410:
91:
713:
606:) will be capable of condensation, so relatively little branching will occur. The mechanisms of hydrolysis and condensation, and the factors that bias the structure toward linear or branched structures are the most critical issues of sol–gel science and technology. This reaction is favored in both basic and acidic conditions.
951:
Furthermore, microscopic pores in sintered ceramic nanomaterials, mainly trapped at the junctions of microcrystalline grains, cause light to scatter and prevented true transparency. The total volume fraction of these nanoscale pores (both intergranular and intragranular porosity) must be less than 1%
293:
The sol–gel process is a wet-chemical technique used for the fabrication of both glassy and ceramic materials. In this process, the sol (or solution) evolves gradually towards the formation of a gel-like network containing both a liquid phase and a solid phase. Typical precursors are metal alkoxides
785:
It would therefore appear desirable to process a material in such a way that it is physically uniform with regard to the distribution of components and porosity, rather than using particle size distributions which will maximize the green density. The containment of a uniformly dispersed assembly of
836:
synthesis. Other elements (metals, metal oxides) can be easily incorporated into the final product and the silicate sol formed by this method is very stable. Semi-stable metal complexes can be used to produce sub-2 nm oxide particles without thermal treatment. During base-catalyzed synthesis,
939:
can be made by the sol–gel route. In the processing of high performance ceramic nanomaterials with superior opto-mechanical properties under adverse conditions, the size of the crystalline grains is determined largely by the size of the crystalline particles present in the raw material during the
303:
is used primarily to describe a broad range of solid-liquid (and/or liquid-liquid) mixtures, all of which contain distinct solid (and/or liquid) particles which are dispersed to various degrees in a liquid medium. The term is specific to the size of the individual particles, which are larger than
869:
or dip-coating. Protective and decorative coatings, and electro-optic components can be applied to glass, metal and other types of substrates with these methods. Cast into a mold, and with further drying and heat-treatment, dense ceramic or glass articles with novel properties can be formed that
805:
colloidal solid which results from aggregation. The degree of order appears to be limited by the time and space allowed for longer-range correlations to be established. Such defective polycrystalline structures would appear to be the basic elements of nanoscale materials science, and, therefore,
781:
process, yielding heterogeneous densification. Some pores and other structural defects associated with density variations have been shown to play a detrimental role in the sintering process by growing and thus limiting end-point densities. Differential stresses arising from heterogeneous
902:
and crystalline, have found use in various forms from bulk solid-state components to high surface area forms such as thin films, coatings and fibers. Also, thin films have found their application in the electronic field and can be used as sensitive components of a resistive gas sensors.
690:
systems, the concept of steric immobilisation becomes relevant. To avoid the formation of multiple phases of binary oxides as the result of differing hydrolysis and condensation rates, the entrapment of cations in a polymer network is an effective approach, generally termed the
348:, which are affected both by sedimentation and forces of gravity. Stabilized suspensions of such sub-micrometre spherical particles may eventually result in their self-assembly—yielding highly ordered microstructures reminiscent of the prototype colloidal crystal: precious
114:, the volume fraction of particles (or particle density) may be so low that a significant amount of fluid may need to be removed initially for the gel-like properties to be recognized. This can be accomplished in any number of ways. The simplest method is to allow time for
1832:
Mokrushin, Artem S.; Fisenko, Nikita A.; Gorobtsov, Philipp Yu; Simonenko, Tatiana L.; Glumov, Oleg V.; Melnikova, Natalia A.; Simonenko, Nikolay P.; Bukunov, Kirill A.; Simonenko, Elizaveta P.; Sevastyanov, Vladimir G.; Kuznetsov, Nikolay T. (January 2021).
699:
agent is used, most often citric acid, to surround aqueous cations and sterically entrap them. Subsequently, a polymer network is formed to immobilize the chelated cations in a gel or resin. This is most often achieved by poly-esterification using
294:
and metal chlorides, which undergo hydrolysis and polycondensation reactions to form a colloid. The basic structure or morphology of the solid phase can range anywhere from discrete colloidal particles to continuous chain-like polymer networks.
316:. But if they are small enough to be colloids, then their irregular motion in suspension can be attributed to the collective bombardment of a myriad of thermally agitated molecules in the liquid suspending medium, as described originally by
1633:
Curran, Christopher D., et al. "Ambient temperature aqueous synthesis of ultrasmall copper doped ceria nanocrystals for the water gas shift and carbon monoxide oxidation reactions." Journal of
Materials Chemistry A 6.1 (2018):
728:
condition, a highly porous and extremely low density material called aerogel is obtained. Drying the gel by means of low temperature treatments (25–100 °C), it is possible to obtain porous solid matrices called
1880:
Ciriminna, Rosaria; Fidalgo, Alexandra; Pandarus, Valerica; Béland, François; Ilharco, Laura M.; Pagliaro, Mario (2013). "The Sol–Gel Route to
Advanced Silica-Based Materials and Recent Applications".
1793:
Gorobtsov, Philipp Yu.; Fisenko, Nikita A.; Solovey, Valentin R.; Simonenko, Nikolay P.; Simonenko, Elizaveta P.; Volkov, Ivan A.; Sevastyanov, Vladimir G.; Kuznetsov, Nikolay T. (July 2021).
160:. One of the distinct advantages of using this methodology as opposed to the more traditional processing techniques is that densification is often achieved at a much lower temperature.
379:). Formation of a metal oxide involves connecting the metal centers with oxo (M-O-M) or hydroxo (M-OH-M) bridges, therefore generating metal-oxo or metal-hydroxo polymers in solution.
602:
is tetrafunctional (can branch or bond in 4 different directions). Alternatively, under certain conditions (e.g., low water concentration) fewer than 4 of the OR or OH groups (
211:). The sol–gel approach is a cheap and low-temperature technique that allows the fine control of the product's chemical composition. Even small quantities of dopants, such as
806:
provide the first step in developing a more rigorous understanding of the mechanisms involved in microstructural evolution in inorganic systems such as sintered ceramic
386:
glass or micro-crystalline ceramic. Subsequent thermal treatment (firing) may be performed in order to favor further polycondensation and enhance mechanical properties.
1481:
Lange, F. F. & Metcalf, M. (1983). "Processing-Related
Fracture Origins: II, Agglomerate Motion and Cracklike Internal Surfaces Caused by Differential Sintering".
940:
synthesis or formation of the object. Thus a reduction of the original particle size well below the wavelength of visible light (~500 nm) eliminates much of the
582:. This type of reaction can continue to build larger and larger silicon-containing molecules by the process of polymerization. Thus, a polymer is a huge molecule (or
832:, used in a variety of finishing operations, are made using a sol–gel type process. One of the more important applications of sol–gel processing is to carry out
285:
in the form of fibers and monoliths. Sol–gel research grew to be so important that in the 1990s more than 35,000 papers were published worldwide on the process.
853:
The applications for sol gel-derived products are numerous. For example, scientists have used it to produce the world's lightest materials and also some of its
704:. The resulting polymer is then combusted under oxidising conditions to remove organic content and yield a product oxide with homogeneously dispersed cations.
382:
In both cases (discrete particles or continuous polymer network), the drying process serves to remove the liquid phase from the gel, yielding a micro-porous
367:
exhibits certain advantages with regard to physical properties in the formation of high performance glass and glass/ceramic components in 2 and 3 dimensions.
816:
can be formed by precipitation. These powders of single and multiple component compositions can be produced at a nanoscale particle size for dental,
652:
during sol–gel process. The product is a molecular-scale composite with improved mechanical properties. Sono-Ormosils are characterized by a higher
2621:
2500:
1548:
Whitesides, G. M.; et al. (1991). "Molecular Self-Assembly and
Nanochemistry: A Chemical Strategy for the Synthesis of Nanostructures".
1318:
152:
process, is often necessary in order to favor further polycondensation and enhance mechanical properties and structural stability via final
145:
of the final component will clearly be strongly influenced by changes imposed upon the structural template during this phase of processing.
308:. If the particles are large enough, then their dynamic behavior in any given period of time in suspension would be governed by forces of
1233:
Nishio, Keishi; Tsuchiya, Tsuchiya (2004-12-17). "Chapter 3 Sol–Gel
Processing of Thin Films with Metal Salts". In Sakka, JSumio (ed.).
678:, hydrolysis and condensation processes naturally give rise to homogenous compositions. For systems involving multiple cations, such as
460:
are ideal chemical precursors for sol–gel synthesis because they react readily with water. The reaction is called hydrolysis, because a
656:
than classic gels as well as an improved thermal stability. An explanation therefore might be the increased degree of polymerization.
328:, with sedimentation being a possible long-term result. This critical size range (or particle diameter) typically ranges from tens of
102:" (a colloidal solution) is formed that then gradually evolves towards the formation of a gel-like diphasic system containing both a
898:
fibers can be drawn which are used for fiber optic sensors and thermal insulation, respectively. Thus, many ceramic materials, both
1260:"Enhancement of Ce/Cr Codopant Solubility and Chemical Homogeneity in TiO2 Nanoparticles through Sol–Gel versus Pechini Syntheses"
782:
densification have also been shown to result in the propagation of internal cracks, thus becoming the strength-controlling flaws.
2052:
1133:
1079:
758:
Differential stresses that develop as a result of non-uniform drying shrinkage are directly related to the rate at which the
1670:
Brinker, C. J. and
Scherer, G. W., Sol-Gel Science: The Physics and Chemistry of Sol-Gel Processing, (Academic Press, 1990)
1259:
1148:
Klein, L.C. and Garvey, G.J., "Kinetics of the Sol-Gel
Transition" Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, Vol. 38, p.45 (1980)
841:
which is strong enough to prevent reaction in the hydroxo regime but weak enough to allow reaction in the oxo regime (see
1687:
German Patent 736411 (Granted 6 May 1943) Anti-Reflective
Coating (W. Geffcken and E. Berger, Jenaer Glasswerk Schott).
1214:, "The Sol-Gel Transition: Formation of Glass Fibers & Thin Films", J. Non-Crystalline Solids, Vol. 48, p.31 (1982)
1358:
Evans, A. G. & Davidge, R. W. (1969). "The strength and fracture of fully dense polycrystalline magnesium oxide".
1675:
1242:
766:. Such stresses have been associated with a plastic-to-brittle transition in consolidated bodies, and can yield to
274:
The interest in sol–gel processing can be traced back in the mid-1800s with the observation that the hydrolysis of
2525:
2321:
982:
952:
for high-quality optical transmission, i.e. the density has to be 99.99% of the theoretical crystalline density.
17:
1331:
Franks, G. V. & Lange, F. F. (1996). "Plastic-to-Brittle
Transition of Saturated, Alumina Powder Compacts".
137:
and densification. The rate at which the solvent can be removed is ultimately determined by the distribution of
2636:
260:
397:, respectively. In addition, uniform ceramic powders of a wide range of chemical composition can be formed by
2631:
2626:
2437:
2414:
1661:
Phalippou, J., Sol-Gel: A Low temperature
Process for the Materials of the New Millennium, solgel.com (2000).
1393:
Evans, A. G.; Davidge, R. W. (1970). "Strength and fracture of fully dense polycrystalline magnesium oxide".
1223:
Rosa-Fox, N. de la; Pinero, M.; Esquivias, L. (2002): Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Materials from Sonogels. 2002.
595:
168:
2601:
2270:
1395:
987:
717:
110:
phase whose morphologies range from discrete particles to continuous polymer networks. In the case of the
2045:
786:
strongly interacting particles in suspension requires total control over particle-particle interactions.
1438:
Evans, A. G.; Davidge, R. W. (1970). "The strength and oxidation of reaction-sintered silicon nitride".
725:
484:
Depending on the amount of water and catalyst present, hydrolysis may proceed to completion to silica:
2341:
797:
silica, for example, may therefore be stabilized sufficiently to ensure a high degree of order in the
219:, can be introduced in the sol and end up uniformly dispersed in the final product. It can be used in
2301:
2222:
2112:
865:
One of the largest application areas is thin films, which can be produced on a piece of substrate by
398:
1835:"Pen plotter printing of ITO thin film as a highly CO sensitive component of a resistive gas sensor"
2616:
2570:
2202:
1795:"Microstructure and local electrophysical properties of sol-gel derived (In2O3-10%SnO2)/V2O5 films"
1779:, (2000) "Transparent ceramics for armor and EM window applications", Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4102, p. 1,
1319:
Structure development of resorcinol-formaldehyde gels: microphase separation or colloid aggregation
624:
forces, which stretch out and break the chain in a non-random process, result in a lowering of the
422:
275:
324:. Einstein concluded that this erratic behavior could adequately be described using the theory of
2565:
2432:
2306:
1834:
1794:
1706:
Yakovlev, Aleksandr V. (22 March 2016). "Inkjet Color Printing by Interference Nanostructures".
640:
over conventional stirring and results in higher molecular weights with lower polydispersities.
2038:
1198:
Allman III, R.M. and Onoda, G.Y., Jr. (Unpublished work, IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, 1984)
359:), the interparticle forces have sufficient strength to cause considerable aggregation and/or
2606:
2374:
2182:
977:
590:. The number of bonds that a monomer can form is called its functionality. Polymerization of
164:
71:
2530:
2404:
2316:
2152:
2142:
1995:
1924:
1600:
1557:
1447:
1404:
1367:
1036:
945:
79:
38:
is a method for producing solid materials from small molecules. The method is used for the
2442:
1161:, "Sol-Gel Transition in Simple Silicates", J. Non-Crystalline Solids, Vol.48, p.47 (1982)
773:
In addition, any fluctuations in packing density in the compact as it is prepared for the
8:
2550:
2472:
2394:
2369:
2197:
1643:
Wright, J. D. and Sommerdijk, N. A. J. M., Sol-Gel Materials: Chemistry and Applications.
1538:, Aksay, I. A., Adv. Ceram., Vol. 9, p. 94, Proc. Amer. Ceramic Soc. (Columbus, OH 1984).
579:
220:
196:
134:
54:(Ti). The process involves conversion of monomers in solution into a colloidal solution (
1928:
1604:
1561:
1451:
1408:
1371:
1235:
Handbook of Sol-Gel Science and Technology, Processing Characterisation and Applications
1040:
2457:
2379:
2127:
2117:
1971:
1940:
1862:
1814:
1758:
1741:
Yakovlev, Aleksandr V. (December 2015). "Sol-Gel Assisted Inkjet Hologram Patterning".
1521:
1494:
1463:
1420:
1344:
1300:
1274:
1052:
1026:
895:
679:
628:
and poly-dispersity. Furthermore, multi-phase systems are very efficient dispersed and
394:
224:
216:
1612:
1009:
Hanaor, D. A. H.; Chironi, I.; Karatchevtseva, I.; Triani, G.; Sorrell, C. C. (2012).
375:
evolves then towards the formation of an inorganic network containing a liquid phase (
363:
prior to their growth. The formation of a more open continuous network of low density
2535:
2505:
2462:
2399:
2384:
2296:
2187:
1944:
1897:
1866:
1854:
1818:
1762:
1723:
1671:
1616:
1573:
1467:
1424:
1292:
1238:
1129:
1075:
798:
767:
517:
393:
and refractory ceramic fiber can be drawn which are used for fiber optic sensors and
264:
94:
Schematic representation of the different stages and routes of the sol–gel technology
31:
1304:
1056:
911:
Sol-gel technology has been applied for controlled release of fragrances and drugs.
418:
2326:
2311:
2081:
1967:
1932:
1889:
1846:
1806:
1750:
1715:
1652:
Aegerter, M. A. and Mennig, M., Sol-Gel Technologies for Glass Producers and Users.
1608:
1565:
1517:
1490:
1455:
1412:
1375:
1340:
1284:
1104:
1048:
1044:
941:
842:
625:
591:
123:
1850:
1696:
Klein, L. C., Sol-Gel Optics: Processing and Applications, Springer Verlag (1994).
1288:
733:. In addition, a sol–gel process was developed in the 1950s for the production of
2520:
2515:
2364:
2260:
2237:
2232:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2167:
2137:
1810:
1123:
972:
871:
802:
745:
738:
701:
692:
665:
325:
317:
305:
279:
2482:
2452:
2447:
1915:
Yoldas, B. E. (1979). "Monolithic glass formation by chemical polymerization".
967:
870:
cannot be created by any other method. Other coating methods include spraying,
637:
568:
389:
With the viscosity of a sol adjusted into a proper range, both optical quality
268:
142:
119:
75:
1379:
2611:
2595:
2389:
2346:
2252:
2227:
2122:
1508:
Evans, A. G. (1987). "Considerations of Inhomogeneity Effects in Sintering".
936:
932:
891:
807:
583:
372:
313:
235:
for various purposes. Sol–gel derived materials have diverse applications in
183:
into a suitable container with the desired shape (e.g., to obtain monolithic
115:
99:
56:
39:
2192:
1719:
1569:
409:
2555:
2510:
2467:
2157:
2132:
2086:
1958:
Prochazka, S.; Klug, F. J. (1983). "Infrared-Transparent Mullite Ceramic".
1901:
1858:
1754:
1727:
1620:
1296:
866:
821:
813:
787:
752:
621:
413:
Simplified representation of the condensation induced by hydrolysis of TEOS
360:
321:
208:
192:
176:
157:
1577:
720:. This type of disordered morphology is typical of many sol–gel materials.
712:
571:
is associated with the formation of a 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional network of
2580:
2545:
2265:
2147:
1010:
928:
734:
578:
By definition, condensation liberates a small molecule, such as water or
513:
421:
is a well-studied example of polymerization of an alkoxide, specifically
240:
204:
172:
90:
43:
1108:
520:. Intermediate species including or may result as products of partial
212:
2575:
2540:
2409:
2177:
2172:
2030:
1936:
1459:
1416:
961:
924:
817:
687:
633:
618:
614:
525:
521:
505:
390:
333:
1893:
1170:
Einstein, A., Ann. Phys., Vol. 19, p. 289 (1906), Vol. 34 p.591 (1911)
371:
In either case (discrete particles or continuous polymer network) the
887:
854:
829:
825:
778:
696:
457:
383:
228:
153:
837:
hydroxo (M-OH) bonds may be avoided in favor of oxo (M-O-M) using a
2560:
2331:
2107:
2102:
1279:
763:
762:
can be removed, and thus highly dependent upon the distribution of
629:
572:
532:
509:
461:
329:
256:
138:
133:
process, which is typically accompanied by a significant amount of
51:
1831:
1591:
Dubbs D. M, Aksay I. A.; Aksay (2000). "Self-Assembled Ceramics".
1031:
730:
716:
Nanostructure of a resorcinol-formaldehyde gel reconstructed from
2280:
2010:. Plinio Innocenzi. Springer Briefs in Materials. Springer. 2016.
1008:
920:
833:
794:
759:
653:
641:
587:
528:
508:
often requires an excess of water and/or the use of a hydrolysis
446:
309:
299:
252:
200:
184:
180:
111:
67:
47:
1792:
1072:
Sol-Gel Science: The Physics and Chemistry of Sol-Gel Processing
575:
bonds accompanied by the production of H−O−H and R−O−H species.
2356:
2162:
964:, small spheroidal droplet of colloidal particles in suspension
875:
838:
649:
645:
603:
244:
236:
103:
1879:
2275:
2242:
2076:
2061:
923:
elements and active optical components as well as large area
899:
442:
248:
232:
188:
107:
1590:
1015:
Powders Prepared by Excess Hydrolysis of Titanium Alkoxide"
774:
632:, so that very fine mixtures are provided. This means that
349:
129:
Removal of the remaining liquid (solvent) phase requires a
60:) that acts as the precursor for an integrated network (or
1392:
1357:
2025:
1330:
598:
of the polymer, because a fully hydrolyzed monomer Si(OH)
524:
reactions. Early intermediates result from two partially
376:
62:
27:
Method for producing solid materials from small molecules
1095:
Hench, L. L.; J. K. West (1990). "The Sol-Gel Process".
617:
is an efficient tool for the synthesis of polymers. The
2020:
1536:
Microstructural Control Through Colloidal Consolidation
1480:
344:), the particles may grow to sufficient size to become
278:(TEOS) under acidic conditions led to the formation of
1547:
464:
ion becomes attached to the silicon atom as follows:
1069:
707:
586:) formed from hundreds or thousands of units called
755:, without generation of large quantities of dust.
644:(organically modified silicate) are obtained when
118:to occur, and then pour off the remaining liquid.
425:. The chemical formula for TEOS is given by Si(OC
2593:
2004:, Zarzycki. J., Cambridge University Press, 1991
355:Under certain chemical conditions (typically in
340:Under certain chemical conditions (typically in
1094:
1232:
724:If the liquid in a wet gel is removed under a
304:atomic dimensions but small enough to exhibit
122:can also be used to accelerate the process of
2501:Conservation and restoration of glass objects
2046:
1957:
1951:
1799:Colloid and Interface Science Communications
1507:
1437:
890:of a sol adjusted into a proper range, both
1184:Structural Variations in Colloidal Crystals
1125:Sol-Gel Optics: Processing and Applications
2053:
2039:
1908:
227:material, or as a means of producing very
66:) of either discrete particles or network
1278:
1030:
288:
2060:
1740:
1705:
881:
711:
408:
203:), or used to synthesize powders (e.g.,
89:
1960:Journal of the American Ceramic Society
1510:Journal of the American Ceramic Society
1251:
1004:
1002:
14:
2622:Glass coating and surface modification
2594:
1914:
1783:, Marker, A.J. and Arthurs, E.G., Eds.
1206:
1204:
1070:Brinker, C. J.; G. W. Scherer (1990).
860:
814:Ultra-fine and uniform ceramic powders
2034:
1121:
944:, resulting in a translucent or even
906:
770:in the unfired body if not relieved.
78:. Sol–gel process is used to produce
1257:
1194:
1192:
1178:
1176:
999:
594:, for instance, can lead to complex
148:Afterwards, a thermal treatment, or
1237:. Kluwer Academic. pp. 59–66.
1201:
24:
1981:
1972:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1983.tb11004.x
1522:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1982.tb10340.x
1495:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1983.tb10069.x
1345:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1996.tb08091.x
914:
670:For single cation systems like SiO
659:
25:
2648:
2014:
1613:10.1146/annurev.physchem.51.1.601
1317:Gommes, C. J., Roberts A. (2008)
1189:
1173:
1063:
790:colloids provide this potential.
708:Nanomaterials, aerogels, xerogels
404:
167:sol can be either deposited on a
1321:. Physical Review E, 77, 041409.
2571:Radioactive waste vitrification
2526:Glass fiber reinforced concrete
1873:
1825:
1786:
1769:
1734:
1699:
1690:
1681:
1664:
1655:
1646:
1637:
1627:
1584:
1541:
1528:
1501:
1474:
1431:
1386:
1351:
1324:
1311:
1226:
1217:
983:Random graph theory of gelation
848:
777:are often amplified during the
609:
98:In this chemical procedure, a "
2002:Glasses and the Vitreous State
1781:Inorganic Optical Materials II
1258:Chen, W.; et al. (2018).
1164:
1151:
1142:
1115:
1088:
1049:10.1179/1743676111Y.0000000059
13:
1:
2438:Chemically strengthened glass
2021:International Sol–Gel Society
1851:10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121455
1743:Advanced Functional Materials
1289:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00926
993:
2271:Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals
1917:Journal of Materials Science
1811:10.1016/j.colcom.2021.100452
1396:Journal of Materials Science
1019:Advances in Applied Ceramics
718:small-angle X-ray scattering
7:
1011:"Single and Mixed Phase TiO
955:
878:printing, or roll coating.
46:, especially the oxides of
10:
2653:
1186:, M.S. Thesis, UCLA (1983)
663:
2491:
2423:
2355:
2302:Chemical vapor deposition
2289:
2251:
2223:Ultra low expansion glass
2113:Borophosphosilicate glass
2095:
2069:
2008:The Sol to Gel Transition
1380:10.1080/14786436908228708
171:to form a film (e.g., by
141:in the gel. The ultimate
85:
2541:Glass-reinforced plastic
2203:Sodium hexametaphosphate
988:Liquid–liquid extraction
793:Monodisperse powders of
648:is added to gel-derived
276:tetraethyl orthosilicate
267:, and separation (e.g.,
223:and manufacturing as an
2433:Anti-reflective coating
2307:Glass batch calculation
2188:Photochromic lens glass
1720:10.1021/acsnano.5b06074
1570:10.1126/science.1962191
261:controlled drug release
1755:10.1002/adfm.201503483
721:
636:increases the rate of
414:
289:Particles and polymers
95:
2637:Transparent materials
2566:Prince Rupert's drops
2415:Transparent materials
2375:Gradient-index optics
2183:Phosphosilicate glass
1988:Colloidal Dispersions
1593:Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem
1534:Allman III, R. M. in
978:Mechanics of gelation
882:Thin films and fibers
828:applications. Powder
715:
695:. In this process, a
412:
332:(10 m) to a few
156:, densification, and
93:
80:ceramic nanoparticles
2632:Thin film deposition
2627:Industrial processes
2531:Glass ionomer cement
2405:Photosensitive glass
2332:Liquidus temperature
2153:Fluorosilicate glass
1996:Cambridge University
946:transparent material
2602:Ceramic engineering
2551:Glass-to-metal seal
2473:Self-cleaning glass
2395:Optical lens design
2026:The Sol–Gel Gateway
1929:1979JMatS..14.1843Y
1605:2000ARPC...51..601D
1562:1991Sci...254.1312W
1452:1970JMatS...5..314E
1409:1970JMatS...5..314E
1372:1969PMag...20..373E
1267:Inorganic Chemistry
1128:. Springer Verlag.
1109:10.1021/cr00099a003
1041:2012AdApC.111..149H
861:Protective coatings
559:−Si−OR + HO−Si−(OR)
543:−Si−OH + HO−Si−(OR)
357:acid-catalyzed sols
342:base-catalyzed sols
221:ceramics processing
217:rare-earth elements
2536:Glass microspheres
2458:Hydrogen darkening
2380:Hydrogen darkening
2128:Chalcogenide glass
2118:Borosilicate glass
1937:10.1007/BF00551023
1460:10.1007/BF02397783
1417:10.1007/BF02397783
1182:Allman III, R.M.,
1122:Klein, L. (1994).
1074:. Academic Press.
907:Controlled release
896:refractory ceramic
722:
680:strontium titanate
415:
395:thermal insulation
225:investment casting
96:
2589:
2588:
2506:Glass-coated wire
2478:sol–gel technique
2463:Insulated glazing
2400:Photochromic lens
2385:Optical amplifier
2337:sol–gel technique
1990:, Russel, W. B.,
1894:10.1021/cr300399c
1749:(47): 7375–7380.
1483:J. Am. Ceram. Soc
1339:(12): 3161–3168.
1333:J. Am. Ceram. Soc
1273:(12): 7279–7289.
1135:978-0-7923-9424-2
1081:978-0-12-134970-7
799:colloidal crystal
768:crack propagation
518:hydrochloric acid
265:reactive material
32:materials science
16:(Redirected from
2644:
2327:Ion implantation
2082:Glass transition
2055:
2048:
2041:
2032:
2031:
1976:
1975:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1923:(8): 1843–1849.
1912:
1906:
1905:
1888:(8): 6592–6620.
1882:Chemical Reviews
1877:
1871:
1870:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1790:
1784:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1714:(3): 3078–3086.
1703:
1697:
1694:
1688:
1685:
1679:
1668:
1662:
1659:
1653:
1650:
1644:
1641:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1556:(5036): 1312–9.
1545:
1539:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1435:
1429:
1428:
1390:
1384:
1383:
1366:(164): 373–388.
1355:
1349:
1348:
1328:
1322:
1315:
1309:
1308:
1282:
1264:
1255:
1249:
1248:
1230:
1224:
1221:
1215:
1208:
1199:
1196:
1187:
1180:
1171:
1168:
1162:
1155:
1149:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1097:Chemical Reviews
1092:
1086:
1085:
1067:
1061:
1060:
1034:
1006:
942:light scattering
843:Pourbaix diagram
626:molecular weight
592:silicon alkoxide
124:phase separation
21:
2652:
2651:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2617:Glass chemistry
2592:
2591:
2590:
2585:
2521:Glass electrode
2516:Glass databases
2493:
2487:
2425:
2419:
2351:
2285:
2261:Bioactive glass
2247:
2233:Vitreous enamel
2218:Thoriated glass
2213:Tellurite glass
2198:Soda–lime glass
2168:Gold ruby glass
2138:Cranberry glass
2091:
2065:
2059:
2017:
1984:
1982:Further reading
1979:
1966:(12): 874–880.
1956:
1952:
1913:
1909:
1878:
1874:
1830:
1826:
1791:
1787:
1774:
1770:
1739:
1735:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1638:
1632:
1628:
1589:
1585:
1546:
1542:
1533:
1529:
1516:(10): 497–501.
1506:
1502:
1479:
1475:
1436:
1432:
1391:
1387:
1356:
1352:
1329:
1325:
1316:
1312:
1262:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1209:
1202:
1197:
1190:
1181:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1157:Brinker, C.J.,
1156:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1136:
1120:
1116:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1068:
1064:
1014:
1007:
1000:
996:
973:Freeze gelation
958:
917:
915:Opto-mechanical
909:
884:
872:electrophoresis
863:
851:
803:polycrystalline
749:
742:
710:
702:ethylene glycol
693:Pechini process
685:
677:
673:
668:
666:Pechini process
662:
660:Pechini process
612:
601:
562:
558:
546:
542:
499:
495:
491:
479:
475:
471:
454:
450:
440:
436:
432:
428:
407:
326:Brownian motion
318:Albert Einstein
306:Brownian motion
291:
283:
88:
76:metal alkoxides
36:sol–gel process
28:
23:
22:
18:Sol-gel process
15:
12:
11:
5:
2650:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2497:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2485:
2483:Tempered glass
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2453:DNA microarray
2450:
2448:Dealkalization
2445:
2440:
2435:
2429:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2361:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2322:Glass modeling
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2293:
2291:
2287:
2286:
2284:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2257:
2255:
2253:Glass-ceramics
2249:
2248:
2246:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2193:Silicate glass
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2066:
2064:science topics
2058:
2057:
2050:
2043:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2023:
2016:
2015:External links
2013:
2012:
2011:
2005:
1999:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1977:
1950:
1907:
1872:
1824:
1785:
1768:
1733:
1698:
1689:
1680:
1663:
1654:
1645:
1636:
1626:
1583:
1540:
1527:
1500:
1489:(6): 398–406.
1473:
1446:(4): 314–325.
1430:
1403:(4): 314–325.
1385:
1350:
1323:
1310:
1250:
1243:
1225:
1216:
1200:
1188:
1172:
1163:
1150:
1141:
1134:
1114:
1087:
1080:
1062:
1025:(3): 149–158.
1012:
997:
995:
992:
991:
990:
985:
980:
975:
970:
968:Freeze-casting
965:
957:
954:
937:beam splitters
916:
913:
908:
905:
883:
880:
862:
859:
850:
847:
747:
740:
709:
706:
683:
675:
671:
664:Main article:
661:
658:
638:polymerisation
611:
608:
599:
569:polymerization
565:
564:
560:
556:
549:
548:
544:
540:
531:linked with a
502:
501:
497:
493:
489:
482:
481:
477:
473:
469:
452:
448:
438:
434:
430:
426:
419:Stöber process
406:
405:Polymerization
403:
369:
368:
353:
290:
287:
281:
271:) technology.
269:chromatography
143:microstructure
120:Centrifugation
87:
84:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2649:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2496:
2490:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2430:
2428:
2422:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2390:Optical fiber
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2354:
2348:
2347:Vitrification
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2317:Glass melting
2315:
2313:
2312:Glass forming
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2288:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2228:Uranium glass
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2208:Soluble glass
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2123:Ceramic glaze
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2074:
2072:
2068:
2063:
2056:
2051:
2049:
2044:
2042:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1828:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1789:
1782:
1778:
1775:Patel, P.J.,
1772:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1693:
1684:
1677:
1676:9780121349707
1673:
1667:
1658:
1649:
1640:
1630:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1587:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1537:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1477:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1440:J. Mater. Sci
1434:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1397:
1389:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1354:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1327:
1320:
1314:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1261:
1254:
1246:
1244:9781402079696
1240:
1236:
1229:
1220:
1213:
1207:
1205:
1195:
1193:
1185:
1179:
1177:
1167:
1160:
1154:
1145:
1137:
1131:
1127:
1126:
1118:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1091:
1083:
1077:
1073:
1066:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1005:
1003:
998:
989:
986:
984:
981:
979:
976:
974:
971:
969:
966:
963:
960:
959:
953:
949:
947:
943:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
912:
904:
901:
897:
893:
889:
879:
877:
873:
868:
858:
856:
846:
844:
840:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
809:
808:nanomaterials
804:
800:
796:
791:
789:
783:
780:
776:
771:
769:
765:
761:
756:
754:
753:nuclear fuels
750:
743:
736:
732:
727:
726:supercritical
719:
714:
705:
703:
698:
694:
689:
681:
667:
657:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
620:
616:
607:
605:
597:
593:
589:
585:
584:macromolecule
581:
576:
574:
570:
554:
553:
552:
538:
537:
536:
534:
530:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
487:
486:
485:
476:O → HO−Si(OR)
467:
466:
465:
463:
459:
455:
444:
424:
420:
411:
402:
400:
399:precipitation
396:
392:
387:
385:
380:
378:
374:
366:
362:
358:
354:
351:
347:
343:
339:
338:
337:
336:(10 m).
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
314:sedimentation
311:
307:
302:
301:
295:
286:
284:
277:
272:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
161:
159:
155:
151:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
127:
125:
121:
117:
116:sedimentation
113:
109:
105:
101:
92:
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
64:
59:
58:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2607:Dosage forms
2556:Porous glass
2511:Safety glass
2477:
2468:Porous glass
2426:modification
2336:
2238:Wood's glass
2158:Fused quartz
2133:Cobalt glass
2087:Supercooling
2007:
2001:
1998:Press (1989)
1991:
1987:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1920:
1916:
1910:
1885:
1881:
1875:
1842:
1838:
1827:
1802:
1798:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1746:
1742:
1736:
1711:
1707:
1701:
1692:
1683:
1666:
1657:
1648:
1639:
1629:
1596:
1592:
1586:
1553:
1549:
1543:
1535:
1530:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1486:
1482:
1476:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1363:
1359:
1353:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1313:
1270:
1266:
1253:
1234:
1228:
1219:
1211:
1183:
1166:
1158:
1153:
1144:
1124:
1117:
1100:
1096:
1090:
1071:
1065:
1022:
1018:
950:
929:cold mirrors
919:Macroscopic
918:
910:
885:
867:spin coating
864:
852:
849:Applications
822:agrochemical
812:
792:
788:Monodisperse
784:
772:
757:
723:
669:
619:cavitational
613:
610:Sono-Ormosil
577:
566:
550:
503:
483:
441:, where the
416:
388:
381:
370:
364:
361:flocculation
356:
345:
341:
322:dissertation
298:
296:
292:
273:
213:organic dyes
205:microspheres
177:spin coating
162:
158:grain growth
149:
147:
130:
128:
97:
61:
55:
44:metal oxides
35:
29:
2581:Glass fiber
2546:Glass cloth
2290:Preparation
2266:CorningWare
2148:Flint glass
2143:Crown glass
2096:Formulation
925:hot mirrors
737:powders of
735:radioactive
514:acetic acid
437:, or Si(OR)
391:glass fiber
334:micrometres
241:electronics
209:nanospheres
173:dip-coating
40:fabrication
2596:Categories
2576:Windshield
2410:Refraction
2370:Dispersion
2178:Milk glass
2173:Lead glass
1845:: 121455.
1805:: 100452.
1599:: 601–22.
1280:2203.11507
1210:Sakka, S.
994:References
962:Coacervate
857:ceramics.
818:biomedical
688:perovskite
686:and other
634:ultrasound
630:emulsified
615:Sonication
547:→ + H−O−H
526:hydrolyzed
522:hydrolysis
506:hydrolysis
445:group R =
229:thin films
106:phase and
72:precursors
70:. Typical
2443:Corrosion
2342:Viscosity
2297:Annealing
1945:137347665
1867:224811369
1819:237762446
1763:138778285
1468:137539240
1425:137539240
1360:Phil. Mag
1103:: 33–72.
1032:1410.8255
888:viscosity
886:With the
830:abrasives
826:catalytic
795:colloidal
779:sintering
697:chelating
596:branching
563:→ + R−OH
504:Complete
458:Alkoxides
384:amorphous
330:angstroms
297:The term
231:of metal
197:membranes
169:substrate
165:precursor
154:sintering
135:shrinkage
50:(Si) and
2561:Pre-preg
2365:Achromat
2108:Bioglass
2103:AgInSbTe
1994:, Eds.,
1902:23782155
1859:33076078
1728:26805775
1708:ACS Nano
1634:244-255.
1621:11031294
1305:44149390
1297:29863346
1057:98265180
956:See also
855:toughest
764:porosity
731:xerogels
642:Ormosils
588:monomers
573:siloxane
533:siloxane
529:monomers
512:such as
510:catalyst
500:+ 4 R−OH
462:hydroxyl
365:polymers
346:colloids
257:medicine
201:aerogels
185:ceramics
139:porosity
68:polymers
52:titanium
2492:Diverse
2424:Surface
2281:Zerodur
1925:Bibcode
1839:Talanta
1601:Bibcode
1578:1962191
1558:Bibcode
1550:Science
1448:Bibcode
1405:Bibcode
1368:Bibcode
1037:Bibcode
921:optical
892:optical
834:zeolite
760:solvent
682:, SrTiO
674:and TiO
654:density
604:ligands
580:alcohol
496:O → SiO
320:in his
310:gravity
300:colloid
259:(e.g.,
253:sensors
251:, (bio)
189:glasses
112:colloid
48:silicon
2494:topics
2357:Optics
2163:GeSbTe
2070:Basics
1992:et al.
1943:
1900:
1865:
1857:
1817:
1777:et al.
1761:
1726:
1674:
1619:
1576:
1466:
1423:
1303:
1295:
1241:
1212:et al.
1159:et al.
1132:
1078:
1055:
935:, and
933:lenses
900:glassy
876:inkjet
839:ligand
650:silica
646:silane
567:Thus,
535:bond:
488:Si(OR)
480:+ R−OH
468:Si(OR)
245:energy
237:optics
233:oxides
193:fibers
150:firing
131:drying
104:liquid
86:Stages
34:, the
2276:Macor
2243:ZBLAN
2077:Glass
2062:Glass
1941:S2CID
1863:S2CID
1815:S2CID
1759:S2CID
1464:S2CID
1421:S2CID
1301:S2CID
1275:arXiv
1263:(PDF)
1053:S2CID
1027:arXiv
824:, or
622:shear
492:+ 2 H
443:alkyl
249:space
108:solid
2612:Gels
1898:PMID
1855:PMID
1724:PMID
1672:ISBN
1617:PMID
1574:PMID
1293:PMID
1239:ISBN
1130:ISBN
1076:ISBN
894:and
775:kiln
751:for
744:and
555:(OR)
539:(OR)
423:TEOS
417:The
350:opal
312:and
215:and
181:cast
163:The
74:are
1968:doi
1933:doi
1890:doi
1886:113
1847:doi
1843:221
1807:doi
1751:doi
1716:doi
1609:doi
1566:doi
1554:254
1518:doi
1491:doi
1456:doi
1413:doi
1376:doi
1341:doi
1285:doi
1105:doi
1045:doi
1023:111
845:).
801:or
746:ThO
551:or
516:or
472:+ H
377:gel
373:sol
280:SiO
263:),
179:),
175:or
100:sol
63:gel
57:sol
42:of
30:In
2598::
1964:66
1962:.
1939:.
1931:.
1921:14
1919:.
1896:.
1884:.
1861:.
1853:.
1841:.
1837:.
1813:.
1803:43
1801:.
1797:.
1757:.
1747:25
1745:.
1722:.
1712:10
1710:.
1615:.
1607:.
1597:51
1595:.
1572:.
1564:.
1552:.
1514:65
1512:.
1487:66
1485:.
1462:.
1454:.
1442:.
1419:.
1411:.
1399:.
1374:.
1364:20
1362:.
1337:79
1335:.
1299:.
1291:.
1283:.
1271:57
1269:.
1265:.
1203:^
1191:^
1175:^
1101:90
1099:.
1051:.
1043:.
1035:.
1021:.
1017:.
1001:^
948:.
931:,
927:,
874:,
820:,
810:.
739:UO
456:.
401:.
255:,
247:,
243:,
239:,
207:,
199:,
195:,
191:,
187:,
126:.
82:.
2054:e
2047:t
2040:v
1974:.
1970::
1947:.
1935::
1927::
1904:.
1892::
1869:.
1849::
1821:.
1809::
1765:.
1753::
1730:.
1718::
1678:.
1623:.
1611::
1603::
1580:.
1568::
1560::
1524:.
1520::
1497:.
1493::
1470:.
1458::
1450::
1444:5
1427:.
1415::
1407::
1401:5
1382:.
1378::
1370::
1347:.
1343::
1307:.
1287::
1277::
1247:.
1138:.
1111:.
1107::
1084:.
1059:.
1047::
1039::
1029::
1013:2
748:2
741:2
684:3
676:2
672:2
600:4
561:3
557:3
545:3
541:3
498:2
494:2
490:4
478:3
474:2
470:4
453:5
451:H
449:2
447:C
439:4
435:4
433:)
431:5
429:H
427:2
352:.
282:2
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
