the imperial title 3245:By 1636, the Manchu ruler 3112: 3097: 3091: 2903:Reign of the Wanli Emperor 2897: 2669:, where some of the first 2538:arrived at the Han capital 2532:, perhaps only a group of 2513:vessel with a crew from a 2402: 2397:The Confusions of Pleasure 2319: 2270:Ming dynasty in Inner Asia 2267: 2251:Isolation to globalization 2198: 2091: 1998: 1977:school of Confucianism—or 1870: 1515: 1437: 1382: 1348:civil service examinations 15: 7599: 7566: 7528:Chinese lacquerware table 7488: 7447: 7394: 7351: 7308: 7290:Embroidered Uniform Guard 7218: 7104: 7051:Prince of Anhua rebellion 7013: 6907: 6898: 6570:Journal of Social History 6467:. New York: Grove Press. 5198:China Heritage Newsletter 5137:Asian and African Studies 3567:Marquis of Extended Grace 3115:Manchuria under Ming rule 2489:was the first to land on 2421:Byzantine-Mongol alliance 2047:East Africa for centuries 1724:, it was made during the 1661:found in the Song dynasty 1628:conquest of Tibet in 1642 1055:, the restoration of the 1015:imperial dynasty of China 797: 719: 599: 532: 462: 336: 7591:Great Ming Treasure Note 7470:Ming Ancestors Mausoleum 7253:Administrative divisions 7056:Prince of Ning rebellion 6806:John W. Dardess (1968). 6785:John W. Dardess (1983). 6764:John W. Dardess (2012). 6533:Needham, Joseph (1986). 6392:Gernet, Jacques (1962). 5338:. G. Hirth. p. 66. 5332:Friedrich Hirth (1885). 4428:Brook, 128–129, 134–138. 4280:Langlois, 139 & 161. 4176:Wang & Nyima, 39–40. 4021:Goodrich & Fang 1976 3508: 3468:Ming dynasty family tree 3307:A peasant soldier named 2868:Real Audiencia de Manila 2855:Juan Gonzáles de Mendoza 2753:Dutch East India Company 2580:have been discovered at 2292:studies, the so-called " 2132:Emperor Yingzong of Ming 2112:Emperor Yingzong of Ming 2035:sent diplomatic missions 1989:Four Great Books of Song 1145:Revolt and rebel rivalry 7410:The Hundred-word Eulogy 7076:Great Rites Controversy 6930:Ming conquest of Yunnan 6730:Young, Gary K. (2001), 6572:(Spring 2000): 527–563. 6463:Laird, Thomas. (2006). 6282:Europe and the Far East 5928:eds. Watson, Ebrey 1991 4185:Sperling, 474–475, 478. 4113:Wang & Nyima, 1–40. 3959:. Cosimo. p. 103. 3433:Fortifications of Xi'an 2645:Fernão Pires de Andrade 2560:. 161–180 AD) and 2501:—a cousin of the famed 2285:Emperor Taizong of Tang 2195:The failed coup of 1461 2045:leading all the way to 1622:region, culminating in 1604:Mongol-Tibetan alliance 1440:Ming conquest of Yunnan 1140:Founding of the dynasty 7448:Palaces and Mausoleums 7438:Ming Veritable Records 7086:Luso-Chinese agreement 6812:. Columbia University. 6193:Ball, Warwick (2016), 3792:Andrew & Rapp, 25. 3478:Ming official headwear 3355: 3304: 3135: 3014: 2951: 2895: 2882: 2866: 2821: 2804:by the Italian Jesuit 2774: 2748: 2716:in 1622–1624 over the 2509:in 1516, commanding a 2462:to replace archbishop 2417:Franco-Mongol alliance 2400: 2317: 2239:memorial to the throne 2230: 2139: 2051:Chinese treasure ships 2043:private overseas trade 2022: 1921: 1863: 1781: 1780:from the Ming dynasty. 1733: 1730:See closeup for detail 1652: 1534:Tibet's Buddhist sects 1453: 1448:The old south gate of 1434:South-Western Frontier 1419:tributary trade system 1379:North-Western Frontier 1304:law code known as the 1287: 1207:secret society of the 1196: 42: 7543:Yongning Temple Stele 7280:Imperial Commissioner 7005:Reign of Ren and Xuan 6965:Ming treasure voyages 6955:Dao Ganmeng rebellion 6434:Ho, Ping-ti. (1959). 4634:Robinson (2000), 527. 4464:Brook, 10, 49–51, 56. 4437:Gernet, 60–61, 68–69. 4307:Wang & Nyima, 38. 4262:Wang & Nyima, 42. 4140:Wang & Nyima, 37. 3529:'s Ming loyalists in 3438:Kaifeng flood of 1642 3349: 3298: 3213:after he surrendered 3126: 3098:Further information: 3001: 2942: 2886: 2874: 2799: 2758: 2734: 2722:Battle of Liaoluo Bay 2520:that had sailed from 2403:Further information: 2390: 2320:Further information: 2311: 2300:of the Ming dynasty. 2268:Further information: 2217:walls of the ancient 2208: 2129: 2008: 1911: 1857: 1775: 1707: 1646: 1447: 1281: 1240:Battle of Lake Poyang 1176: 788:(mainland, 1912–1949) 28: 7142:Sino-Dutch conflicts 7041:Rebellion of Cao Qin 6970:Ming–Turpan conflict 6920:Red Turban Rebellion 6816:Huang, Ray. (1982). 5408:, pp. 460–461; 5299:R. G. Grant (2005). 5158:Robinson, David M., 4736:Chang (2007), 66–67. 4540:Brook, 68–69, 81–83. 3551:Ming imperial family 2969:The Book of Swindles 2714:Sino–Dutch conflicts 2639:to the court of the 2637:Manuel I of Portugal 2503:Christopher Columbus 2497:in May 1513, it was 2464:John of Montecorvino 2409:Sino-Roman relations 2201:Rebellion of Cao Qin 1962:central government. 1712:Workshop) set up in 1518:Ming–Tibet relations 1512:Relations with Tibet 1428:Ming–Turpan conflict 1385:Ming–Turpan conflict 7489:Society and Culture 7424:Yongle Encyclopedia 7263:Imperial Clan Court 7206:Kingdom of Tungning 7159:Jurchen unification 7091:Jiajing wokou raids 6980:Battle of Palembang 6945:Battle of Buir Lake 6627:Spence, Jonathan D. 6509:(Hardback edition). 5307:. DK Pub. pp. 4482:Brook, 10, 118–119. 3119:Jurchen unification 3109:Rise of the Manchus 3104:Kingdom of Tungning 2935:The role of eunuchs 2726:Shimabara Rebellion 2562:Emperor Huan of Han 2322:Jiajing wokou raids 2264:Universal rulership 2211:Great Wall of China 1984:Yongle Encyclopedia 1576:Melvyn C. Goldstein 1344:Emperor Ping of Han 1292:wall around Nanjing 1211:, which propagated 7338:Military conquests 7184:Peasant rebellions 7061:Capture of Malacca 7036:Defense of Beijing 6950:Lin Kuan rebellion 5279:Fordham University 4850:, 184.17b, 185.5b. 4804:Fairbank, 138–139. 4754:Fairbank, 137–138. 4646:Atwell (2002), 84. 4595:Fairbank, 134–135. 4528:Atwell (2002), 86. 4401:Brook, 6–7, 90–91. 4298:Ebrey (1999), 227. 3909:Fairbank, 129–130. 3356: 3305: 3180:Liaodong Peninsula 3172:Battle of Ningyuan 3136: 3036:Philip IV of Spain 3028:Kingdom of England 3015: 2994:Economic breakdown 2952: 2929:Confucian Classics 2822: 2749: 2499:Rafael Perestrello 2448:John V Palaiologos 2401: 2318: 2231: 2140: 2033:. The Chinese had 2023: 1995:The treasure fleet 1922: 1864: 1837:Single Whip Reform 1829:medium of exchange 1819:Chinese history." 1782: 1734: 1653: 1454: 1288: 1197: 803: 613:Five Dynasties and 605: 540:Southern dynasties 468: 367:Chu–Han Contention 359:(206 BCE – 220 CE) 43: 7617: 7616: 7326:Gunpowder weapons 7285:Grand coordinator 7248:Grand Secretariat 7214: 7213: 7108:(1572–1683) 7017:(1435–1572) 6985:Battle of Kherlen 6935:Ming–Mong Mao War 6925:Wu Mian rebellion 6911:(1368–1435) 6798:978-0-520-04733-4 6777:978-1-4422-0491-1 6612:978-0-8047-2066-3 6526:978-0-230-61424-6 6473:978-0-8021-1827-1 6273:978-90-04-15605-0 6204:978-0-415-72078-6 6122:978-1-136-90274-1 6087:, p. 824–25. 6085:Dennerline (1985) 5892:ed. Walthall 2008 5410:de Crespigny 2007 5372:978-0-674-03519-5 5318:978-0-7566-1360-0 5083:, pp. 72–73. 3966:978-1-60520-150-4 3919:Muqi Che (1989). 3543:Yongzheng Emperor 3416:Republic of China 3157:Later Jin dynasty 3144:Jianzhou Jurchens 3063:Natural disasters 2988:Chongzhen Emperor 2686:Governor of Macau 2682:Shangchuan Island 2616:. A much earlier 2495:Pearl River Delta 2476:Mediterranean Sea 2355:, and trade with 2347:, trade with the 2088:Succession crisis 1945:(93 million 1340:county magistrate 1332:scholar-officials 1254:) to the ground. 993: 992: 950:Transport history 876:Education history 848: 847: 843: 842: 829:Republic of China 811:People's Republic 784:Republic of China 763: 762: 712: 711: 707: 706: 592: 591: 525: 524: 520: 519: 456: 455: 289:Spring and Autumn 152:Liao civilization 7676: 7646: 7645: 7644: 7634: 7633: 7632: 7625: 7417:Huang-Ming Zuxun 7189:Jiashen Incident 7179:She-An Rebellion 7164:Seven Grievances 7137:Donglin movement 7122:Bozhou rebellion 7109: 7018: 6995:Lam Sơn uprising 6975:Ming–Đại Ngu War 6960:Jingnan campaign 6912: 6905: 6904: 6884: 6877: 6870: 6861: 6860: 6813: 6802: 6781: 6744: 6725: 6692:(1977): 201–237. 6674: 6662: 6634:; Second Edition 6616: 6530: 6493: 6424: 6329: 6276: 6207: 6166: 6139: 6136:Manthorpe (2008) 6133: 6127: 6126: 6106: 6100: 6099:, p. 469–70 6094: 6088: 6082: 6076: 6073: 6067: 6065: 6030: 6024: 6021: 6008: 6005: 5999: 5996: 5985: 5982: 5973: 5970: 5964: 5961: 5952: 5949: 5940: 5937: 5931: 5925: 5919: 5913: 5907: 5901: 5895: 5889: 5883: 5880: 5874: 5871: 5860: 5857: 5848: 5845: 5839: 5838: 5824:China: A History 5818: 5812: 5809: 5803: 5800: 5789: 5786: 5780: 5777: 5771: 5768: 5762: 5759: 5753: 5750: 5744: 5741: 5735: 5732: 5719: 5712: 5703: 5696: 5690: 5683: 5677: 5674: 5663: 5660: 5651: 5648: 5642: 5639: 5628: 5625: 5619: 5616: 5610: 5609:Crosby, 198–201. 5607: 5601: 5598: 5587: 5584: 5573: 5570: 5561: 5558: 5549: 5542: 5536: 5533: 5524: 5521: 5515: 5512: 5506: 5499: 5493: 5490: 5484: 5477: 5471: 5464: 5458: 5451: 5445: 5439: 5433: 5419: 5413: 5403: 5397: 5394: 5377: 5376: 5356: 5350: 5349: 5329: 5323: 5322: 5306: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5285: 5267: 5256: 5249: 5243: 5236: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5208: 5202: 5201: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5173: 5166: 5155: 5149: 5148: 5146: 5144: 5134: 5125: 5119: 5118: 5116: 5114: 5108: 5101: 5090: 5084: 5078: 5072: 5069: 5063: 5060: 5051: 5048: 5042: 5039: 5033: 5030: 5024: 5021: 5015: 5012: 5003: 5000: 4994: 4991: 4985: 4982: 4976: 4973: 4967: 4964: 4958: 4955: 4946: 4939: 4930: 4927: 4921: 4918: 4912: 4905: 4899: 4896: 4890: 4887: 4881: 4878: 4872: 4869: 4860: 4857: 4851: 4845: 4839: 4836: 4830: 4827: 4821: 4814: 4805: 4802: 4796: 4793: 4787: 4784: 4769: 4766: 4755: 4752: 4746: 4743: 4737: 4734: 4725: 4722: 4716: 4713: 4707: 4704: 4698: 4695: 4689: 4682: 4667: 4660: 4647: 4644: 4635: 4632: 4623: 4620: 4614: 4611: 4605: 4602: 4596: 4593: 4587: 4584: 4578: 4575: 4566: 4563: 4550: 4547: 4541: 4538: 4529: 4526: 4513: 4510: 4501: 4498: 4492: 4489: 4483: 4480: 4474: 4471: 4465: 4462: 4456: 4453: 4447: 4444: 4438: 4435: 4429: 4426: 4420: 4417: 4411: 4408: 4402: 4399: 4393: 4390: 4384: 4381: 4375: 4372: 4366: 4363: 4357: 4354: 4348: 4341: 4335: 4332: 4326: 4323: 4317: 4314: 4308: 4305: 4299: 4296: 4290: 4287: 4281: 4278: 4272: 4269: 4263: 4260: 4254: 4251: 4240: 4237: 4231: 4228: 4222: 4219: 4213: 4210: 4204: 4201: 4195: 4192: 4186: 4183: 4177: 4174: 4168: 4165: 4159: 4156: 4150: 4147: 4141: 4138: 4132: 4129: 4123: 4120: 4114: 4111: 4105: 4102: 4089: 4081: 4075: 4068: 4057: 4056: 4054: 4052: 4029: 4023: 4018: 4012: 4011: 4009: 4007: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3950: 3944: 3943: 3941: 3939: 3916: 3910: 3907: 3901: 3898: 3892: 3885: 3876: 3873: 3864: 3857: 3848: 3845: 3839: 3836: 3830: 3823: 3817: 3814: 3805: 3802: 3793: 3790: 3784: 3781: 3775: 3772: 3766: 3759: 3748: 3745: 3734: 3727: 3721: 3714: 3708: 3701: 3695: 3692: 3683: 3680: 3674: 3671: 3665: 3662: 3656: 3653: 3647: 3644: 3638: 3635: 3629: 3622: 3616: 3609: 3598: 3595: 3574: 3571:Qianlong Emperor 3519: 3483:Treasure voyages 3161:Seven Grievances 3142:, leader of the 3088:Fall of the Ming 2925:Neo-Confucianism 2871: 2862:Antonio de Morga 2832:. This included 2600:Gulf of Thailand 2528:maintain that a 2444:Byzantine Empire 2294:New Ming History 2290:New Qing History 2001:Treasure voyages 1979:Neo-Confucianism 1873:Jingnan Campaign 1858:Portrait of the 1538:Turrell V. Wylie 1282:Portrait of the 1134:Taichang Emperor 985: 978: 971: 913:Military history 871:Economic history 859:Related articles 836: 818: 800: 799: 795: 794: 789: 756: 743: 730: 717: 716: 700: 687: 674: 655: 645: 633: 620: 602: 601: 597: 596: 581: 571: 558: 545: 530: 529: 513: 508:Sixteen Kingdoms 491: 481: 465: 464: 460: 459: 449: 415: 402: 392: 382: 381:(202 BCE – 9 CE) 372: 360: 347: 334: 333: 312: 304: 302: 298: 295: 285: 275: 263: 261: 257: 254: 239: 237: 233: 230: 216: 214: 210: 207: 192: 190: 186: 183: 133: 131: 127: 124: 68: 58:History of China 45: 44: 7684: 7683: 7679: 7678: 7677: 7675: 7674: 7673: 7654: 7653: 7652: 7642: 7640: 7630: 7628: 7620: 7618: 7613: 7608:History of Ming 7595: 7562: 7484: 7460:Chaotian Palace 7443: 7403:History of Yuan 7390: 7347: 7304: 7210: 7110: 7107: 7100: 7096:Single whip law 7071:Ningbo incident 7046:Miao rebellions 7019: 7016: 7009: 6913: 6910: 6894: 6888: 6799: 6778: 6760: 6758:Further reading 6755: 6742: 6723: 6671: 6653:Waldron, Arthur 6613: 6585:10.2307/2652684 6527: 6491: 6421: 6310:10.2307/2056469 6274: 6205: 6164: 6147: 6142: 6134: 6130: 6123: 6107: 6103: 6097:Shepherd (1993) 6095: 6091: 6083: 6079: 6074: 6070: 6047:10.2307/2941233 6031: 6027: 6022: 6011: 6006: 6002: 5997: 5988: 5983: 5976: 5971: 5967: 5962: 5955: 5950: 5943: 5938: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5914: 5910: 5902: 5898: 5890: 5886: 5881: 5877: 5872: 5863: 5858: 5851: 5846: 5842: 5835: 5819: 5815: 5810: 5806: 5801: 5792: 5787: 5783: 5778: 5774: 5769: 5765: 5760: 5756: 5751: 5747: 5742: 5738: 5733: 5722: 5713: 5706: 5702:, 203–206, 213. 5697: 5693: 5684: 5680: 5675: 5666: 5661: 5654: 5650:Brook, 205–206. 5649: 5645: 5640: 5631: 5626: 5622: 5617: 5613: 5608: 5604: 5599: 5590: 5585: 5576: 5571: 5564: 5559: 5552: 5543: 5539: 5534: 5527: 5522: 5518: 5513: 5509: 5500: 5496: 5491: 5487: 5478: 5474: 5465: 5461: 5452: 5448: 5440: 5436: 5420: 5416: 5404: 5400: 5395: 5380: 5373: 5357: 5353: 5346: 5330: 5326: 5319: 5297: 5293: 5283: 5281: 5268: 5259: 5250: 5246: 5237: 5226: 5216: 5214: 5210: 5209: 5205: 5190: 5186: 5177: 5175: 5174:on 29 June 2016 5171: 5164: 5156: 5152: 5142: 5140: 5132: 5126: 5122: 5112: 5110: 5109:on 11 June 2016 5106: 5099: 5091: 5087: 5079: 5075: 5070: 5066: 5061: 5054: 5049: 5045: 5040: 5036: 5031: 5027: 5022: 5018: 5013: 5006: 5001: 4997: 4992: 4988: 4983: 4979: 4974: 4970: 4965: 4961: 4956: 4949: 4940: 4933: 4928: 4924: 4919: 4915: 4906: 4902: 4897: 4893: 4888: 4884: 4879: 4875: 4870: 4863: 4858: 4854: 4846: 4842: 4837: 4833: 4828: 4824: 4815: 4808: 4803: 4799: 4794: 4790: 4785: 4772: 4767: 4758: 4753: 4749: 4744: 4740: 4735: 4728: 4723: 4719: 4714: 4710: 4705: 4701: 4696: 4692: 4683: 4670: 4661: 4650: 4645: 4638: 4633: 4626: 4622:Brook, xxi, 89. 4621: 4617: 4612: 4608: 4603: 4599: 4594: 4590: 4585: 4581: 4576: 4569: 4564: 4553: 4548: 4544: 4539: 4532: 4527: 4516: 4511: 4504: 4499: 4495: 4490: 4486: 4481: 4477: 4472: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4454: 4450: 4445: 4441: 4436: 4432: 4427: 4423: 4418: 4414: 4409: 4405: 4400: 4396: 4391: 4387: 4382: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4365:Goldstein, 6–9. 4364: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4342: 4338: 4334:Laird, 143–144. 4333: 4329: 4324: 4320: 4315: 4311: 4306: 4302: 4297: 4293: 4289:Geiss, 417–418. 4288: 4284: 4279: 4275: 4270: 4266: 4261: 4257: 4252: 4243: 4238: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4198: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4175: 4171: 4166: 4162: 4157: 4153: 4149:Goldstein, 4–5. 4148: 4144: 4139: 4135: 4130: 4126: 4122:Laird, 106–107. 4121: 4117: 4112: 4108: 4103: 4092: 4082: 4078: 4069: 4060: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4030: 4026: 4019: 4015: 4005: 4003: 4001: 3985: 3981: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3951: 3947: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3917: 3913: 3908: 3904: 3899: 3895: 3886: 3879: 3874: 3867: 3858: 3851: 3846: 3842: 3837: 3833: 3824: 3820: 3815: 3808: 3803: 3796: 3791: 3787: 3782: 3778: 3773: 3769: 3760: 3751: 3746: 3737: 3728: 3724: 3715: 3711: 3703:Ebrey, et al., 3702: 3698: 3694:Gascoigne, 150. 3693: 3686: 3681: 3677: 3672: 3668: 3663: 3659: 3654: 3650: 3645: 3641: 3636: 3632: 3623: 3619: 3610: 3601: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3577: 3569:in 1750 by the 3520: 3516: 3511: 3492:rural economics 3463:Ming Great Wall 3424: 3376:Shunzhi Emperor 3317:Zhang Xianzhong 3301:Shunzhi Emperor 3293: 3121: 3111: 3106: 3096: 3090: 3082:Zhang Xianzhong 3065: 2996: 2984:Donglin Society 2937: 2905: 2900: 2828:crops from the 2737:Macau Peninsula 2698:South China Sea 2641:Zhengde Emperor 2604:South China Sea 2554:Marcus Aurelius 2534:Roman merchants 2526:Chinese records 2468:History of Ming 2428:History of Ming 2423: 2385: 2359:exclusively at 2351:exclusively at 2324: 2306: 2280:Zhengde Emperor 2276: 2266: 2253: 2213:; although the 2203: 2197: 2156: 2144:Jingtai Emperor 2136:Jingtai Emperor 2110:encouraged the 2096: 2090: 2085: 2063:annexed Vietnam 2003: 1997: 1891: 1879:Jianwen Emperor 1875: 1869: 1862:(r. 1402–1424). 1852: 1841:Grand Secretary 1702: 1685: 1641: 1636: 1626:'s (1582–1655) 1581:tea-horse trade 1559:Jiajing Emperor 1520: 1514: 1458:Kingdom of Dali 1442: 1436: 1387: 1381: 1371:, a network of 1276: 1217:Maitreya Buddha 1147: 1142: 1009:, known as the 989: 960: 959: 955:Women's history 861: 860: 851: 850: 849: 844: 839: 834: 832: 821: 816: 812: 792: 787: 778: 777: 766: 765: 764: 759: 754: 746: 741: 733: 728: 714: 713: 708: 703: 698: 690: 685: 677: 672: 664: 658: 653: 643: 631: 623: 618: 614: 594: 593: 588: 579: 569: 561: 556: 548: 543: 539: 527: 526: 521: 516: 511: 503: 500: 494: 489: 479: 457: 452: 447: 439: 413: 405: 400: 390: 380: 370: 358: 350: 345: 330: 329: 318: 317: 310: 300: 296: 291: 283: 273: 259: 255: 250: 242: 235: 231: 226: 213: 1046 BCE 212: 208: 203: 195: 189: 1600 BCE 188: 184: 179: 170: 169: 158: 157: 130: 2000 BCE 129: 125: 120: 112: 101: 100: 35:Jiajing Emperor 21: 18:History of Ming 12: 11: 5: 7682: 7672: 7671: 7666: 7651: 7650: 7638: 7615: 7614: 7612: 7611: 7603: 7601: 7597: 7596: 7594: 7593: 7588: 7587: 7586: 7584:Yongle Tongbao 7581: 7579:Hongwu Tongbao 7570: 7568: 7564: 7563: 7561: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7524: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7503: 7498: 7492: 7490: 7486: 7485: 7483: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7467: 7462: 7457: 7455:Forbidden City 7451: 7449: 7445: 7444: 7442: 7441: 7434: 7427: 7420: 7413: 7406: 7398: 7396: 7392: 7391: 7389: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7372: 7371: 7366: 7355: 7353: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7345: 7343:Nine Garrisons 7340: 7335: 7334: 7333: 7323: 7318: 7312: 7310: 7306: 7305: 7303: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7276: 7275: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7244: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7222: 7220: 7216: 7215: 7212: 7211: 7209: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7197: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7161: 7151: 7150: 7149: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7127:Ordos campaign 7124: 7119: 7113: 7111: 7106: 7102: 7101: 7099: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7022: 7020: 7015: 7011: 7010: 7008: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6990:Ming–Kotte War 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6916: 6914: 6909: 6902: 6896: 6895: 6887: 6886: 6879: 6872: 6864: 6858: 6857: 6848: 6841: 6832: 6821: 6814: 6803: 6797: 6782: 6776: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6753: 6746: 6740: 6727: 6721: 6708: 6693: 6686: 6675: 6669: 6649: 6624: 6617: 6611: 6596: 6573: 6566: 6559: 6552: 6545: 6538: 6531: 6525: 6510: 6495: 6489: 6476: 6461: 6454: 6439: 6432: 6425: 6419: 6404: 6390: 6375: 6360: 6345: 6330: 6293: 6278: 6272: 6259: 6244: 6229: 6212:Brook, Timothy 6209: 6203: 6190: 6183: 6168: 6162: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6140: 6138:, p. 108. 6128: 6121: 6101: 6089: 6077: 6075:Spence, 34–35. 6068: 6041:(3): 387–400. 6025: 6009: 6007:Spence, 32–33. 6000: 5986: 5974: 5972:Spence, 21–22. 5965: 5953: 5941: 5932: 5930:, pp. 179–180. 5920: 5916:Crossley, 2010 5908: 5896: 5884: 5882:Spence, 24–25. 5875: 5861: 5849: 5840: 5834:978-0872209152 5833: 5813: 5811:Spence, 22–24. 5804: 5790: 5788:Spence, 20–21. 5781: 5772: 5763: 5761:Spence, 17–18. 5754: 5745: 5736: 5720: 5704: 5691: 5685:Ebrey et al., 5678: 5664: 5652: 5643: 5629: 5620: 5611: 5602: 5588: 5574: 5572:Spence, 19–20. 5562: 5550: 5537: 5525: 5516: 5507: 5494: 5485: 5472: 5459: 5446: 5434: 5428:, p. 38; 5424:, p. 29; 5414: 5398: 5378: 5371: 5351: 5344: 5324: 5317: 5291: 5257: 5251:Ebrey et al., 5244: 5224: 5203: 5184: 5150: 5120: 5085: 5081:Waldron (1990) 5073: 5064: 5052: 5043: 5034: 5025: 5016: 5004: 4995: 4986: 4977: 4968: 4959: 4947: 4931: 4922: 4913: 4900: 4891: 4882: 4873: 4861: 4852: 4848:Yingzong Shilu 4840: 4831: 4822: 4816:Ebrey et al., 4806: 4797: 4788: 4786:Fairbank, 139. 4770: 4768:Fairbank, 138. 4756: 4747: 4745:Fairbank, 137. 4738: 4726: 4717: 4708: 4699: 4690: 4668: 4662:Ebrey et al., 4648: 4636: 4624: 4615: 4606: 4597: 4588: 4579: 4567: 4551: 4542: 4530: 4514: 4502: 4493: 4484: 4475: 4466: 4457: 4448: 4439: 4430: 4421: 4412: 4403: 4394: 4385: 4376: 4367: 4358: 4356:Kolmas, 34–35. 4349: 4336: 4327: 4318: 4316:Kolmas, 30–31. 4309: 4300: 4291: 4282: 4273: 4264: 4255: 4241: 4232: 4223: 4214: 4205: 4203:Kolmas, 28–29. 4196: 4187: 4178: 4169: 4160: 4151: 4142: 4133: 4124: 4115: 4106: 4090: 4076: 4058: 4044: 4024: 4013: 3999: 3979: 3965: 3945: 3931: 3911: 3902: 3900:Fairbank, 130. 3893: 3877: 3865: 3849: 3840: 3831: 3818: 3816:Fairbank, 134. 3806: 3804:Fairbank, 129. 3794: 3785: 3776: 3767: 3749: 3747:Gascoigne 151. 3735: 3722: 3709: 3696: 3684: 3675: 3666: 3657: 3648: 3639: 3630: 3624:Ebrey et al., 3617: 3599: 3597:Fairbank, 128. 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3576: 3575: 3539:Kangxi Emperor 3535:Zheng Keshuang 3513: 3512: 3510: 3507: 3506: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3423: 3420: 3400:scorched earth 3292: 3289: 3192:Inner Mongolia 3168:Yuan Chonghuan 3110: 3107: 3092:Main article: 3089: 3086: 3070:Little Ice Age 3064: 3061: 3024:Dutch Republic 3022:powers of the 2995: 2992: 2980:Tianqi Emperor 2971:" (ca. 1617). 2936: 2933: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2896: 2834:sweet potatoes 2830:Spanish Empire 2760:In one case a 2690:Gaspar da Cruz 2671:breech-loading 2578:Antoninus Pius 2460:Pope John XXII 2442:(拂菻; i.e. the 2384: 2381: 2305: 2302: 2265: 2262: 2257:Arthur Waldron 2252: 2249: 2219:Warring States 2199:Main article: 2196: 2193: 2155: 2152: 2092:Main article: 2089: 2086: 2084: 2081: 1999:Main article: 1996: 1993: 1938:East China Sea 1930:shipping grain 1903:Forbidden City 1890: 1887: 1883:Yongle Emperor 1871:Main article: 1868: 1865: 1860:Yongle Emperor 1851: 1848: 1763:Xuande Emperor 1759:paper currency 1755:Hongxi Emperor 1751:Yongle Emperor 1701: 1698: 1684: 1681: 1640: 1637: 1635: 1632: 1592:Patricia Ebrey 1567:Helmut Hoffman 1516:Main article: 1513: 1510: 1438:Main article: 1435: 1432: 1383:Main article: 1380: 1377: 1286:(r. 1368–1398) 1284:Hongwu Emperor 1275: 1272: 1187:, compiled by 1146: 1143: 1141: 1138: 1061:Forbidden City 1011:Hongwu Emperor 991: 990: 988: 987: 980: 973: 965: 962: 961: 958: 957: 952: 947: 946: 945: 940: 935: 930: 920: 915: 910: 909: 908: 898: 893: 888: 886:Jewish history 883: 878: 873: 868: 862: 858: 857: 856: 853: 852: 846: 845: 841: 840: 838: 837: 824: 822: 820: 819: 817:(1949–present) 806: 804: 798: 791: 790: 779: 773: 772: 771: 768: 767: 761: 760: 758: 757: 745: 744: 732: 731: 720: 710: 709: 705: 704: 702: 701: 691: 688: 678: 675: 665: 661: 659: 657: 656: 646: 635: 634: 622: 621: 608: 606: 600: 590: 589: 587: 586: 585: 584: 583: 582: 560: 559: 547: 546: 533: 523: 522: 518: 517: 515: 514: 504: 501: 497: 495: 493: 492: 482: 471: 469: 463: 454: 453: 451: 450: 438: 437: 417: 416: 410:Three Kingdoms 404: 403: 393: 383: 373: 362: 361: 349: 348: 337: 331: 325: 324: 323: 320: 319: 316: 315: 314: 313: 308:Warring States 305: 301: 476 BCE 276: 274:(1046–771 BCE) 265: 264: 260: 256 BCE 241: 240: 218: 217: 194: 193: 171: 165: 164: 163: 160: 159: 156: 155: 135: 134: 111: 110: 102: 96: 95: 94: 91: 90: 89: 88: 86:Historiography 83: 78: 70: 69: 61: 60: 54: 53: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7681: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7661: 7659: 7649: 7639: 7637: 7627: 7626: 7623: 7610: 7609: 7605: 7604: 7602: 7598: 7592: 7589: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7576: 7575: 7572: 7571: 7569: 7565: 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7155: 7152: 7148: 7145: 7144: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7114: 7112: 7103: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7023: 7021: 7012: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6917: 6915: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6897: 6892: 6885: 6880: 6878: 6873: 6871: 6866: 6865: 6862: 6855: 6854: 6849: 6847: 6846: 6842: 6840: 6836: 6833: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6810: 6804: 6800: 6794: 6790: 6789: 6783: 6779: 6773: 6769: 6768: 6762: 6761: 6751: 6747: 6743: 6741:0-415-24219-3 6737: 6733: 6728: 6724: 6722:0-521-24327-0 6718: 6714: 6709: 6706: 6705:0-415-30842-9 6702: 6698: 6694: 6691: 6687: 6684: 6683:7-80113-304-8 6680: 6676: 6672: 6666: 6661: 6660: 6654: 6650: 6647: 6646:0-393-97351-4 6643: 6639: 6635: 6633: 6628: 6625: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6608: 6604: 6603: 6597: 6594: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6571: 6567: 6564: 6560: 6557: 6553: 6550: 6546: 6543: 6539: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6522: 6518: 6517: 6511: 6508: 6507:0-521-24333-5 6504: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6490:9780642278098 6486: 6482: 6477: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6459: 6455: 6452: 6451:0-415-30842-9 6448: 6444: 6440: 6437: 6433: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6416: 6412: 6411: 6405: 6403: 6402:0-8047-0720-0 6399: 6395: 6391: 6388: 6387:0-7867-1219-8 6384: 6380: 6376: 6373: 6372:0-674-01828-1 6369: 6365: 6361: 6358: 6357:0-521-66991-X 6354: 6350: 6346: 6343: 6342:0-618-13384-4 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6304:(4): 824–25. 6303: 6299: 6294: 6291: 6290:0-543-93972-3 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6269: 6265: 6260: 6257: 6256:0-275-98092-8 6253: 6249: 6245: 6242: 6241:0-674-02454-0 6238: 6234: 6230: 6227: 6226:0-520-22154-0 6223: 6219: 6218: 6213: 6210: 6206: 6200: 6196: 6191: 6188: 6184: 6181: 6180:0-8476-9580-8 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6163:2-503-52178-9 6159: 6155: 6150: 6149: 6137: 6132: 6124: 6118: 6114: 6113: 6105: 6098: 6093: 6086: 6081: 6072: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6029: 6020: 6018: 6016: 6014: 6004: 5995: 5993: 5991: 5981: 5979: 5969: 5960: 5958: 5948: 5946: 5936: 5929: 5924: 5917: 5912: 5905: 5900: 5893: 5888: 5879: 5870: 5868: 5866: 5856: 5854: 5844: 5836: 5830: 5826: 5825: 5817: 5808: 5799: 5797: 5795: 5785: 5776: 5767: 5758: 5749: 5740: 5731: 5729: 5727: 5725: 5717: 5711: 5709: 5701: 5695: 5688: 5682: 5673: 5671: 5669: 5659: 5657: 5647: 5638: 5636: 5634: 5624: 5615: 5606: 5597: 5595: 5593: 5583: 5581: 5579: 5569: 5567: 5557: 5555: 5547: 5544:Mote et al., 5541: 5532: 5530: 5520: 5511: 5504: 5501:Mote et al., 5498: 5489: 5482: 5479:Mote et al., 5476: 5469: 5466:Mote et al., 5463: 5456: 5453:Mote et al., 5450: 5443: 5438: 5432:, p. 153 5431: 5427: 5423: 5418: 5412:, p. 600 5411: 5407: 5402: 5393: 5391: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5383: 5374: 5368: 5364: 5363: 5355: 5347: 5345:9780524033050 5341: 5337: 5336: 5328: 5320: 5314: 5310: 5305: 5304: 5295: 5280: 5276: 5273: 5266: 5264: 5262: 5254: 5248: 5241: 5235: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5213: 5207: 5199: 5195: 5188: 5170: 5163: 5162: 5154: 5138: 5131: 5124: 5105: 5098: 5097: 5089: 5082: 5077: 5068: 5059: 5057: 5047: 5038: 5029: 5020: 5011: 5009: 4999: 4990: 4981: 4972: 4963: 4954: 4952: 4944: 4938: 4936: 4926: 4917: 4910: 4904: 4895: 4886: 4877: 4868: 4866: 4856: 4849: 4844: 4835: 4826: 4819: 4813: 4811: 4801: 4792: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4775: 4765: 4763: 4761: 4751: 4742: 4733: 4731: 4721: 4715:Brook, 74–75. 4712: 4703: 4697:Brook, 46–47. 4694: 4687: 4681: 4679: 4677: 4675: 4673: 4665: 4659: 4657: 4655: 4653: 4643: 4641: 4631: 4629: 4619: 4610: 4601: 4592: 4583: 4574: 4572: 4562: 4560: 4558: 4556: 4546: 4537: 4535: 4525: 4523: 4521: 4519: 4509: 4507: 4497: 4488: 4479: 4473:Brook, 40–43. 4470: 4461: 4455:Brook, 65–67. 4452: 4443: 4434: 4425: 4416: 4410:Brook, 90–93. 4407: 4398: 4389: 4380: 4371: 4362: 4353: 4346: 4340: 4331: 4325:Goldstein, 8. 4322: 4313: 4304: 4295: 4286: 4277: 4271:Dreyfus, 504. 4268: 4259: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4236: 4227: 4218: 4209: 4200: 4191: 4182: 4173: 4164: 4155: 4146: 4137: 4128: 4119: 4110: 4101: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4087: 4086: 4080: 4073: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4047: 4045:0-300-02672-2 4041: 4037: 4036: 4028: 4022: 4017: 4002: 4000:1-884964-04-4 3996: 3992: 3991: 3983: 3968: 3962: 3958: 3957: 3949: 3934: 3932:0-8351-2100-3 3928: 3924: 3923: 3915: 3906: 3897: 3890: 3884: 3882: 3872: 3870: 3862: 3856: 3854: 3844: 3835: 3828: 3822: 3813: 3811: 3801: 3799: 3789: 3780: 3774:Wakeman, 207. 3771: 3764: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3732: 3726: 3719: 3713: 3706: 3700: 3691: 3689: 3679: 3670: 3661: 3652: 3643: 3634: 3627: 3621: 3614: 3608: 3606: 3604: 3594: 3590: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3563:Eight Banners 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3518: 3514: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3498:Zheng Zhilong 3496: 3493: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3446: 3444: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3425: 3419: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3408:Southern Ming 3403: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3353: 3348: 3344: 3342: 3338: 3332: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3302: 3297: 3288: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3261: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3243: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3199: 3197: 3196:Manchu banner 3193: 3187: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3164: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3120: 3116: 3105: 3101: 3100:Southern Ming 3095: 3085: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3060: 3056: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2991: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2976:Wei Zhongxian 2972: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2949: 2948:Wei Zhongxian 2945: 2941: 2932: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2921:Wang Yangming 2916: 2914: 2913:Zhang Juzheng 2910: 2909:Wanli Emperor 2894: 2891: 2885: 2881: 2879: 2873: 2870: 2869: 2863: 2858: 2856: 2851: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2798: 2794: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2773: 2771: 2770:Mexican mines 2767: 2763: 2757: 2754: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2733: 2729: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2651: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2614: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2572:Roman golden 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2530:Roman embassy 2527: 2523: 2519: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2491:Lintin Island 2488: 2487:Jorge Álvares 2483: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2466:in 1333. The 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2452:former bishop 2449: 2445: 2441: 2440: 2434: 2430: 2429: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2398: 2394: 2393:Timothy Brook 2389: 2380: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2364: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2332: 2330: 2323: 2316:pirate raids. 2315: 2312:16th century 2310: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2275: 2271: 2261: 2258: 2248: 2245: 2244:Imperial City 2240: 2235: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2202: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2172: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2151: 2149: 2145: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2122: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2095: 2080: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2055: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2020: 2016: 2013:brought from 2012: 2007: 2002: 1992: 1990: 1986: 1985: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1963: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1919: 1915: 1910: 1906: 1904: 1900: 1899:Imperial City 1896: 1886: 1884: 1880: 1874: 1867:Rise to power 1861: 1856: 1847: 1845: 1844:Zhang Juzheng 1842: 1839:installed by 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1820: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1792: 1787: 1779: 1776:An emperor's 1774: 1770: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1747: 1744: 1740: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1706: 1697: 1695: 1690: 1680: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1650: 1645: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1600:Wanli Emperor 1597: 1593: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1577: 1573: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1526: 1519: 1509: 1507: 1503: 1502:Wang Yangming 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1431: 1429: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1386: 1376: 1374: 1373:secret police 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1320: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1298: 1293: 1285: 1280: 1271: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1255: 1253: 1250:(present-day 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1236:Chen Youliang 1232: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1171: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1137: 1135: 1131: 1130:Wanli Emperor 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1073: 1071: 1067: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1043: 1039: 1038:standing army 1035: 1030: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1007:Zhu Yuanzhang 1004: 1000: 999: 986: 981: 979: 974: 972: 967: 966: 964: 963: 956: 953: 951: 948: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 929: 926: 925: 924: 921: 919: 918:Naval history 916: 914: 911: 907: 904: 903: 902: 901:Music history 899: 897: 896:Media history 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 882: 881:Legal history 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 863: 855: 854: 835:1949–present) 831: 830: 826: 825: 823: 815: 814: 808: 807: 805: 802: 801: 796: 786: 785: 781: 780: 776: 770: 769: 753: 752: 748: 747: 740: 739: 735: 734: 727: 726: 722: 721: 718: 697: 696: 692: 689: 684: 683: 679: 676: 671: 670: 666: 663: 662: 660: 652: 651: 650:Southern Song 647: 642: 641: 640:Northern Song 637: 636: 630: 629: 625: 624: 617: 616: 610: 609: 607: 604: 603: 598: 578: 575: 574: 573: 572: 568: 567: 563: 562: 555: 554: 550: 549: 542: 541: 535: 534: 531: 510: 509: 505: 502: 499: 498: 496: 488: 487: 483: 478: 477: 473: 472: 470: 467: 466: 461: 446: 445: 441: 440: 436: 435: 430: 429: 424: 423: 419: 418: 412: 411: 407: 406: 399: 398: 394: 389: 388: 384: 379: 378: 374: 371:(206–202 BCE) 369: 368: 364: 363: 357: 356: 352: 351: 346:(221–207 BCE) 344: 343: 339: 338: 335: 328: 322: 321: 311:(475–221 BCE) 309: 306: 290: 287: 286: 284:(771–256 BCE) 282: 281: 277: 272: 271: 267: 266: 249: 248: 244: 243: 225: 224: 220: 219: 202: 201: 197: 196: 178: 177: 173: 172: 168: 162: 161: 154: 153: 148: 147: 142: 141: 137: 136: 119: 118: 114: 113: 109: 108: 104: 103: 99: 93: 92: 87: 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 73: 72: 71: 67: 63: 62: 59: 56: 55: 51: 47: 46: 40: 39:Guimet Museum 37:(1522–1566), 36: 32: 27: 23: 19: 7664:Ming dynasty 7606: 7600:Other topics 7511:Four Masters 7436: 7429: 7422: 7415: 7408: 7401: 7241:House of Zhu 7194:Shanhai Pass 7174:Great Plague 7117:Jianzhou war 6899: 6891:Ming dynasty 6851: 6844: 6838: 6834: 6817: 6808: 6787: 6766: 6749: 6731: 6712: 6696: 6689: 6658: 6648:(Paperback). 6636:. 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Retrieved 5104:the original 5095: 5088: 5076: 5067: 5046: 5037: 5028: 5019: 4998: 4989: 4980: 4971: 4962: 4942: 4925: 4916: 4908: 4903: 4894: 4885: 4876: 4855: 4847: 4843: 4834: 4825: 4817: 4800: 4791: 4750: 4741: 4720: 4711: 4702: 4693: 4685: 4663: 4618: 4609: 4600: 4591: 4582: 4549:Brook 81–82. 4545: 4496: 4487: 4478: 4469: 4460: 4451: 4442: 4433: 4424: 4415: 4406: 4397: 4388: 4379: 4370: 4361: 4352: 4344: 4339: 4330: 4321: 4312: 4303: 4294: 4285: 4276: 4267: 4258: 4235: 4226: 4217: 4208: 4199: 4194:Perdue, 273. 4190: 4181: 4172: 4163: 4154: 4145: 4136: 4131:Hoffman, 65. 4127: 4118: 4109: 4083: 4079: 4071: 4049:. Retrieved 4034: 4027: 4016: 4004:. Retrieved 3989: 3982: 3970:. Retrieved 3955: 3948: 3936:. Retrieved 3921: 3914: 3905: 3896: 3888: 3860: 3843: 3834: 3826: 3821: 3788: 3779: 3770: 3762: 3730: 3725: 3717: 3712: 3704: 3699: 3678: 3669: 3660: 3651: 3642: 3633: 3625: 3620: 3612: 3593: 3547:Qing dynasty 3517: 3494:in the Ming) 3404: 3396:Shun dynasty 3368:Shanhai Pass 3357: 3333: 3306: 3258: 3244: 3200: 3188: 3176:Shanhai Pass 3165: 3137: 3066: 3057: 3016: 3002: 2973: 2953: 2950:(1568–1627). 2917: 2906: 2887: 2883: 2875: 2859: 2846: 2823: 2806:Matteo Ricci 2775: 2759: 2750: 2679: 2630: 2611: 2595:Magnus Sinus 2593: 2592:" along the 2586:Mekong Delta 2565: 2557: 2484: 2480:Matteo Ricci 2471: 2467: 2438: 2437:merchant of 2433:Qing dynasty 2426: 2424: 2396: 2365: 2333: 2325: 2277: 2254: 2236: 2232: 2215:rammed earth 2173: 2157: 2141: 2097: 2056: 2024: 1982: 1964: 1942: 1933: 1923: 1892: 1876: 1832: 1821: 1815: 1807: 1795: 1790: 1783: 1778:golden crown 1748: 1735: 1686: 1654: 1649:Famen Temple 1608:Qing dynasty 1596:Thomas Laird 1589: 1584: 1545: 1540:states that 1523: 1521: 1506:sinification 1465: 1462:Yuan dynasty 1455: 1450:Dali, Yunnan 1388: 1356: 1351: 1336:gentry class 1329: 1325:Tang dynasty 1318: 1313: 1305: 1295: 1289: 1268: 1256: 1233: 1198: 1182: 1167:Yellow River 1155:Yuan dynasty 1148: 1074: 1031: 1027:Qing dynasty 1023:Shun dynasty 1019:Yuan dynasty 1002: 998:Ming dynasty 996: 994: 891:LGBT history 827: 809: 782: 749: 736: 723: 693: 680: 667: 648: 638: 626: 615:Ten Kingdoms 611: 564: 551: 538:Northern and 536: 506: 484: 474: 442: 432: 426: 420: 414:(220–280 CE) 408: 395: 385: 375: 365: 353: 340: 280:Eastern Zhou 278: 270:Western Zhou 268: 245: 221: 198: 174: 150: 144: 138: 115: 105: 22: 7553:Tai history 7236:Family tree 7147:Liaoluo Bay 7081:Renyin plot 7031:Tumu Crisis 6561:-- (1986). 6554:-- (1986). 6547:-- (1986). 6145:Works cited 6023:Spence, 33. 5998:Spence, 25. 5984:Spence, 22. 5963:Spence, 31. 5939:Spence, 28. 5873:Spence, 24. 5859:Spence, 27. 5802:Spence, 21. 5779:Brook, 289. 5770:Spence, 19. 5743:Hucker, 11. 5734:Spence, 17. 5676:Spence, 16. 5662:Hucker, 31. 5600:Brook, 205. 5586:Spence, 20. 5560:Brook, 206. 5535:Brook, 208. 5396:Brook, 124. 5275:Fordham.edu 4889:Laird, 141. 4512:Brook, 108. 4500:Brook, 102. 4491:Hucker, 25. 4446:Brook, 161. 4374:Laird, 152. 4253:Laird, 137. 4221:Kolmas, 29. 4167:Kolmas, 32. 4104:Wylie, 470. 3875:Hucker, 13. 3838:Brook, xix. 3412:Zhu Youlang 3263:instead of 3247:Huang Taiji 3211:Li Yongfang 3128:Shanhaiguan 3046:across the 2974:The eunuch 2783:Philippines 2650:Yang Tinghe 2643:. Although 2626:Western Han 2622:Roman glass 2524:. However, 2349:Philippines 2121:Tumu Crisis 2104:Esen Taishi 2094:Tumu Crisis 2039:Han dynasty 1967:Fang Xiaoru 1955:canal locks 1926:Grand Canal 1825:counterfeit 1804:prefectural 1572:Wang Jiawei 1551:sovereignty 1536:. However, 1411:Moghulistan 1365:Chancellery 1264:reign title 1209:White Lotus 1201:Red Turbans 1184:Huolongjing 1053:Grand Canal 938:Discoveries 933:Cartography 928:Archaeology 866:Art history 755:(1644–1912) 742:(1368–1644) 729:(1271–1368) 699:(1115–1234) 686:(1038–1227) 682:Western Xia 654:(1127–1279) 486:Eastern Jin 476:Western Jin 401:(25–220 CE) 397:Eastern Han 377:Western Han 256: 1046 236: 1046 232: 1250 209: 1600 185: 2070 126: 8500 107:Paleolithic 98:Prehistoric 7658:Categories 7521:Zhe School 7475:Ming tombs 7359:Inner Asia 7331:Shenjiying 7321:Great Wall 7219:Government 6670:052136518X 6540:– (1986). 6420:0231038011 6214:. (1998). 5951:Chang, 92. 5718:, 194–195. 5689:, 281–283. 5505:, 343–344. 5483:, 337–338. 5426:Mawer 2013 5422:Young 2001 4941:Robinson, 4706:Brook, 47. 4604:Brook, xx. 4586:Brook, 85. 4565:Brook, 84. 4392:Brook, 73. 4239:Norbu, 58. 4230:Chan, 262. 4212:Laird, 131 4158:Norbu, 52. 3847:Yuan, 193. 3829:, 191–192. 3720:, 190–191. 3581:References 3555:Ming tombs 3523:Zhu Shugui 3360:Great Wall 3309:Li Zicheng 3251:Great Qing 3236:Shang Kexi 3232:Geng Jimao 3184:Liao River 3113:See also: 3078:Li Zicheng 3020:Protestant 2944:Tianqi era 2818:Xu Guangqi 2618:Republican 2574:medallions 2548:(northern 2544:by way of 2511:Portuguese 2376:Yi Sun-sin 2160:Altan Khan 2076:Great Wall 2067:Lê dynasty 1914:Ming tombs 1726:Xuande era 1647:Pagoda of 1624:Güshi Khan 1616:Yellow Hat 1612:Dalai Lama 1565:at court. 1555:suzerainty 1542:censorship 1482:Yao people 1407:Yunus Khan 1361:Hu Weiyong 1159:Han people 1057:Great Wall 1003:Great Ming 943:Inventions 673:(916–1125) 644:(960–1127) 632:(960–1279) 299: – c. 297: 770 258: – c. 234: – c. 223:Late Shang 211: – c. 187: – c. 128: – c. 7516:Wu School 7501:Musicians 7364:Manchuria 7352:Frontiers 6326:162510092 6066:, p. 399. 6063:162377335 5894:, p. 148. 5687:East Asia 5430:Ball 2016 5253:East Asia 5139:(13): 166 4818:East Asia 4664:East Asia 4613:Brook 81. 4383:Brook, 7. 3705:East Asia 3626:East Asia 3586:Citations 3488:Ye Chunji 3384:Han River 3364:Wu Sangui 3337:Chongzhen 3240:Wu Sangui 3223:Hongtaiji 3132:Wu Sangui 2888:...musk, 2826:New World 2802:East Asia 2710:Zhangzhou 2633:Guangzhou 2613:Geography 2590:Cattigara 2515:Malaysian 2507:Guangzhou 2485:Although 2456:Khanbaliq 2372:Imjin War 2368:Hideyoshi 2361:Guangzhou 2357:Indonesia 2164:Li people 2108:Wang Zhen 2072:Manchuria 2059:conquered 1833:jinhuayin 1767:Zhengtong 1722:phoenixes 1677:merchants 1657:gazetteer 1490:Guangdong 1310:Tang Code 1306:Daming Lu 1302:Confucian 1229:Liu Bowen 1213:Manichean 1193:Liu Bowen 1181:from the 1163:inflation 1094:Guangdong 1013:, was an 619:(907–979) 580:(690–705) 570:(618–907) 557:(581–618) 544:(420–589) 512:(304–439) 490:(317–420) 480:(266–316) 448:(266–420) 391:(9–23 CE) 117:Neolithic 81:Dynasties 31:porcelain 7567:Currency 7506:Painting 7316:Military 7309:Military 6829:25165269 6655:(1990). 6629:(1999). 5918:, p. 95. 5906:, p. 79. 4945:, 87–88. 3503:Zheng He 3422:See also 3402:policy. 3255:Shenyang 3228:Sun Sike 3219:Liaoning 3134:in 1644. 3052:Tokugawa 3032:Catholic 3026:and the 3007:Qiu Ying 2957:Zheng He 2878:taffetas 2850:Limahong 2787:Acapulco 2766:Peruvian 2706:and 1622 2667:Tuen Mun 2570:Antonine 2314:Japanese 2116:Zhu Qiyu 2027:Zheng He 1951:Shandong 1743:monopoly 1694:Ch'oe Pu 1689:couriers 1673:artisans 1585:de facto 1415:Xinjiang 1403:Qara Del 1369:Jinyiwei 1297:Ming Shi 1205:Buddhist 1102:Shandong 1078:Zhejiang 1049:Zheng He 1047:admiral 906:Timeline 833:(Taiwan, 813:of China 327:Imperial 76:Timeline 50:a series 48:Part of 41:, Paris. 7648:History 7622:Portals 7574:Coinage 7548:Economy 7376:Vietnam 7268:Princes 7226:Emperor 7014:Middle 6900:History 6593:2652684 6318:2056469 6055:2941233 5714:Ebrey, 5698:Ebrey, 5442:An 2002 5406:Yü 1986 5238:Ebrey, 5178:11 July 5143:11 July 5113:11 July 4907:Ebrey, 4684:Ebrey, 4085:Mingshi 4070:Ebrey, 4051:28 June 4006:28 June 3972:28 June 3938:28 June 3887:Ebrey, 3859:Ebrey, 3825:Ebrey, 3761:Ebrey, 3729:Ebrey, 3716:Ebrey, 3611:Ebrey, 3561:of the 3545:of the 3527:Koxinga 3392:Jiangxi 3388:Wuchang 3352:Koxinga 3325:Sichuan 3321:Chengdu 3273:Jurchen 3269:Chongde 3260:huangdi 3207:Nurhaci 3140:Nurhaci 3074:Shaanxi 3048:Pacific 3011:bullion 2965:Liu Jin 2961:Yishiha 2898:Decline 2890:benzoin 2842:peanuts 2800:Map of 2735:Map of 2608:Ptolemy 2550:Vietnam 2546:Jiaozhi 2542:Luoyang 2522:Malacca 2493:in the 2337:hai jin 2189:Shaanxi 2181:Jiangxi 2148:Yu Qian 2102:leader 2011:giraffe 1947:bushels 1918:Beijing 1895:Beijing 1718:dragons 1714:Beijing 1710:Lacquer 1669:farmers 1614:of the 1546:Mingshi 1544:in the 1525:Mingshi 1494:Sichuan 1486:Guangxi 1474:Guizhou 1334:of the 1323:of the 1252:Beijing 1238:in the 1225:Jiao Yu 1221:Nanjing 1189:Jiao Yu 1126:Guizhou 1118:Sichuan 1114:Shaanxi 1098:Guangxi 1086:Huguang 1082:Jiangxi 1070:Beijing 1066:Nanjing 577:Wu Zhou 167:Ancient 146:Yangtze 29:A Ming 7496:Poetry 7386:Yunnan 6908:Early 6893:topics 6835:Source 6827: 6795: 6774: 6738: 6719: 6703: 6681: 6667: 6644: 6609: 6591: 6523: 6505: 6487: 6471: 6449: 6417: 6400: 6385: 6370: 6355: 6340: 6324: 6316: 6288: 6270: 6254: 6239: 6224: 6201: 6178: 6160: 6119: 6061: 6053: 5831: 5548:, 353. 5470:, 339. 5457:, 338. 5369: 5342: 5315: 5255:, 214. 5242:, 211. 4911:, 208. 4820:. 273. 4688:, 194. 4666:, 272. 4074:, 195. 4042: 3997: 3963: 3929: 3863:, 192. 3765:, 191. 3707:, 270. 3628:, 271. 3615:, 197. 3531:Taiwan 3372:Dorgon 3277:Manchu 3238:, and 3215:Fushun 3040:Mexico 2840:, and 2810:spinet 2779:Manila 2718:Penghu 2598:(i.e. 2472:Fu lin 2439:Fu lin 2419:, and 2353:Fuzhou 2345:Ningbo 2185:Shanxi 2177:Fujian 2168:Hainan 2015:Africa 1959:Suzhou 1816:baojia 1808:baojia 1800:Fujian 1796:baojia 1791:baojia 1786:jinshi 1739:Hainan 1675:, and 1665:gentry 1563:Daoism 1470:Yunnan 1397:, and 1395:Turpan 1357:jinshi 1352:jinshi 1321:system 1319:fubing 1314:weisuo 1260:Hongwu 1179:cannon 1151:Mongol 1122:Yunnan 1110:Shanxi 1090:Fujian 1045:eunuch 1042:Muslim 1036:and a 775:Modern 431:, and 149:, and 140:Yellow 52:on the 7636:China 7558:Islam 7381:Wokou 7369:Tibet 7300:Fotou 7169:Sarhū 7105:Late 6825:JSTOR 6589:JSTOR 6322:S2CID 6314:JSTOR 6059:S2CID 6051:JSTOR 5172:(PDF) 5165:(PDF) 5133:(PDF) 5107:(PDF) 5100:(PDF) 4347:, 23. 3891:, 192 3733:, 190 3509:Notes 3380:Xi'an 3329:Hubei 3313:Henan 3281:Korea 3005:, by 2838:maize 2814:Latin 2791:taels 2745:Japan 2702:Dutch 2694:Macau 2659:India 2620:-era 2606:) in 2582:Oc Eo 2540:city 2413:Daqin 2341:Japan 2329:wokou 2100:Oirat 2019:qilin 1971:Cheng 1530:Tibet 1498:Hunan 1391:Gansu 1153:-led 1106:Henan 200:Shang 7295:Tusi 7231:List 6793:ISBN 6772:ISBN 6736:ISBN 6717:ISBN 6701:ISBN 6679:ISBN 6665:ISBN 6642:ISBN 6607:ISBN 6521:ISBN 6503:ISBN 6485:ISBN 6469:ISBN 6447:ISBN 6415:ISBN 6398:ISBN 6383:ISBN 6368:ISBN 6353:ISBN 6338:ISBN 6286:ISBN 6268:ISBN 6252:ISBN 6237:ISBN 6222:ISBN 6199:ISBN 6176:ISBN 6158:ISBN 6117:ISBN 5829:ISBN 5367:ISBN 5340:ISBN 5313:ISBN 5286:2016 5219:2023 5200:(5). 5180:2016 5145:2016 5115:2016 4053:2010 4040:ISBN 4008:2010 3995:ISBN 3974:2010 3961:ISBN 3940:2010 3927:ISBN 3299:The 3265:khan 3117:and 3102:and 3080:and 3044:Peru 3042:and 2959:and 2880:... 2768:and 2602:and 2518:junk 2425:The 2272:and 2225:and 2209:The 2130:The 2098:The 2061:and 1912:The 1720:and 1620:Amdo 1522:The 1480:and 1478:Miao 1472:and 1423:Hami 1399:Hami 1248:Dadu 1227:and 1191:and 1149:The 1124:and 1034:navy 995:The 751:Qing 738:Ming 725:Yuan 669:Liao 628:Song 566:Tang 247:Zhou 238:BCE) 6581:doi 6306:doi 6043:doi 5311:–. 3386:to 3275:to 3253:at 3217:in 2665:at 2655:Diu 2610:'s 2454:of 2395:'s 2227:Han 2223:Qin 2166:of 1975:Zhu 1943:shi 1934:shi 1484:of 1068:to 695:Jin 553:Sui 444:Jin 428:Shu 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Knowledge

History of the Ming dynasty

Index