1923:
715:
then be identified by testing for indicators that are unique to the specific organelles. The most widely used application of this technique is to produce crude subcellular fractions from a tissue homogenate such as that from rat liver. Particles of different densities or sizes in a suspension are sedimented at different rates, with the larger and denser particles sedimenting faster. These sedimentation rates can be increased by using centrifugal force.
735:
particles travel to locations in the gradient where the density of the medium is the same as that of the particle density; (Ïp â Ïm) â 0. Therefore, a small, dense particle initially sediments less readily than a large, low density particle. The large particles reach their equilibrium density position early, while the small particles slowly migrate across the large particle zone and ultimately take up an equilibrium position deeper into the gradient.
22:
844:. However, smaller grained sols, such as those containing gold, could not be analyzed. To investigate this problem Svedberg developed an analytical centrifuge, equipped with a photographic absorption system, which would exert a much greater centrifugal effect. In addition, he developed the theory necessary to measure molecular weight. During this time, Svedberg's attention shifted from gold to proteins.
699:. Through low-speed centrifugation, cell debris may be removed, leaving a supernatant preserving the contents of the cell. Repeated centrifugation at progressively higher speeds will fractionate homogenates of cells into their components. In general, the smaller the subcellular component, the greater is the centrifugal force required to sediment it. The soluble fraction of any
739:
first potential issue is the unwanted aggregation of particles, but this can occur in any centrifugation. The second possibility occurs when droplets of solution that contain particles sediment. This is more likely to occur when working with a solution that has a layer of suspension floating on a dense liquid, which in fact have little to no density gradient.
875:
Linderstorm-Lang, in 1937, discovered that density gradient tubes could be used for density measurements. He discovered this when working with potato yellow-dwarf virus. This method was also used in
Meselson and Stahl's famous experiment in which they proved that DNA replication is semi-conservative
714:
is the simplest method of fractionation by centrifugation, commonly used to separate organelles and membranes found in cells. Organelles generally differ from each other in density and in size, making the use of differential centrifugation, and centrifugation in general, possible. The organelles can
550:
gradients in fixed-angle rotors. High-speed or superspeed centrifuges can handle larger sample volumes, from a few tens of millilitres to several litres. Additionally, larger centrifuges can also reach higher angular velocities (around 30,000 rpm). The rotors may come with different adapters to hold
668:
Preparative ultracentrifuges are often used for separating particles according to their densities, isolating and/or harvesting denser particles for collection in the pellet, and clarifying suspensions containing particles. Sometimes researchers also use preparative ultracentrifuges if they need the
619:
Analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) can be used for determination of the properties of macromolecules such as shape, mass, composition, and conformation. It is a commonly used biomolecular analysis technique used to evaluate sample purity, to characterize the assembly and disassembly mechanisms of
610:
They are the most commonly used centrifuge for the density-gradient purification of all particles except cells, and, whilst swinging buckets have been traditionally used for this purpose, fixed-angle rotors and vertical rotors are also used, particularly for self-generated gradients and can improve
450:
Historically, many separations have been carried out at the speed of 3000 rpm; a rough guide to the âgâ force exerted at this speed is to multiply the centrifugation radius by a factor of 10, so a radius of 160 mm gives approximately 1600 x g. This is a rather arbitrary approach, since the RCF
315:
sizes. For instance, the RCF of 1000 x g means that the centrifugal force is 1000 times stronger than the Earth's gravitational force. RCF is dependent on the speed of rotation in rpm and the distance of the particles from the center of rotation. The most common formula used for calculating RCF is:
871:
was created to apply the theory of sedimentation-diffusion. The same molecular mass was determined, and the presence of a spreading boundary suggested that it was a single compact particle. Further application of centrifugation showed that under different conditions the large homogeneous particles
738:
A tube, after being centrifuged by this method, has particles in order of density based on height. The object or particle of interest will reside in the position within the tube corresponding to its density. Nevertheless, some non-ideal sedimentations are still possible when using this method. The
602:
and proteins in fixed-angle rotors. Compared to microcentrifuges or high-speed centrifuges, ultracentrifuges can isolate much smaller particles and, additionally, whilst microcentrifuges and supercentrifuges separate particles in batches (limited volumes of samples must be handled manually in test
61:
of a particle and the rate that the particle separates from a heterogeneous mixture, when the only force applied is that of gravity. The larger the size and the larger the density of the particles, the faster they separate from the mixture. By applying a larger effective gravitational force to the
718:
A suspension of cells is subjected to a series of increasing centrifugal force cycles to produce a series of pellets comprising cells with a declining sedimentation rate. Homogenate includes nuclei, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, plasma membrane sheets and a broad range of vesicles derived
520:
Low-speed centrifuges are used to harvest chemical precipitates, intact cells (animal, plant and some microorganisms), nuclei, chloroplasts, large mitochondria and the larger plasma-membrane fragments. Density gradients for purifying cells are also run in these centrifuges. Swinging-bucket rotors
734:
It is used to separate particles on the basis of size, shape, and density by using a medium of graded densities. During a relatively short or slow centrifugation, the particles are separated by size, with larger particles sedimenting farther than smaller ones. Over a long or fast centrifugation,
659:
velocity analysis or sedimentation equilibrium analysis. During the run, the particle or molecules will migrate through the test tube at different speeds depending on their physical properties and the properties of the solution, and eventually form a pellet at the bottom of the tube, or bands at
502:
Microcentrifuges are specially designed table-top models with light, small-volume rotors capable of very fast acceleration up to approximately 17,000 rpm. They are lightweight devices which are primarily used for short-time centrifugation of samples up to around 0.2â2.0 mL. However, due to their
314:
When compared to gravity, the particle force is called the 'Relative
Centrifugal Force' (RCF). It is the perpendicular force exerted on the contents of the rotor as a result of the rotation, always relative to the gravity of the Earth, which measures the strength of rotors of different types and
866:
technique, two important observations were made: hemoglobin has a molecular weight of 68,000 Da, suggesting that there are four iron atoms present rather than one, and that, no matter where the hemoglobin was isolated from, it had exactly the same molecular weight. How something of such a large
751:
powder from water. In biological research, it can be used in the purification of mammalian cells, fractionation of subcellular organelles, fractionation of membrane vesicles, fractionation of macromolecules and macromolecular complexes, etc. Centrifugation is used in many different ways in the
867:
molecular mass could be consistently found, regardless of where it was sampled from in the body, was unprecedented and favored the idea that proteins are macromolecules rather than colloids. In order to investigate this phenomenon, a centrifuge with even higher speeds was needed, and thus the
826:
Centrifuges have also been used to a small degree to isolate lighter-than-water compounds, such as oil. In such situations, the aqueous discharge is obtained at the opposite outlet from which solids with a specific gravity greater than one are the target substances for separation.
545:
and intact tubular Golgi membranes. The majority of the simple pelleting tasks are carried out in fixed angle rotors. Some density-gradient work for purifying cells and organelles can be carried out in swinging-bucket rotors, or in the case of
628:, to identify and characterize macromolecular conformational changes, and to calculate equilibrium constants and thermodynamic parameters for self-associating and hetero-associating systems. Analytical ultracentrifuges incorporate a scanning
669:
flexibility to change the type of rotor in the instrument. Preparative ultracentrifuges can be equipped with a wide range of different rotor types, which can spin samples of different numbers, at different angles, and at different speeds.
227:
However, depending on the centrifuge model used, the respective angle of the rotor and the radius may vary, thus the formula gets modified. For example, the
Sorvall #SS-34 rotor has a maximum radius of 10.8 cm, so the formula becomes
521:
tend to be used very widely because of the huge flexibility of sample size through the use of adaptors. These machines have maximum rotor speeds of less than 10 000 rpm and vary from small, bench-top to large, floor-standing centrifuges.
62:
mixture, like a centrifuge does, the separation of the particles is accelerated. This is ideal in industrial and lab settings because particles that would naturally separate over a long period of time can be separated in much less time.
503:
small scale, they are readily transportable and, if necessary, can be operated in a cold room. They can be refrigerated or not. The microcentrifuge is normally used in research laboratories where small samples of biological molecules,
511:
are required to be subjected to high RCF for relatively short time intervals. Microcentrifuges designed for high-speed operation can reach up to 35,000 rpm, giving RCF up to 30000Ăg, and are called high-speed microcentrifuges.
606:
Ultracentrifugation is employed for separation of macromolecules/ligand binding kinetic studies, separation of various lipoprotein fractions from plasma and deprotonisation of physiological fluids for amino acid analysis.
730:
is known to be one of the most efficient methods for separating suspended particles, and is used both as a separation technique and as a method for measuring the density of particles or molecules in a mixture.
394:
103:. The most common application is the separation of solid from highly concentrated suspensions, which is used in the treatment of sewage sludges for dewatering where less consistent sediment is produced.
839:
and his student H. Rinde had successfully analyzed large-grained sols in terms of their gravitational sedimentation. Sols consist of a substance evenly distributed in another substance, also known as a
1656:
Simoni, D. S., Hill, R. L., and
Vaughan, M. (2002). The structure and function of hemoglobin: Gilbery Smithson Adair and the Adair equations. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 277(31): e1-e2
876:
by using different isotopes of nitrogen. They used density gradient centrifugation to determine which isotope or isotopes of nitrogen were present in the DNA after cycles of replication.
170:(RPM), the centrifugal force allows the particles to travel radially away from the rotation axis. The general formula for calculating the revolutions per minute (RPM) of a centrifuge is:
162:; however, the amount of time taken for such separations is not feasible. Other particles, which are very small, can not be isolated at all in solution until they are exposed to a high
38:
to separate particles from a solution according to their size, shape, density, medium viscosity and rotor speed. The denser components of the mixture migrate away from the axis of the
270:
211:
106:
The centrifugation method has a wide variety of industrial and laboratorial applications; not only is this process used to separate two miscible substances, but also to analyze the
855:. It was determined to have 712 carbon, 1,130 hydrogen, 243 oxygen, two sulfur atoms, and at least one iron atom. This gave hemoglobin a resulting weight of approximately 16,000
681:
typically includes the isolation of cellular components while retaining the individual roles of each component. Generally, the cell sample is stored in a suspension which is:
433:
451:
applied is linearly dependent on the radius, so a 10% larger radius means that a 10% higher RCF is applied at the same speed. Roughly, the above formula can be simplified to
309:
908:
487:
1621:
Van Holde, K. E. (1998). Analytical ultracentrifugation from 1924 to the present: A remarkable history. Chemtracts â Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology. 11:933-943
1704:
Sedimentation
Velocity Analysis of Heterogeneous Protein-Protein Interactions: Lamm Equation Modeling and Sedimentation Coefficient Distributions c(s)
768:
production, removing bacterial contaminants, etc. This processing technique is also used in the production of beverages, juices, coffee, tea, beer,
574:
can spin to as much as 150,000 rpm (equivalent to 1,000,000 x g). They are used to harvest all membrane vesicles derived from the plasma membrane,
1739:
1690:
Modeling
Analytical Ultracentrifugation Experiments with an Adaptive Space-Time Finite Element Solution for Multicomponent Reacting Systems
95:
velocity in centrifugation is a function of their size and shape, centrifugal acceleration, the volume fraction of solids present, the
1292:
1338:
1099:
320:
872:
could be broken down into discrete subunits. The development of centrifugation was a great advance in experimental protein science.
50:(pellet) will travel quickly and fully to the bottom of the tube. The remaining liquid that lies above the precipitate is called a
1310:
Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002). "Fractionation of Cells".
916:
785:
747:
A centrifuge can be used to isolate small quantities of solids retained in suspension from liquids, such as in the separation of
651:. The high-density solution may be at a uniform concentration throughout the test tube ("cushion") or a varying concentration ("
939:
847:
By 1900, it had been generally accepted that proteins were composed of amino acids; however, whether proteins were colloids or
859:(Da) but it was uncertain whether this value was a multiple of one or four (dependent upon the number of iron atoms present).
42:, while the less dense components of the mixture migrate towards the axis. Chemists and biologists may increase the effective
1534:
1416:
1205:
1180:
1155:
1083:
1711:
Monitoring the
Homogeneity of Adenovirus Preparations (a Gene Therapy Delivery System) Using Analytical Ultracentrifugation
570:
makes use of high centrifugal force for studying properties of biological particles at exceptionally high speeds. Current
719:
from a number of intracellular membrane compartments and also from the plasma membrane, typically in a buffered medium.
1732:
685:
Bufferedâneutral pH, preventing damage to the structure of proteins including enzymes (which could affect ionic bonds)
1571:
1501:
1321:
1053:
995:
1012:
611:
the efficiency of separation greatly. There are two kinds of ultracentrifuges: the analytical and the preparative.
964:
1897:
727:
1647:
Tanford, C., and
Reynolds, J. 2001. Natureâs robots: A history of proteins. Oxford University Press. pp. 303-305
1907:
1462:
126:
of particle turning into separated liquid like plasma. Centrifugation is also the most common method used for
1887:
1725:
175:
808:
231:
1862:
1922:
1222:
1937:
1551:
1481:
1396:
711:
1957:
1997:
1882:
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402:
110:
properties of macromolecules. It is one of the most important and commonly used research methods in
2040:
1767:
275:
2087:
1807:
636:-based optical detection system for real-time monitoring of the sampleâs progress during a spin.
756:. For example, in the dairy industry, it is typically used in the clarification and skimming of
603:
tubes or bottles), ultracentrifuges can separate molecules in batch or continuous flow systems.
454:
1902:
1832:
167:
70:
1593:
1368:
Brakke, Myron K. (April 1951). "Density
Gradient Centrifugation: A New Separation Technique".
1073:
2022:
2017:
1822:
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25:
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are separated by the centrifugal force whilst smaller particles continue with the air-flow.
1972:
1857:
1802:
1678:
621:
139:
1107:
8:
1792:
812:
799:
components. It also aids in separation of proteins using purification techniques such as
567:
43:
803:, e.g. ammonium sulfate precipitation. Centrifugation is also an important technique in
1852:
1748:
1581:
1563:
1507:
1493:
1408:
1266:
1241:
816:
678:
127:
123:
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Isotonic (of equal water potential)âthis prevents water gain or loss by the organelles
1992:
1867:
1827:
1567:
1530:
1511:
1497:
1412:
1317:
1271:
1253:
1201:
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991:
633:
163:
119:
35:
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1404:
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856:
836:
644:
556:
66:
2050:
1987:
1912:
1892:
1872:
1847:
1787:
868:
804:
625:
571:
1697:
Analytical Ultracentrifugation for the Study of Protein Association and Assembly
703:
can then be further separated into its constituents using a variety of methods.
2066:
1777:
1311:
579:
504:
155:
1525:
Zeng, Xian Ming; Martin, Gary Peter; Marriott, Christopher (26 October 2000).
1435:
Oster, Gerald; Yamamoto, Masahide (June 1963). "Density Gradient Techniques".
2081:
2007:
1982:
1257:
1242:"Analytical ultracentrifugation as a contemporary biomolecular research tool"
848:
753:
696:
656:
629:
691:
Coolâreducing the overall activity of enzyme released later in the procedure
1967:
1952:
1842:
1812:
1275:
819:. In a cyclone collector, air moves in a helical path. Particles with high
791:
In forensic and research laboratories, it can be used in the separation of
781:
534:
508:
115:
111:
107:
1942:
1797:
990:(5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. p. 111.
800:
542:
440:
131:
51:
47:
1448:
1381:
1072:
Burtis, Carl A.; Ashwood, Edward R.; Bruns, David E. (14 October 2012).
1962:
1947:
1837:
1772:
1717:
1699:. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, Vol. 10, 2006. pp. 430â436.
1075:
Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics - E-Book
885:
852:
851:
was still under debate. One protein being investigated at the time was
552:
39:
88:
21:
2045:
648:
587:
583:
538:
529:
High-speed centrifuges are typically used to harvest microorganisms,
151:
100:
1046:
Fundamental laboratory approaches for biochemistry and biotechnology
815:, where particles are separated from an air-flow without the use of
2002:
1977:
1762:
773:
652:
591:
92:
224:
the radius from the center of the rotor to a point in the sample.
1877:
1527:
Particulate Interactions in Dry Powder Formulation for Inhalation
841:
820:
640:
547:
159:
96:
74:
58:
1683:
Numerical Solutions of the Lamm Equation. I. Numerical Procedure
1817:
1670:
Harrison, Roger G., Todd, Paul, Rudge, Scott R., Petrides D.P.
1044:
Ballou, David P.; Benore, Marilee; Ninfa, Alexander J. (2008).
765:
761:
700:
389:{\displaystyle RCF=1.118\times 10^{-5}\times r\times (rpm)^{2}}
122:. In the chemical and food industries, special centrifuges can
84:
443:, between the axis of rotation and a point in the sample; and
2012:
796:
792:
748:
639:
Samples are centrifuged with a high-density solution such as
530:
135:
1558:(Second ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 149â334.
769:
757:
1713:. Analytical Biochemistry, Vol. 362, 2007. pp. 16â37.
158:
will gradually fall to the bottom of the container due to
777:
599:
595:
130:, relying on the slight mass difference between atoms of
492:
99:
difference between the particle and the liquid, and the
1706:. Biophysical Journal, Vol. 89, 2005. pp. 619â634.
1480:
Canziani, Roberto; Spinosa, Ludovico (1 January 2019).
1309:
1635:
Svedberg, T. (1927). The Ultracentrifuge Nobel Lecture
1173:
Compendium of Biomedical Instrumentation, 3 Volume Set
457:
405:
278:
234:
34:
is a mechanical process which involves the use of the
1692:. Biophysical Journal, Vol. 95, 2008. pp. 54â65.
1397:"1 - Particle Abstraction in BiologyâAn Introduction"
323:
178:
166:. As the suspension is rotated at a certain speed or
1552:"7 - Methods for Treating Wastewaters from Industry"
1549:
220:
represents the relative centrifugal force (RCF) and
1524:
1463:"Centrifugation/sedimentation - Safe Food Factory"
1071:
1048:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. p. 43.
986:Garrett, Reginald H.; Grisham, Charles M. (2013).
807:, being one of the most common processes used for
760:, extraction of cream, production and recovery of
722:
663:
481:
427:
388:
303:
264:
205:
1702:Dam, J., Velikovsky, C.A., Mariuzza R.A., et al.
1043:
614:
2079:
784:, sugar production, etc. It is also used in the
655:"). Molecular properties can be modeled through
1479:
65:The rate of centrifugation is specified by the
1685:. Biopolymers, Vol. 4, 1966. pp. 449â455.
1145:
985:
862:Through a series of experiments utilizing the
706:
1733:
1550:Woodard & Curran, Inc. (1 January 2006).
1482:"1 - Sludge from wastewater treatment plants"
1434:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1293:"Analytical and Preparative Ultracentrifuges"
1223:"Ultracentrifugation basics and applications"
1430:
1428:
1171:Khandpur, Raghbir Singh (25 February 2020).
57:There is a correlation between the size and
1631:
1629:
1627:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1316:(4th ed.). New York: Garland Science.
1740:
1726:
1643:
1641:
1356:
1287:
1285:
1239:
1195:
915:. Thermo Fisher Scientific. Archived from
1425:
1265:
903:
901:
695:Centrifugation is the first step in most
524:
1747:
1624:
1600:
1488:. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 3â30.
1170:
1164:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1067:
1065:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1033:
672:
515:
447:is the speed in revolutions per minute.
79:. The conversion factor between RPM and
20:
1695:Howlett, G.J., Minton, A.P., Rivas, G.
1638:
1282:
786:clarification and stabilization of wine
562:
265:{\textstyle RPM=299{\sqrt {g \over r}}}
206:{\displaystyle RPM={\sqrt {g \over r}}}
145:
2080:
1672:Bioseparations Science and Engineering
1650:
1367:
1240:Cole, JL; Hansen, JC (December 1999).
1220:
898:
1721:
1394:
1196:Ford, T. C.; Graham, John M. (1991).
1122:
1062:
1030:
1010:
742:
493:Centrifugation in biological research
811:. This process also plays a role in
73:(RPM), or acceleration expressed as
1556:Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook
1401:Centrifugation in Density Gradients
1146:Graham, J.M.; Rickwood, D. (2001).
497:
13:
1494:10.1016/B978-0-12-815907-1.00001-5
1409:10.1016/B978-0-12-564580-5.50006-4
1246:Journal of Biomolecular Techniques
14:
2099:
1403:. Academic Press. pp. 1â11.
1198:An Introduction to Centrifugation
1921:
1674:. Oxford University Press, 2003.
1564:10.1016/B978-075067963-3/50009-6
1336:
937:
428:{\textstyle 1.118\times 10^{-5}}
272:, which can further simplify to
1543:
1518:
1486:Industrial and Municipal Sludge
1473:
1455:
1388:
1330:
1303:
1233:
1221:Mendes, Adélia (2 March 2020).
1214:
1189:
728:Density gradient centrifugation
723:Density gradient centrifugation
664:Preparative ultracentrifugation
489:, with an error of only 0.62%.
1150:. BIOS Scientific Publishers.
1092:
1004:
979:
957:
931:
615:Analytical ultracentrifugation
377:
364:
304:{\textstyle RPM=91{\sqrt {g}}}
1:
1709:Berkowitz, S.A., Philo, J.S.
1313:Molecular biology of the cell
891:
780:and fat processing/recovery,
150:In a liquid suspension, many
46:of the test tube so that the
1339:"Centrifugation Separations"
1100:"NĂVE | Centrifugation Tips"
1078:. Elsevier Health Sciences.
439:is the radius, expressed in
7:
1013:"What Is Enriched Uranium?"
879:
712:Differential centrifugation
707:Differential centrifugation
482:{\textstyle RCF=10\times r}
124:process a continuous stream
10:
2104:
1958:Electrostatic precipitator
1663:
830:
2059:
2031:
1998:Rotary vacuum-drum filter
1930:
1919:
1755:
1175:. John Wiley & Sons.
1148:Biological Centrifugation
864:sedimentation equilibrium
2041:Aqueous two-phase system
1863:Liquidâliquid extraction
677:In biological research,
1938:API oilâwater separator
1808:Dissolved air flotation
1467:www.safefoodfactory.com
940:"Centrifugation Basics"
909:"Centrifugation Theory"
624:, to determine subunit
1903:Solid-phase extraction
622:biomolecular complexes
590:, ribosomal subunits,
525:High-speed centrifuges
483:
429:
390:
305:
266:
207:
168:revolutions per minute
71:revolutions per minute
28:
2023:Vacuum ceramic filter
2018:Sublimation apparatus
1823:Electrochromatography
1783:Cross-flow filtration
1395:Price, C. A. (1982).
673:Fractionation process
576:endoplasmic reticulum
516:Low-speed centrifuges
484:
430:
391:
306:
267:
208:
69:usually expressed as
26:Laboratory centrifuge
24:
1973:Fractionating column
1768:Acidâbase extraction
1749:Separation processes
1688:Cao, W., Demeler B.
1017:Smithsonian Magazine
563:Ultracentrifugations
455:
403:
321:
276:
232:
176:
146:Mathematical formula
140:uranium hexafluoride
1793:Cyclonic separation
1449:10.1021/cr60223a003
1382:10.1021/ja01148a508
813:cyclonic separation
568:Ultracentrifugation
44:gravitational force
1853:Gravity separation
1592:has generic name (
1297:www.labcompare.com
1011:Zielinski, Sarah.
913:Fischer Scientific
743:Other applications
679:cell fractionation
479:
425:
386:
301:
262:
203:
128:uranium enrichment
87:of the centrifuge
29:
16:Mechanical process
2075:
2074:
1993:Rapid sand filter
1888:Recrystallization
1868:Electroextraction
1828:Electrofiltration
1681:, Yphantis, D.A.
1536:978-1-135-72976-9
1418:978-0-12-564580-5
1207:978-1-872748-40-5
1182:978-1-119-28812-1
1157:978-1-85996-037-0
1085:978-1-4557-5942-2
919:on 20 August 2019
809:sludge dewatering
660:various heights.
634:ultraviolet light
557:microtiter plates
551:various sizes of
299:
260:
259:
201:
200:
164:centrifugal force
120:molecular biology
91:. The particles'
36:centrifugal force
2095:
1925:
1742:
1735:
1728:
1719:
1718:
1657:
1654:
1648:
1645:
1636:
1633:
1622:
1619:
1598:
1597:
1591:
1587:
1585:
1577:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1522:
1516:
1515:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1432:
1423:
1422:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1376:(4): 1847â1848.
1370:J. Am. Chem. Soc
1365:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1307:
1301:
1300:
1289:
1280:
1279:
1269:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1218:
1212:
1211:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1168:
1162:
1161:
1143:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1106:. Archived from
1096:
1090:
1089:
1069:
1060:
1059:
1041:
1028:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1008:
1002:
1001:
983:
977:
976:
974:
972:
965:"Centrifugation"
961:
955:
954:
952:
950:
935:
929:
928:
926:
924:
905:
837:Theodor Svedberg
645:caesium chloride
572:ultracentrifuges
498:Microcentrifuges
488:
486:
485:
480:
434:
432:
431:
426:
424:
423:
395:
393:
392:
387:
385:
384:
354:
353:
310:
308:
307:
302:
300:
295:
271:
269:
268:
263:
261:
252:
251:
212:
210:
209:
204:
202:
193:
192:
67:angular velocity
2103:
2102:
2098:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2092:
2078:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2055:
2033:
2027:
1988:Protein skimmer
1926:
1917:
1913:Ultrafiltration
1893:Reverse osmosis
1873:Microfiltration
1848:Froth flotation
1788:Crystallization
1751:
1746:
1716:
1666:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1646:
1639:
1634:
1625:
1620:
1601:
1589:
1588:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1548:
1544:
1537:
1523:
1519:
1504:
1478:
1474:
1461:
1460:
1456:
1433:
1426:
1419:
1393:
1389:
1366:
1357:
1347:
1345:
1335:
1331:
1324:
1308:
1304:
1291:
1290:
1283:
1238:
1234:
1227:Conduct Science
1219:
1215:
1208:
1194:
1190:
1183:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1144:
1123:
1113:
1111:
1110:on 11 July 2021
1104:www.nuve.com.tr
1098:
1097:
1093:
1086:
1070:
1063:
1056:
1042:
1031:
1021:
1019:
1009:
1005:
998:
984:
980:
970:
968:
963:
962:
958:
948:
946:
936:
932:
922:
920:
907:
906:
899:
894:
882:
869:ultracentrifuge
833:
805:waste treatment
745:
725:
709:
675:
666:
626:stoichiometries
617:
565:
527:
518:
500:
495:
456:
453:
452:
435:is a constant;
416:
412:
404:
401:
400:
380:
376:
346:
342:
322:
319:
318:
294:
277:
274:
273:
250:
233:
230:
229:
191:
177:
174:
173:
148:
83:depends on the
17:
12:
11:
5:
2101:
2091:
2090:
2088:Centrifugation
2073:
2072:
2070:
2069:
2067:Unit operation
2063:
2061:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2037:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1934:
1932:
1928:
1927:
1920:
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1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
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1805:
1800:
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1790:
1785:
1780:
1778:Chromatography
1775:
1770:
1765:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1752:
1745:
1744:
1737:
1730:
1722:
1715:
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1658:
1649:
1637:
1623:
1599:
1572:
1542:
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1517:
1502:
1472:
1454:
1443:(3): 257â268.
1424:
1417:
1387:
1355:
1329:
1322:
1302:
1281:
1232:
1213:
1206:
1188:
1181:
1163:
1156:
1121:
1091:
1084:
1061:
1054:
1029:
1003:
996:
978:
956:
930:
896:
895:
893:
890:
889:
888:
881:
878:
849:macromolecules
832:
829:
744:
741:
724:
721:
708:
705:
697:fractionations
693:
692:
689:
686:
674:
671:
665:
662:
616:
613:
580:Golgi membrane
564:
561:
555:, bottles, or
526:
523:
517:
514:
499:
496:
494:
491:
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255:
249:
246:
243:
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237:
199:
196:
190:
187:
184:
181:
147:
144:
54:or supernate.
32:Centrifugation
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2100:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2083:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2058:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2008:Spinning cone
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1983:Mixer-settler
1981:
1979:
1976:
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1951:
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1936:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1898:Sedimentation
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1883:Precipitation
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
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1608:
1606:
1604:
1595:
1590:|first1=
1583:
1575:
1573:9780750679633
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1538:
1532:
1529:. CRC Press.
1528:
1521:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1503:9780128159071
1499:
1495:
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1402:
1398:
1391:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1344:
1343:Sigma-Aldrich
1340:
1333:
1325:
1323:0-8153-4072-9
1319:
1315:
1314:
1306:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1286:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1252:(4): 163â76.
1251:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1228:
1224:
1217:
1209:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1184:
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1109:
1105:
1101:
1095:
1087:
1081:
1077:
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1055:9780470087664
1051:
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1040:
1038:
1036:
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1018:
1014:
1007:
999:
997:9781133106296
993:
989:
982:
966:
960:
945:
944:Sigma-Aldrich
941:
934:
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910:
904:
902:
897:
887:
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883:
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870:
865:
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828:
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789:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
754:food industry
750:
740:
736:
732:
729:
720:
716:
713:
704:
702:
698:
690:
687:
684:
683:
682:
680:
670:
661:
658:
657:sedimentation
654:
650:
646:
642:
637:
635:
631:
627:
623:
612:
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604:
601:
597:
593:
589:
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569:
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476:
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125:
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117:
113:
109:
104:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
77:
72:
68:
63:
60:
55:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
27:
23:
19:
1968:Filter press
1953:Depth filter
1843:Flocculation
1813:Distillation
1710:
1703:
1696:
1689:
1682:
1677:Dishon, M.,
1671:
1652:
1555:
1545:
1526:
1520:
1485:
1475:
1466:
1457:
1440:
1436:
1400:
1390:
1373:
1369:
1346:. Retrieved
1342:
1337:Frei, Mark.
1332:
1312:
1305:
1296:
1249:
1245:
1235:
1226:
1216:
1197:
1191:
1172:
1166:
1147:
1112:. Retrieved
1108:the original
1103:
1094:
1074:
1045:
1020:. Retrieved
1016:
1006:
988:Biochemistry
987:
981:
969:. Retrieved
959:
947:. Retrieved
943:
938:Frei, Mark.
933:
921:. Retrieved
917:the original
912:
874:
861:
846:
834:
825:
790:
782:cocoa butter
746:
737:
733:
726:
717:
710:
694:
676:
667:
638:
618:
609:
605:
566:
535:mitochondria
528:
519:
501:
449:
444:
436:
398:
317:
313:
226:
221:
217:
215:
172:
149:
112:biochemistry
108:hydrodynamic
105:
80:
75:
64:
56:
31:
30:
18:
1943:Belt filter
1908:Sublimation
1798:Decantation
1679:Weiss, G.H.
1348:23 November
1114:24 November
1022:22 November
801:salting out
543:peroxisomes
441:centimetres
52:supernatant
48:precipitate
2032:Multiphase
1963:Evaporator
1948:Centrifuge
1838:Filtration
1833:Extraction
1773:Adsorption
1763:Absorption
971:15 October
967:. Lenntech
892:References
886:Centrifuge
853:hemoglobin
553:test tubes
40:centrifuge
2046:Azeotrope
1756:Processes
1582:cite book
1512:146203271
1437:Chem. Rev
1258:1524-0215
649:iodixanol
588:ribosomes
584:endosomes
578:(ER) and
539:lysosomes
474:×
418:−
410:×
362:×
356:×
348:−
340:×
152:particles
101:viscosity
2082:Category
2060:Concepts
2051:Eutectic
2003:Scrubber
1978:Leachate
1858:Leaching
1803:Dialysis
1276:19499023
1200:. Bios.
880:See also
835:By 1923
774:soy milk
653:gradient
592:plasmids
93:settling
2034:systems
1931:Devices
1878:Osmosis
1664:Sources
1267:2291609
923:9 March
842:colloid
831:History
821:inertia
817:filters
641:sucrose
630:visible
548:Percoll
531:viruses
160:gravity
97:density
59:density
1818:Drying
1570:
1533:
1510:
1500:
1415:
1320:
1274:
1264:
1256:
1204:
1179:
1154:
1082:
1052:
994:
949:10 May
857:dalton
766:cheese
762:casein
701:lysate
509:nuclei
399:where
216:where
85:radius
2013:Still
1508:S2CID
797:blood
793:urine
749:chalk
647:, or
507:, or
505:cells
407:1.118
337:1.118
156:cells
142:gas.
136:U-235
132:U-238
89:rotor
1594:help
1568:ISBN
1531:ISBN
1498:ISBN
1413:ISBN
1350:2020
1318:ISBN
1272:PMID
1254:ISSN
1202:ISBN
1177:ISBN
1152:ISBN
1116:2020
1080:ISBN
1050:ISBN
1024:2020
992:ISBN
973:2013
951:2016
925:2018
795:and
770:wine
758:milk
134:and
118:and
116:cell
1560:doi
1490:doi
1445:doi
1405:doi
1378:doi
1262:PMC
778:oil
600:RNA
596:DNA
445:rpm
248:299
154:or
138:in
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