Human skin color - Knowledge

3679:(p.18-19): "This individual has light or blue/green eye colour, it is not light blue, there are elements of brown/yellow in the eye to give a proposed perceived green colour. Better coverage at the low sequenced marker would clarify this but blue/hazel cannot be ruled out. It is certainly not a brown eyed or clear blue-eyed individual... Skin pigmentation The following range for skin pigmentation prediction is possible for this individual with these parameters:... Intermediate 0.152 - 0.038 Dark-Black 0.848 - 0.962 Final prediction: Dark/Dark-to-Black skin If we omit the three missing alleles, our tool produces 0.752 and 0.248 probabilities for the intermediate and dark-black category respectively, changing the prediction ranges to 0.752- 0.038 and 0.248-0.962. However, note that this completely removes the locus from the prediction model; hence the prediction will not perform optimally (how the prediction model was made). It is therefore best to have some allele present to infer the most probable range for Cheddar Man and we derive the ranges above from the extreme allele constellations only. Explanation: The missing loci certainly impact on this prediction; however, utilizing the input of all ancestral alleles is the preferred option over the use of the derived alleles at these loci – hence 0.152 for intermediate and 0.848 for Dark-to-Black would be the most probable profile. That being said a broad range is present in both the intermediate and dark-black categories due to the missing loci. Also, this effect of skipping a skin pigmentation prediction category with regards probability values, tends to be observed more often in admixed individuals. What is important to note is the input of the dark-black prediction is significant on the intermediate category and therefore it is acceptable to propose a dark complexion individual over an intermediate/light prediction even though the intermediate range is present. It is unlikely that this individual has the darkest possible pigmentation, but it cannot be ruled out. Better sequencing coverage would clarify to what degree this individual has a dark complexion." 752: 568: 1839:(1883–1971) presenting tanned skin as fashionable, healthy, and luxurious. As of 2017, though an overall preference for lighter skin remains prevalent in the United States, many within the country regard tanned skin as both more attractive and healthier than pale or very dark skin. Western mass media and popular culture continued to reinforce negative stereotypes about dark skin, but in some circles pale skin has become associated with indoor office-work while tanned skin has become associated with increased leisure time, sportiness and good health that comes with wealth and higher social status. Studies have also emerged indicating that the degree of tanning is directly related to how attractive a young woman is. 1650: 593:

that are not found in Europeans or East Asians. Huang et al. 2021 found the existence of "selective pressure on light pigmentation in the ancestral population of Europeans and East Asians", prior to their divergence from each other. Skin pigmentation was also found to be affected by directional selection towards darker skin among Africans, as well as lighter skin among Eurasians. Crawford et al. (2017) similarly found evidence for selection towards light pigmentation prior to the divergence of West Eurasians and East Asians.

617:, because it improves barrier function as compared to non-pigmented skin. The authors argue that lack of significant differences between modern light-skinned and dark-skinned populations in vitamin D deficiency, early death from UV-induced cancers and birth defects — as well as instances of light and dark populations living side-by-side in areas with similar UV — suggest the standard model is insufficient to explain the strong selection drive for pigmented skin. Jablonski rejects this theory on the grounds that the human 2364:"Meanwhile, several studies have shown that female hormones promote the production of melanin, the pigment that protects the skin from the sun. Indeed, "estrogen could be the reason why women have a darker skin tone, even when the genotypes of both sexes are the same, meaning that their risk of skin cancer is lower. So much so that skin cancer is much more prevalent in men," explains Bárbara Hernando, fellow researcher at the Melanogen research group and coauthor of the study." 853:, Spain, which showed a version of these genes not corresponding with light skin color. In 2015 researchers analysed for light skin genes in the DNA of 94 ancient skeletons ranging from 8,000 to 3,000 years old from Europe and Russia. They found c. 8,000-year-old hunter-gatherers in Spain, Luxembourg, and Hungary were dark skinned while similarly aged hunter gatherers in Sweden were light skinned (having predominately derived alleles of SLC24A5, SLC45A2 and also HERC2/OCA2). 1627:

pigmentation may be genetically no more similar than other widely separated groups. Furthermore, in some parts of the world where people from different regions have mixed extensively, the connection between skin color and ancestry has substantially weakened. In Brazil, for example, skin color is not closely associated with the percentage of recent African ancestors a person has, as estimated from an analysis of genetic variants differing in frequency among continent groups.

1690:, inhabitants of the continent of Europe preferred pale skin, which they interpreted as a sign of high social status. The poorer classes worked outdoors and got darker skin from exposure to the sun, while the upper class stayed indoors and had light skin. Hence light skin became associated with wealth and high position. Women would put lead-based cosmetics on their skin to whiten their skin tone artificially. However, when not strictly monitored, these cosmetics caused 946: 785: 9548: 865:"Relatively dark skin pigmentation in Early Upper Paleolithic Europe would be consistent with those populations being relatively poorly adapted to high-latitude conditions as a result of having recently migrated from lower latitudes. On the other hand, although we have shown that these populations carried few of the light pigmentation alleles that are segregating in present-day Europe, they may have carried different alleles that we cannot now detect." 7526:'We always have a complex towards a white skin, towards foreign skin or foreign hair,' Jawed Habib says. Habib should know. He owns a chain of 140 salons located in India and across the world. 'We Indian people, we Asian people are more darker, so we want to look more fair.' … A marketing study found sales for skin whitening creams have jumped more than 100 percent in rural India and sales for male grooming products are increasing 20 percent annually. 714: 9572: 71: 1326: 800:(rs642742), has been positively associated with variations of skin color in African-Americans of mixed West African and European descent and is estimated to account for 15–20% of the melanin difference between African and European populations. This allele shows signs of strong positive selection outside Africa and occurs in over 80% of European and Asian samples, compared with less than 10% in African samples. 1413: 9560: 287:. Under normal conditions, melanosomes cover the upper part of the keratinocytes and protect them from genetic damage. One melanocyte supplies melanin to thirty-six keratinocytes according to signals from the keratinocytes. They also regulate melanin production and replication of melanocytes. People have different skin colors mainly because their melanocytes produce different amount and kinds of melanin. 1831:, and several research projects have suggested a general preference for lighter skin in the African-American community. In contrast, one study on men of the Bikosso tribe in Cameroon found no preference for attractiveness of females based on lighter skin color, bringing into question the universality of earlier studies that had exclusively focused on skin-color preferences among non-African populations. 1203:. Natural selection may have led to females with lighter skin than males in some indigenous populations because women must get enough vitamin D and calcium to support the development of fetus and nursing infants and to maintain their own health. However, some authors have cast doubt on the theory that vitamin D synthesis is related to the sexual dimorphism of human akin color in these populations. 1444:. Melanogenesis leads to delayed tanning and first becomes visible about 72 hours after exposure. The tan that is created by an increased melanogenesis lasts much longer than the one that is caused by oxidation of existing melanin. Tanning involves not just the increased melanin production in response to UV radiation but the thickening of the top layer of the epidermis, the stratum corneum. 1026:(rs2228479) have been associated with reduced tanning response in European and/or East Asian populations. These alleles show no signs of positive selection and only occur in relatively small numbers, reaching a peak in Europe with around 28% of the population having at least one allele of one of the variations. A study of self-reported tanning ability and skin type in American non- 3537:"a suggestion made 30 years ago by Stanford University geneticist L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza … that the early immigrants to Europe … survived on ready-made sources of vitamin D in their diet. But when farming spread in the past 6,000 years, he argued, Europeans had fewer sources of vitamin D in their food and needed to absorb more sunlight to produce the vitamin in their skin." 423:(the amount of sunlight the skin reflects) and the actual UV radiation in a particular geographic area is highly correlated, which supports this idea. Genetic evidence also supports this notion, demonstrating that around 1.2 million years ago there was a strong evolutionary pressure which acted on the development of dark skin pigmentation in early members of the genus 2332:

noise continues to muddy the data. Human skin may change more slowly during adulthood, but it does change. In particular, there is some evidence that skin color becomes less sexually dimorphic after 40, with some papers finding that women become nonsignificantly darker than men (Chamla and De´moulin, 1978; Mori and Tokuhashi, 1956; Rigters-Aris, 1973)."

6531:"Although Jablonski (2004) and Jablonski and Chaplin (2000) argued that pro- duction of vitamin D is the main evolutionary explanation for the origin of light skin in areas of solar radiation, others, such as Aoki (2002), were less convinced, still pointing to the lack of paleopathological evidence of rick- ets (Webb and Holick, 1988)..." 889:. Recent studies have found that the variant represents as much as 25–40% of the average skin tone difference between Europeans and West Africans. This derived allele is a reliable predictor of phenotype across a range of populations. It has been the subject of recent selection in Western Eurasia, and is fixed in European populations. 1748:, and pale skin. A light-skinned person is more privileged and has a higher social status; a person with light skin is considered more beautiful and lighter skin suggests that the person has more wealth. Skin color is such an obsession in some countries that specific words describe distinct skin tones - from (for example) " 5845:

Donnelly, Michael P.; Paschou, Peristera; Grigorenko, Elena; Gurwitz, David; Barta, Csaba; Lu, Ru-Band; Zhukova, Olga V.; Kim, Jong-Jin; Siniscalco, Marcello; New, Maria; Li, Hui; Kajuna, Sylvester L. B.; Manolopoulos, Vangelis G.; Speed, William C.; Pakstis, Andrew J.; Kidd, Judith R.; Kidd, Kenneth

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to the skin and the body naturally combats and seeks to repair the damage and protect the skin by creating and releasing further melanin into the skin's cells. With the production of the melanin, the skin color darkens, but can also cause sunburn. The tanning process can also be created by artificial

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Albinism is more common in some parts of the world than in others, but it is estimated that 1 in 70 humans carry the gene for OCA. The most severe type of albinism is OCA1A, which is characterized by complete, lifelong loss of melanin production, other forms of OCA1B, OCA2, OCA3, OCA4, show some form

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Uneven pigmentation of some sort affects most people, regardless of bioethnic background or skin color. Skin may either appear lighter, or darker than normal, or lack pigmentation at all; there may be blotchy, uneven areas, patches of brown to gray discoloration or freckling. Apart from blood-related

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Lamason, RL; Mohideen, MA; Mest, JR; Wong, AC; Norton, HL; Aros, MC; Jurynec, MJ; Mao, X; Humphreville, VR; Humbert, J. E.; Sinha, S; Moore, J. L.; Jagadeeswaran, P; Zhao, W; Ning, G; Makalowska, I; McKeigue, P. M.; O'Donnell, D; Kittles, R; Parra, E. J.; Mangini, N. J.; Grunwald, D. J.; Shriver, M.

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Lamason, R. L.; Mohideen, MA; Mest, JR; Wong, AC; Norton, HL; Aros, MC; Jurynec, MJ; Mao, X; Humphreville, VR; Humbert, J. E.; Sinha, S; Moore, J. L.; Jagadeeswaran, P; Zhao, W; Ning, G; Makalowska, I; McKeigue, P. M.; O'Donnell, D; Kittles, R; Parra, E. J.; Mangini, N. J.; Grunwald, D. J.; Shriver,

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Beleza, Sandra; Johnson, Nicholas A.; Candille, Sophie I.; Absher, Devin M.; Coram, Marc A.; Lopes, Jailson; Campos, Joana; Araújo, Isabel Inês; Anderson, Tovi M.; Vilhjálmsson, Bjarni J.; Nordborg, Magnus; Correia e Silva, António; Shriver, Mark D.; Rocha, Jorge; Barsh, Gregory S.; Tang, Hua (March

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Brace, Selina; Diekmann, Yoan; Booth, Thomas J.; Faltyskova, Zuzana; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Ferry, Matthew; Michel, Megan; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Stewardson, Kristin; Walsh, Susan; Kayser, Manfred; Schulting, Rick; Craig, Oliver E.; Sheridan, Alison; Pearson, Mike

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In recent times, humans have become increasingly mobile as a consequence of improved technology, domestication, environmental change, strong curiosity, and risk-taking. Migrations over the last 4000 years, and especially the last 400 years, have been the fastest in human history and have led to many

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In general, people living close to the equator are highly darkly pigmented, and those living near the poles are generally very lightly pigmented. The rest of humanity shows a high degree of skin color variation between these two extremes, generally correlating with UV exposure. The main exception to

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and thus inhibiting eumelanin production. Studies have found two alleles in the vicinity of ASIP are associated with skin color variation in humans. One, rs2424984, has been identified as an indicator of skin reflectance in a forensics analysis of human phenotypes across Caucasian, African-American,

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Significant exceptions to a preference for lighter skin started to appear in Western culture in the mid-20th century. However, a 2010 study found a preference for lighter-skinned women in New Zealand and California. Though sun-tanned skin was once associated with the sun-exposed manual labor of the

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rays from sunlight are believed to interact with folic acid in ways that may damage health. In a number of traditional societies the sun was avoided as much as possible, especially around noon when the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight is at its most intense. Midday was a time when people stayed in

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away from the tropics to the north where they were exposed to less intense sunlight. This was possibly in part due to the need for greater use of clothing to protect against the colder climate. Under these conditions there was less photodestruction of folate and so the evolutionary pressure working

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Harris investigated the history of the parasol... everywhere ordinary people were forbidden to protect themselves with such devices "pallid skin became a marker of upper-class status". At the beginning of the 20th Century, in the United States, lighter-skinned people avoided the sun... Tanned skin

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We learn as girls that in ways both subtle and obvious, personal and political, our value as females is largely determined by how we look. ... For black women, the domination of physical aspects of beauty in women's definition and value render us invisible, partially erased, or obsessed, sometimes

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Approximately 10% of the variance in skin color occurs within regions, and approximately 90% occurs between regions. Because skin color has been under strong selective pressure, similar skin colors can result from convergent adaptation rather than from genetic relatedness; populations with similar

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A person's natural skin color affects their reaction to exposure to the sun. Generally, those who start out with darker skin color and more melanin have better abilities to tan. Individuals with very light skin and albinos have no ability to tan. The biggest differences resulting from sun exposure

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become slightly darker during puberty. The interaction of genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors on skin coloration with age is still not adequately understood, but it is known that men are at their darkest baseline skin color around the age of 30, without considering the effects of tanning.

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According to Crawford et al. (2017), most of the genetic variants associated with light and dark pigmentation in African populations appear to have originated more than 300,000 years ago. African, South Asian and Australo-Melanesian populations also carry derived alleles for dark skin pigmentation

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evolved, all humans were dark-skinned. Some researchers suggest that human populations over the past 50,000 years have changed from dark-skinned to light-skinned and vice versa as they migrated to different UV zones, and that such major changes in pigmentation may have happened in as little as 100

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Relatively dark skin pigmentation in Early Upper Paleolithic Europe would be consistent with those populations being relatively poorly adapted to high-latitude conditions as a result of having recently migrated from lower latitudes. On the other hand, although we have shown that these populations

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p.779: "It is perhaps significant that this sex difference seems to disappear or even reverse itself when skin reflectance is close to the physiological maximum, notably in Dutch and Belgian subjects (Leguebe, 1961; van Rijn-Tournel, 1966; Rigters-Aris, 1973)...Even after adolescence, age-related

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On lighter to medium skin tones, solar lentigenes emerge as small- to medium-sized brown patches of freckling that can grow and accumulate over time on areas of the body that receive the most unprotected sun exposure, such as the back of the hands, forearms, chest, and face. For those with darker

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affect only the skin and hair, while other types affect the skin, hair and eyes, and in rare cases only the eyes. All of them are caused by different genetic mutations. Albinism is a recessively inherited trait in humans where both pigmented parents may be carriers of the gene and pass it down to

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entering Europe at around the same time were intermediate, being nearly fixed for the derived SLC24A5 variant but only having the derived SLC45A2 allele in low frequencies. The SLC24A5 variant spread very rapidly throughout central and southern Europe from about 8,000 years ago, whereas the light

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There is a direct correlation between the geographic distribution of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and the distribution of indigenous skin pigmentation around the world. Areas that receive higher amounts of UVR, generally located closer to the equator, tend to have darker-skinned populations. Areas

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González-Fortes, Gloria; Jones, Eppie R.; Lightfoot, Emma; Bonsall, Clive; Lazar, Catalin; Grandal-d’Anglade, Aurora; Garralda, María Dolores; Drak, Labib; Siska, Veronika; Simalcsik, Angela; Boroneanţ, Adina; Vidal Romaní, Juan Ramón; Vaqueiro Rodríguez, Marcos; Arias, Pablo; Pinhasi, Ron (June

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countries, people have traditionally seen light skin as more attractive, and a preference for lighter skin remains prevalent. In ancient China and Japan, for example, pale skin can be traced back to ancient drawings depicting women and goddesses with fair skin tones. In ancient China, Japan, and

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There are two different mechanisms involved. Firstly, the UVA-radiation creates oxidative stress, which in turn oxidizes existing melanin and leads to rapid darkening of the melanin, also known as IPD (immediate pigment darkening). Secondly, there is an increase in production of melanin known as

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may be related to the dimorphism. Breastfeeding newborns, whose skeletons are growing, require high amounts of calcium intake from the mother's milk (about 4 times more than during prenatal development), part of which comes from reserves in the mother's skeleton. Adequate vitamin D resources are

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Human skin color fades with age. Humans over the age of thirty experience a decrease in melanin-producing cells by about 10% to 20% per decade as melanocyte stem cells gradually die. The skin of face and hands has about twice the amount of pigment cells as unexposed areas of the body, as chronic

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A number of genes have been positively associated with the skin pigmentation difference between European and non-European populations. Mutations in SLC24A5 and SLC45A2 are believed to account for the bulk of this variation and show very strong signs of selection. A variation in TYR has also been

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gene which found that the allele associated with light skin in Europe "determined that 18,000 years had passed since the light-skin allele was fixed in Europeans" but may have originated as recently as 12,000–6,000 years ago "given the imprecision of method" , which is in line with the earliest

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between 1.2 and 4 million years ago, to allow for better cooling through sweating, their naked skin was exposed to sunlight. In the tropics, natural selection favoured dark-skinned human populations as high levels of skin pigmentation protected against the harmful effects of sunlight. Indigenous

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Herries, Andy I. R.; Martin, Jesse M.; Leece, A. B.; Adams, Justin W.; Boschian, Giovanni; Joannes-Boyau, Renaud; Edwards, Tara R.; Mallett, Tom; Massey, Jason; Murszewski, Ashleigh; Neubauer, Simon; Pickering, Robyn; Strait, David S.; Armstrong, Brian J.; Baker, Stephanie; Caruana, Matthew V.;

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in the Hindu social order—although the system is not based on skin tone. Actors and actresses in Indian cinema tend to have light skin tones, and Indian cinematographers have used graphics and intense lighting to achieve more "desirable" skin tones. Fair skin tones are advertised as an asset in

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suggests that an estimated time of about 10,000 to 20,000 years is enough for human populations to achieve optimal skin pigmentation in a particular geographic area but that development of ideal skin coloration may happen faster if the evolutionary pressure is stronger, even in as little as 100

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Olalde, Iñigo; Allentoft, Morten E.; Sánchez-Quinto, Federico; Santpere, Gabriel; Chiang, Charleston W. K.; Degiorgio, Michael; Prado-Martinez, Javier; Rodríguez, Juan Antonio; Rasmussen, Simon; Quilez, Javier; Ramírez, Oscar; Marigorta, Urko M.; Fernández-Callejo, Marcos; Prada, María Encina;

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With the evolution of hairless skin, abundant sweat glands, and skin rich in melanin, early humans could walk, run, and forage for food for long periods of time under the hot sun without brain damage due to overheating, giving them an evolutionary advantage over other species. Research on the

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Modern lifestyles and mobility have created mismatch between skin color and environment for many individuals. Vitamin D deficiencies and UVR overexposure are concerns for many. It is important for these people individually to adjust their diet and lifestyle according to their skin color, the

589:. For the most part, the evolution of light skin has followed different genetic paths in Western and Eastern Eurasian populations; however, some mutations associated with lighter skin have estimated origin dates after humans spread out of Africa but before the divergence of the two lineages. 3298:

Crawford, Nicholas G.; Kelly, Derek E.; Hansen, Matthew E. B.; Beltrame, Marcia H.; Fan, Shaohua; Bowman, Shanna L.; Jewett, Ethan; Ranciaro, Alessia; Thompson, Simon; Lo, Yancy; Pfeifer, Susanne P.; Jensen, Jeffrey D.; Campbell, Michael C.; Beggs, William; Hormozdiari, Farhad (2017-11-17).

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Valenzuela, Robert K.; Henderson, Miquia S.; Walsh, Monica H.; Garrison, Nanibaa' A.; Kelch, Jessica T.; Cohen-Barak, Orit; Erickson, Drew T.; John Meaney, F.; Bruce Walsh, J.; Cheng, Keith C.; Ito, Shosuke; Wakamatsu, Kazumasa; Frudakis, Tony; Thomas, Matthew; Brilliant, Murray H. (2010).

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Mathieson, I.; Lazaridis, I.; Rohland, N.; Mallick, S.; Llamas, B.; Pickrell, J.; Meller, H.; Rojo Guerra, M. A.; Krause, J.; Anthony, D.; Brown, D.; Lalueza Fox, C.; Cooper, A.; Alt, K. W.; Haak, W.; Patterson, N.; Reich, D. (2015). "Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe".

771:, have mutations associated with lighter skin that have high frequencies in both European and East Asian populations. They are thought to have originated after humans spread out of Africa but before the divergence of the European and Asian lineages around 30,000 years ago. Two subsequent 4962:

Bonilla, C; Boxill, L. A.; Donald, S. A.; Williams, T; Sylvester, N; Parra, E. J.; Dios, S; Norton, H. L.; Shriver, M. D.; Kittles, R. A. (2005). "The 8818G allele of the agouti signaling protein (ASIP) gene is ancestral and is associated with darker skin color in African Americans".

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Lazaridis, Iosif; Alpaslan-Roodenberg, Songül; Acar, Ayşe; Açıkkol, Ayşen; Agelarakis, Anagnostis; Aghikyan, Levon; Akyüz, Uğur; Andreeva, Desislava; Andrijašević, Gojko; Antonović, Dragana; Armit, Ian; Atmaca, Alper; Avetisyan, Pavel; Aytek, Ahmet İhsan; Bacvarov, Krum (2022-08-26).

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Posth, Cosimo; Yu, He; Ghalichi, Ayshin; Rougier, Hélène; Crevecoeur, Isabelle; Huang, Yilei; Ringbauer, Harald; Rohrlach, Adam B.; Nägele, Kathrin; Villalba-Mouco, Vanessa; Radzeviciute, Rita; Ferraz, Tiago; Stoessel, Alexander; Tukhbatova, Rezeda; Drucker, Dorothée G. (2023-03-02).

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In 1920s France, the caramel-skinned entertainer Josephine Baker became a Parisian idol. Concurrently, fashion designer Coco Chanel was "bronzed" while cruising on a yacht. A winter tan became a symbol of the leisure class and showed you could afford to travel to exotic

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found no significant correlation between these genes and skin color, and suggest that the earlier findings may have been the result of incorrect correction methods and small panel sizes, or that the genes have an effect too small to be detected by the larger studies.

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A preference for fair or lighter skin continues in some countries, including Latin American countries where whites form a minority. In Brazil, a dark-skinned person is more likely to experience discrimination. Many actors and actresses in Latin America have European

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Dark skin with large concentrations of melanin protects against ultraviolet light and skin cancers; light-skinned people have about a tenfold greater risk of dying from skin cancer, compared with dark-skinned persons, under equal sunlight exposure. Furthermore,

1107:, the parts of the body not covered with hair, like the face and the back of the hands, start out pale in infants and turn darker as the skin is exposed to more sun. All human babies are born pale, regardless of what their adult color will be. In humans, 725:(MC1R) gene is primarily responsible for determining whether pheomelanin and eumelanin are produced in the human body. Research shows at least 10 differences in MC1R between African and chimpanzee samples and that the gene has probably undergone a strong 7260:

As a girl and young woman, hair, body, and color were society's trinity in determining female beauty and identity... We learn as girls that in ways both subtle and obvious, personal and political, our value as females is largely determined by how we

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populations began to migrate, the evolutionary constraint keeping skin dark decreased proportionally to the distance north a population migrated, resulting in a range of skin tones within northern populations, although the bulk of humans remained

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population. This variant is essentially restricted to East Asia, with highest frequencies in Eastern East Asia (49–63%), midrange frequencies in Southeast Asia, and the lowest frequencies in Western China and some Eastern European populations.

297:, which creates the color of the skin, eyes, and hair shades. Differences in skin color are also attributed to differences in size and distribution of melanosomes in the skin. Melanocytes produce two types of melanin. The most common form of 977:

A number of studies have found genes linked to human skin pigmentation that have alleles with statistically significant frequencies in Chinese and East Asian populations. While not linked to measurements of skin tone variation directly,

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A number of genes known to affect skin color have alleles that show signs of positive selection in East Asian populations. Of these, only OCA2 has been directly related to skin color measurements, while DCT, MC1R and ATRN are marked as

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Bruner, Emiliano; Mantini, Simone; Musso, Fabio; De La Cuétara, José Manuel; Ripani, Maurizio; Sherkat, Shahram (2010-11-30). "The evolution of the meningeal vascular system in the human genus: From brain shape to thermoregulation".

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used a skin-whitening cream, and more than 60 companies globally compete for Asia's estimated $ 18 billion market. Changes in regulations in the cosmetic industry led to skin-care companies introducing harm-free skin lighteners. In

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Color Counts: "... it is evident that differing color holds considerable importance within the black community and is measurably influencing self-esteem, prestige, and marital status." |USA Today (Society for the Advancement of

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Albinos often face social and cultural challenges (even threats), as the condition is often a source of ridicule, racism, fear, and violence. Many cultures around the world have developed beliefs regarding people with albinism.

487:(cholecalciferol) than darker skin, so it would have represented a health benefit in reduced sunlight if there were limited sources of vitamin D. Hence the leading hypothesis for the evolution of human skin color proposes that: 4287:

Lao, O.; De Gruijter, J. M.; Van Duijn, K.; Navarro, A.; Kayser, M. (May 2007). "Signatures of Positive Selection in Genes Associated with Human Skin Pigmentation as Revealed from Analyses of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms".

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Research indicates the selection for the light-skin alleles of these genes in Europeans is comparatively recent, having occurred later than 20,000 years ago and perhaps as recently as 12,000 to 6,000 years ago. In the 1970s,

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exposure to the sun continues to stimulate melanocytes. The blotchy appearance of skin color in the face and hands of older people is due to the uneven distribution of pigment cells and to changes in the interaction between

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Skin-whitening products have remained popular over time, often due to historical beliefs and perceptions about fair skin. Sales of skin-whitening products across the world grew from $ 40 billion to $ 43 billion in 2008. In

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Geller, A. C.; Colditz, G.; Oliveria, S.; Emmons, K.; Jorgensen, C.; Aweh, G. N.; Frazier, A. L. (1 June 2002). "Use of Sunscreen, Sunburning Rates, and Tanning Bed Use Among More Than 10 000 US Children and Adolescents".

908:) allele that has been directly correlated with skin color variation across a range of populations. This variation is ubiquitous in European populations but extremely rare elsewhere and shows strong signs of selection. 1182:

is known to increase skin pigmentation in lighter-skinned populations. White women's skin is significantly darker than White men's, to the extent that White women have a much lower rate of skin cancer than White men.

824:(rs6058017) is significantly associated with skin color variation in African-Americans and the ancestral version occurs in only 12% of European and 28% of East Asian samples compared with 80% of West African samples. 1683:, associated pale skin with being cursed or caused by evil spirits associated with witchcraft. They would abandon their children born with conditions such as albinism and showed a sexual preference for darker skin. 1452:

environment they live in, and the time of year. For practical purposes, such as exposure time for sun tanning, six skin types are distinguished following Fitzpatrick (1975), listed in order of decreasing lightness:

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Juzeniene, Asta; Setlow, Richard; Porojnicu, Alina; Steindal, Arnfinn Hykkerud; Moan, Johan (2009). "Development of different human skin colors: A review highlighting photobiological and photobiophysical aspects".

1709:, associated with the belief that people with dark skin were uncivilized, inferior, and should be subordinate to lighter-skinned invaders. This belief exists to an extent in modern times as well. Institutionalized 3105:

Denham, Tim; Hellstrom, John; Moggi-Cecchi, Jacopo; Mokobane, Simon; Penzo-Kajewski, Paul; Rovinsky, Douglass S.; Schwartz, Gary T.; Stammers, Rhiannon C.; Wilson, Coen; Woodhead, Jon; Menter, Colin (2020-04-03).

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At some point, some northern populations experienced positive selection for lighter skin due to the increased production of vitamin D from sunlight and the genes for darker skin disappeared from these populations.

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Summary of clues to the saga in which humans evolved to lose their hair and had to adjust, including turning from light skin to dark skin, together with an estimation of the time when humans invented clothing.

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To some extent, skin color is determined independently of eye and hair color, as can be seen from variation in skin coloration in human populations. For the evolution of human skin color, see section above.

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generations. The length of time is also affected by cultural practices such as food intake, clothing, body coverings, and shelter usage which can alter the ways in which the environment affects populations.

246:, which darkens light skin. Women from darker-skinned populations may have evolved to lighter skin than men so their bodies could absorb more vitamin D during pregnancy, which improves calcium absorption. 4632:

Candille, Sophie I.; Absher, Devin M.; Beleza, Sandra; Bauchet, Marc; McEvoy, Brian; Garrison, Nanibaa' A.; Li, Jun Z.; Myers, Richard M.; Barsh, Gregory S.; Tang, Hua; Shriver, Mark D. (31 October 2012).

1735:

for a lifetime, since most of us lack the major talismans of Western beauty. Black women find themselves involved in a lifelong effort to self-define in a culture that provides them no positive reflection.

1383:, also known as "liver spots" or "senile freckles", refers to darkened spots on the skin caused by aging and the sun. These spots are quite common in adults with a long history of unprotected sun exposure. 900:(SLC45A2 or MATP) aids in the transport and processing of tyrosine, a precursor to melanin. It has also been shown to be one of the significant components of the skin color of modern Europeans through its 1717:

and of receiving preferential treatment from plantation owners and from overseers. For example, they had a chance to get an education. The preference for fair skin remained prominent until the end of the

5762:

Shriver, MD; Parra, EJ; Dios, S; Bonilla, C; Norton, H; Jovel, C; Pfaff, C; Jones, C; Massac, A; Cameron, N; Baron, A; Jackson, T; Argyropoulos, G; Jin, L; Hoggart, CJ; McKeigue, PM; Kittles, RA (2003).

696:

and modern Africans show that dark skin evolved along with the loss of body hair about 1.2 million years ago and that this common ancestor had dark skin. Investigations into dark-skinned populations in

601:

Elias et. al. in 2010 showed a superior barrier function in darkly pigmented skin. Most protective functions of the skin, including the permeability barrier and the antimicrobial barrier, reside in the

1448:

are visible in individuals who start out with moderately pigmented brown skin: the change is dramatically visible as tan lines, where parts of the skin which tanned are delineated from unexposed skin.

455:

In 2017, a study showed that both dark and light pigmentation alleles arose before the origin of modern humans, with the older version of the variants in many cases being associated with lighter skin.

1344:

is a condition that causes depigmentation of sections of skin. It occurs when melanocytes die or are unable to function. The cause of vitiligo is unknown, but research suggests that it may arise from

964:(rs1800414) allele has been shown to account for about 8% of the skin tone difference between African and East Asian populations in studies of an East Asian population living in Toronto and a Chinese 4911: 463:

alleles using assumptions about past population size and an absence of population bottlenecks suggests the allele for dark skin present in modern Africans arose at least by 1.2 million years ago.

1713:

in North America led people to perceive lighter-skinned African-Americans as more intelligent, cooperative, and beautiful. Such lighter-skinned individuals had a greater likelihood of working as

6405:

Candille, Sophie I.; Absher, Devin M.; Beleza, Sandra; Bauchet, Marc; McEvoy, Brian; Garrison, Nanibaa' A.; Li, Jun Z.; Myers, Richard M.; Barsh, Gregory S.; Tang, Hua; Shriver, Mark D. (2012).

1387:

Aside from sun exposure and hormones, hyperpigmentation can be caused by skin damage, such as remnants of blemishes, wounds or rashes. This is especially true for those with darker skin tones.

2149: 223:. The leading theory is that skin color adapts to intense sunlight irradiation to provide partial protection against the ultraviolet fraction that produces damage and thus mutations in the 7793:

Dixson, Barnaby J.; Dixson, Alan F.; Morgan, Bethan; Anderson, Matthew J. (2006). "Human Physique and Sexual Attractiveness: Sexual Preferences of Men and Women in Bakossiland, Cameroon".

6128:

Valverde, P; Healy, E; Jackson, I; Rees, J. L.; Thody, A. J. (1995). "Variants of the melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor gene are associated with red hair and fair skin in humans".

5234:

Ginger, R. S.; Askew, S. E.; Ogborne, R. M.; Wilson, S.; Ferdinando, D.; Dadd, T.; Smith, A. M.; Kazi, S.; Szerencsei, R. T.; Winkfein, R. J.; Schnetkamp, P. P. M.; Green, M. R. (2007).

1427:

in the skin protects the body by absorbing solar radiation. In general, the more melanin there is in the skin the more solar radiation can be absorbed. Excessive solar radiation causes

4331:

Bajpai, Vivek K.; Swigut, Tomek; Mohammed, Jaaved; Naqvi, Sahin; Arreola, Martin; Tycko, Josh; Kim, Tayne C.; Pritchard, Jonathan K.; Bassik, Michael C.; Wysocka, Joanna (2023-08-11).

544:) have been suggested to have been dark skinned based on DNA analysis, with a number of the most prominent light-skin tone gene variants found in modern Europeans being introduced by 7549: 1679:

Nevertheless, some social groups favor specific skin coloring. The preferred skin tone varies by culture and has varied over time. A number of indigenous African groups, such as the

164:

and it is the main determinant of the skin color of darker-skin humans. The skin color of people with light skin is determined mainly by the bluish-white connective tissue under the

1954:

Milburn, Peter B.; Sian, Corazon S.; Silvers, David N. (1982). "The color of the skin of the palms and soles as a possible clue to the pathogenesis of acral-lentiginous melanoma".

571:

Evolutionary model of human pigmentation in three continental populations. The colors of the branches roughly indicate the generalized skin pigmentation level of these populations.

861:

Some authors have expressed caution regarding the skin pigmentation predictions. According to Ju et al. (2021), in a study addressing 40,000 years of modern human history, stated:

7880:

Dixson, Barnaby J.; Dixson, Alan F.; Bishop, Phil J.; Parish, Amy (June 2010). "Human Physique and Sexual Attractiveness in Men and Women: A New Zealand–U.S. Comparative Study".

5517:

Ang, K. C.; Ngu, M. S.; Reid, K. P.; Teh, M. S.; Aida, Z. S.; Koh, D. X.; Berg, A; Oppenheimer, S; Salleh, H; Clyde, M. M.; Md-Zain, B. M.; Canfield, V. A.; Cheng, K. C. (2012).

5098:

The La Braña individual carries ancestral alleles in several skin pigmentation genes, suggesting that the light skin of modern Europeans was not yet ubiquitous in Mesolithic time

2382: 400:

that allows precooling of blood to the brain, an organ extremely sensitive to changes in body temperature. Given endurance running and its needs for thermoregulation arose with

2125: 7073: 1271:

or OCA, which has many subtypes caused by different genetic mutations. Albinism is a serious problem in areas of high sunlight intensity, leading to extreme sun sensitivity,

351:(UV) radiation from the sun that penetrates the skin by absorption. While UV radiation can assist in the production of vitamin D, excessive exposure to UV can damage health. 7423: 1352:, neural, or viral causes. The incidence worldwide is less than 1%. Individuals affected by vitiligo sometimes suffer psychological discomfort because of their appearance. 705:

indicate that skin pigmentation in these populations is due to the preservation of this ancestral state and not due to new variations on a previously lightened population.

1635:

people settling in places far away from their ancestral homelands. This means that skin colors today are not as confined to geographical location as they were previously.

7776: 1218:", which refers to the browning and yellowing of the cheeks, upper lips, and forehead that occurs during pregnancy. This is caused by increases in the female sex hormone 445:. The effect of sunlight on folic acid levels has been crucial in the development of dark skin and favored the emergence of skin pigmentation in order to protect from 4798:

Pickrell, J. K.; Coop, G; Novembre, J; Kudaravalli, S; Li, J. Z.; Absher, D; Srinivasan, B. S.; Barsh, G. S.; Myers, R. M.; Feldman, M. W.; Pritchard, J. K. (2009).

7488: 820:

South Asian, East Asian, Hispanic and Native American populations and is about three times more common in non-African populations than in Africa. The other allele,

7273: 7609: 1676:. These ancient civilizations viewed relations between the major power and the subordinate state as more significant in a person's status than their skin colors. 1377:

describes skin discolorations caused by hormones. These hormonal changes are usually the result of pregnancy, birth control pills or estrogen replacement therapy.

1195:

needed to absorb calcium from the diet, and it has been shown that deficiencies of vitamin D and calcium increase the likelihood of various birth defects such as

4924: 5708:

Soejima, M; Tachida, H; Ishida, T; Sano, A; Koda, Y (January 2006). "Evidence for Recent Positive Selection at the Human AIM1 Locus in a European Population".

7245: 4235:"Association of the OCA2 Polymorphism His615Arg with Melanin Content in East Asian Populations: Further Evidence of Convergent Evolution of Skin Pigmentation" 5127: 5222:

carried few of the light pigmentation alleles that are segregating in present-day Europe, they may have carried different alleles that we cannot now detect.

516:

Subsequent migrations into different UV environments and admixture between populations have resulted in the varied range of skin pigmentations we see today.

8004: 4873: 6780: 3633:

Parker; Stringer, Chris; Reich, David; Thomas, Mark G.; Barnes, Ian (2019), "Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain",

1785:

Southeast Asia, pale skin was seen as a sign of wealth. Thus skin-whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia. Four out of ten women surveyed in

1823:, or "beautiful white", ideal leads many Japanese women to avoid any form of tanning. There are exceptions to this, with Japanese fashion trends such as 204:

that are far from the tropics and closer to the poles have lower intensity of UVR, which is reflected in lighter-skinned populations. By the time modern

8092:

Leary, Mark R.; Jones, Jody L. (1993). "The Social Psychology of Tanning and Sunscreen Use: Self-Presentational Motives as a Predictor of Health Risk".

3966: 7390: 7351: 1178:

It is unknown why skin color is sexually dimorphic in some populations. White women may have darker skin than white men because the female sex hormone

7927: 5236:"SLC24A5 Encodes a trans-Golgi Network Protein with Potassium-dependent Sodium-Calcium Exchange Activity That Regulates Human Epidermal Melanogenesis" 2551: 4051: 1631:

this rule is in the New World, where people have only lived for about 10,000 to 15,000 years and show a less pronounced degree of skin pigmentation.

1390:

The most typical cause of darkened areas of skin, brown spots or areas of discoloration is unprotected sun exposure. Once incorrectly referred to as

9417: 7310: 5419:

Stokowski, R; Pant, P; Dadd, T; Fereday, A; Hinds, D; Jarman, C; Filsell, W; Ginger, R; Green, M; Van Der Ouderaa, Frans J.; Cox, David R. (2007).

4496:

Harding, R; Healy, E; Ray, A; Ellis, N; Flanagan, N; Todd, C; Dixon, C; Sajantila, A; Jackson, I; Birch-Machin, Mark A.; Rees, Jonathan L. (2000).

3276: 2465:

Sturm, R. A.; Teasdale, R. D.; Box, N. F. (2001). "Human pigmentation genes: Identification, structure and consequences of polymorphic variation".

7659: 5930:

Myles, S; Somel, M; Tang, K; Kelso, J; Stoneking, M (2006). "Identifying genes underlying skin pigmentation differences among human populations".

1698:

to whiten skin, and powders. Women would wear full-length clothes when outdoors, and would use gloves and parasols to provide shade from the sun.

9445: 7682: 6812:

Vorobey, P; Steindal, AE; Off, MK; Vorobey, A; Moan, J (2006). "Influence of human serum albumin on photodegradation of folic acid in solution".

7207: 3402:

Norton, H. L.; Kittles, R. A.; Parra, E.; McKeigue, P.; Mao, X.; Cheng, K.; Canfield, V. A.; Bradley, D. G.; McEvoy, B.; Shriver, M. D. (2006).

1073:(OCA) is a lack of pigment in the eyes, skin and sometimes hair that occurs in a very small fraction of the population. The four known types of 763:

For the most part, the evolution of light skin has followed different genetic paths in European and East Asian populations. Two genes, however,

751: 172:

circulating in the veins of the dermis. The red color underlying the skin becomes more visible, especially in the face, when, as consequence of

7514: 4233:

Edwards, Melissa; Bigham, Abigail; Tan, Jinze; Li, Shilin; Gozdzik, Agnes; Ross, Kendra; Jin, Li; Parra, Esteban J. (2010). McVean, Gil (ed.).

3483: 1267:

their children. Each child has a 25% chance of being albino and a 75% chance of having normally pigmented skin. One common type of albinism is

242:

descent, men are significantly lighter-skinned than women. European women may have darker skin than European men due to the female sex hormone

6242: 6223: 6111: 6092: 6073: 6054: 6035: 1206:

The sexes also differ in how they change their skin color with age. Women can change pigmentation in certain parts of their body, such as the

924:(rs1042602), found solely in 40–50% of Europeans and linked to light-colored skin in studies of South Asian and African-American populations. 8415:

Millington, George W. M.; Levell, Nick J. (2007). "From genesis to gene sequencing: historical progress in the understanding of skin color".

7630: 6200: 5745: 5007: 4941: 4849: 4729: 2157: 7756: 5975: 4545:

Rogers, Alan R.; Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen (2004a). "Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair".

4448:

Rogers, Alan R.; Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen (2004b). "Genetic Variation at the MC1R Locus and the Time since Loss of Human Body Hair".

3356: 3692:"Paleogenomic Evidence for Multi-generational Mixing between Neolithic Farmers and Mesolithic Hunter-Gatherers in the Lower Danube Basin" 2892:

Ruxton, Graeme D.; Wilkinson, David M. (2011). "Thermoregulation and endurance running in extinct hominins: Wheeler's models revisited".

9293: 2500:

Ito, S.; Wakamatsu, K. (Dec 2011). "Diversity of human hair pigmentation as studied by chemical analysis of eumelanin and pheomelanin".

1186:

In populations where women have lighter skin than men, it has been hypothesized that the requirement for high amounts of calcium during

2413: 7178: 5764: 5471:

Soejima, Mikiko; Koda, Yoshiro (2006). "Population differences of two coding SNPs in pigmentation-related genes SLC24A5 and SLC45A2".

5357:"The Interplay between Natural Selection and Susceptibility to Melanoma on Allele 374F of SLC45A2 Gene in a South European Population" 2581: 1835:

lower class, the associations became dramatically reversed during this time—a change usually credited to the trendsetting Frenchwoman

1763:, society regards fair skin as more attractive and associates dark skin with lower class status; this results in a massive market for 845:

and thus have taken place only around 6,000 years ago; This scenario found support in a 2014 analysis of mesolithic (7,000 years old)

156:

The actual skin color of different humans is affected by many substances, although the single most important substance is the pigment

8681: 8641: 8167:

Harding, R; Healy, E; Ray, A; Ellis, N; Flanagan, N; Todd, C; Dixon, C; Sajantila, A; Jackson, I; Birch-Machin, MA; Rees, JL (2000).

8039: 2110: 6175: 4396:

Soares, P; Ermini, L; Thomson, N; Mormina, M; Rito, T; Röhl, A; Salas, A; Oppenheimer, S; MacAulay, V; Richards, M. B. (June 2009).

2798: 9533: 9377: 8691: 5301:

M. D.; Canfield, V. A.; Cheng, K. C. (2005). "SLC24A5, a Putative Cation Exchanger, Affects Pigmentation in Zebrafish and Humans".

4749:

Miller, Craig T.; Beleza, Sandra; Pollen, Alex A.; Schluter, Dolph; Kittles, Rick A.; Shriver, Mark D.; Kingsley, David M. (2007).

1726:

about worth and beauty persisted in the last half of the 20th century and continue in the present day. African-American journalist

575:

Population and admixture studies suggest a three-way model for the evolution of human skin color, with dark skin evolving in early

7069: 3927:

Belezal, Sandra; Santos, A. M.; McEvoy, B.; Alves, I.; Martinho, C.; Cameron, E.; Shriver, M. D.; Parra, E. J.; Rocha, J. (2012).

7139: 8333:

D.; Canfield, V. A.; Cheng, K. C. (2005). "SLC24A5, a Putative Cation Exchanger, Affects Pigmentation in Zebrafish and Humans".

8074: 7772: 7449: 9435: 8686: 7408: 621:

is driven by UV-B exposure, not xeric stress, and that the positive selection for vitamin D production is "well-established".

606:

and the researchers surmise that the stratum corneum has undergone the most genetic change since the loss of human body hair.

249:

The social significance of differences in skin color has varied across cultures and over time, as demonstrated with regard to

9610: 9440: 9318: 8696: 8573: 8554: 8256: 7941: 7854: 7431: 7030: 6757: 3558: 2222: 7336: 7048: 5847: 567: 8378:

Millington, G. W. M. (2006). "Proopiomelanocortin (POMC): the cutaneous roles of its melanocortin products and receptors".

7733: 6505:

Madrigal, Lorena; Kelly, William (2007). "Human skin‐color sexual dimorphism: A test of the sexual selection hypothesis".

6407:"Genome-Wide Association Studies of Quantitatively Measured Skin, Hair, and Eye Pigmentation in Four European Populations" 4635:"Genome-Wide Association Studies of Quantitatively Measured Skin, Hair, and Eye Pigmentation in Four European Populations" 9722: 9397: 7579: 7480: 1317:, who use the body parts of albinos as ingredients in rituals and potions, as they are thought to possess magical power. 1306: 796:(KITLG) gene is involved in the permanent survival, proliferation and migration of melanocytes. A mutation in this gene, 283:. As they become full of melanin, they move into the slender arms of melanocytes, from where they are transferred to the 7840: 7601: 610:

would have favored mutations that protect this essential barrier; one such protective adaptation is the pigmentation of

324:, and skin, and the hair colors gray, black, blond, and brown. In humans, it is more abundant in people with dark skin. 9506: 8532: 2651: 1702: 1644: 370:

The earliest primate ancestors of humans most likely had pale non-pigmented skin, like our closest modern relative—the

8024: 7372: 483:

against the survival of lighter-skinned gene variants was reduced. In addition, lighter skin is able to generate more

9372: 8521: 6313: 3676: 8148: 733:) in early Hominins around 1.2 million years ago. This is consistent with positive selection for the high-eumelanin 9564: 8212:"Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease" 7232: 6855:

Relethford, J. H. (2002). "Apportionment of global human genetic diversity based on craniometrics and skin color".

4751:"cis-Regulatory Changes in Kit Ligand Expression and Parallel Evolution of Pigmentation in Sticklebacks and Humans" 3053:

Branda, Richard F.; Eaton, John W. (1978-08-18). "Skin Color and Nutrient Photolysis: An Evolutionary Hypothesis".

1723: 1654: 1467: 1466:

The following list shows the six categories of the Fitzpatrick scale in relation to the 36 categories of the older

9516: 9412: 772: 7095:

Agredano (February 2006). "Accessibility to air travel correlates strongly with increasing melanoma incidence".

650:

A recent systematic study found 169 genes involved in human skin coloration. Most of the genes were involved in

9699: 9511: 8812: 8040:"The Social Psychology of Tanning and Sunscreen Use: Self-Presentational Motives as a Predictor of Health Risk" 1879: 1243:, skin pigmentation disorders generally occur because the body produces either too much or too little melanin. 1046: 994:(ATRN) have been indicated as potential contributors to the evolution of light skin in East Asian populations. 920:

encodes the enzyme tyrosinase, which is involved in the production of melanin from tyrosine. It has an allele,

146:, because of social norms and differences in environment, as well as regulations of the biochemical effects of 4692:

Wehrle-Haller, Bernhard (2003). "The Role of Kit-Ligand in Melanocyte Development and Epidermal Homeostasis".

841:

suggested that the selective sweep that rendered light skin ubiquitous in Europe might be correlated with the

9690: 9646: 8634: 6787: 3928: 659: 396:. Humans as primates have a particular need for this thermoregulation since unlike other mammals they lack a 196:

dilate. Color is not entirely uniform across an individual's skin; for example, the skin of the palm and the

8601:. SLC24A5 gene controls up to 38% of the tonal range in people with mixed European and West African ancestry 7386: 6466:"Vitamin D in pregnancy and lactation: maternal, fetal, and neonatal outcomes from human and animal studies" 9382: 9259: 9145: 5111: 4150:"The genetic architecture of normal variation in human pigmentation: an evolutionary perspective and model" 2543: 885:

allele (rs1426654) has been shown to be a major factor in light skin pigmentation and is common in Western

393: 42: 17: 1222:, and it can develop in women who take birth control pills or participate in hormone replacement therapy. 528:, suggest the two groups experienced a similar selective pressure after settlement in northern latitudes. 9576: 9480: 9298: 8819: 8673: 8604: 3268: 1899: 1416:

A suntanned arm showing darker skin where it has been exposed. This pattern of tanning is often called a

7302: 9675: 9338: 9269: 8805: 8798: 8791: 8513: 7655: 6601:

BBC (27 July 2008). "Tanzania Albinos Targeted Again". BBC News (online edition). Retrieved 2010-01-03.

5602:"A GWAS in Latin Americans highlights the convergent evolution of lighter skin pigmentation in Eurasia" 1859: 1118:

and experience the effects of sex hormones. This darkening is especially noticeable in the skin of the

467: 385: 7679: 7140:"The Psychogenesis of Color Based Racism: Implications of Projection for Dark-Skinned Puertorriqueños" 6261:"Genetic variants in pigmentation genes, pigmentary phenotypes, and risk of skin cancer in Caucasians" 2305:

Frost, Peter (2007). "Human skin‐color sexual dimorphism: A test of the sexual selection hypothesis".

9753: 9743: 9603: 9521: 9313: 7199: 1889: 808: 768: 343:. One copy of each of the various genes is inherited from each parent. Each gene can come in several 150: 38: 9303: 7510: 6869: 2685:"Evidence that stress to the epidermal barrier influenced the development of pigmentation in humans" 9763: 9552: 8855: 8627: 8487:

Relethford, JH (2000). "Human skin color diversity is highest in sub-Saharan African populations".

6731:

Fitzpatrick, T. B. (2003). "Normal skin color and general considerations of pigmentary disorders".

6239: 6220: 6196: 6108: 6089: 6070: 6051: 6032: 5742: 5008:"Population Differences in the Frequency of the Agouti Signaling Protein g.8818A>G Polymorphism" 5006:

Zeigler-Johnson, C; Panossian, S; Gueye, S. M.; Jalloh, M; Ofori-Adjei, D; Kanetsky, P. A. (2004).

4937: 4846: 4052:"Dissecting dynamics and differences of selective pressures in the evolution of human pigmentation" 692:

who lived around 200,000 years ago in Africa. Comparisons between known skin pigmentation genes in

7634: 6957:

Parra, F. C.; Amado, R. C.; Lambertucci, J. R.; Rocha, J.; Antunes, C. M.; Pena, S. D. J. (2003).

5972: 5046:

Encinas, Julio Manuel Vidal; Nielsen, Rasmus; Netea, Mihai G.; Novembre, John; Sturm, Richard A.;

4726: 1417: 9748: 9490: 9427: 9387: 9274: 8833: 7753: 7700: 3980: 3691: 3522: 2347: 1268: 1214:

during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. Between 50 and 70% of pregnant women will develop the "

1070: 983: 722: 630: 541: 471: 460: 360: 8059: 9485: 9460: 9455: 9348: 9264: 8826: 6864: 1330: 979: 854: 545: 479: 239: 6910:"Implications of correlations between skin color and genetic ancestry for biomedical research" 8869: 3548: 1768: 1687: 726: 491:

From the origin of hairlessness and exposure to UV-radiation to less than 100,000 years ago,

200:

is lighter than most other skin, and this is especially noticeable in darker-skinned people.

8287: 5803: 3179: 2573: 9596: 9450: 9353: 9254: 9215: 9160: 9065: 8769: 8762: 8342: 8304: 7174: 7016: 6970: 6418: 5613: 5530: 5368: 5310: 5184: 5151: 5063: 5052:"Derived immune and ancestral pigmentation alleles in a 7,000-year-old Mesolithic European" 4646: 3642: 3062: 3003: 2835: 2254: 1854: 842: 586: 375: 340: 8121:"Fact or wishful thinking? Biased expectations in "I think I look better when I'm tanned"" 7914:

men expressed preferences for lighter skinned female figures in New Zealand and California

6696:

Agar, N; Young, A. R. (2005). "Melanogenesis: a photoprotective response to DNA damage?".

6171: 3404:"Genetic Evidence for the Convergent Evolution of Light Skin in Europeans and East Asians" 8: 9758: 8862: 7233:"Straight, No Chaser—How I Became a Grown-Up Black Woman— WHO'S THE FAIREST OF THEM ALL?" 1694:. Other methods also aimed at achieving a light-skinned appearance, including the use of 1432: 838: 434: 8346: 8308: 6974: 6422: 5617: 5534: 5372: 5314: 5188: 5067: 4650: 4365: 4332: 3834: 3802:"A genetic probe into the ancient and medieval history of Southern Europe and West Asia" 3646: 3066: 3007: 2839: 2258: 9630: 9407: 9249: 9125: 8440: 8403: 8366: 8262: 8193: 8168: 8105: 8055: 8020: 7933: 7905: 7818: 7544: 7240: 7120: 7108: 6939: 6890: 6837: 6664: 6647: 6572: 6441: 6406: 6382: 6355: 6285: 6260: 6153: 5955: 5875: 5795: 5685: 5658: 5634: 5601: 5553: 5518: 5496: 5445: 5420: 5391: 5356: 5334: 5207: 5172: 5084: 5051: 5050:; Marquès-Bonet, Tomàs; Navarro, Arcadi; Willerslev, Eske; Lalueza-Fox, Carles (2014). 4988: 4898: 4824: 4799: 4775: 4750: 4669: 4634: 4609: 4582: 4562: 4522: 4497: 4473: 4465: 4422: 4397: 4378: 4313: 4261: 4234: 4125: 4101:"Barrier Requirements as the Evolutionary "Driver" of Epidermal Pigmentation in Humans" 4100: 4076: 4027: 4002: 3953: 3893: 3858: 3776: 3716: 3663: 3609: 3514: 3333: 3300: 3234: 3183: 3035: 2969: 2866: 2823: 2774: 2741: 2717: 2684: 2683:

Elias, Peter M.; Menon, Gopinathan; Wetzel, Bruce K.; Williams, John (Jack) W. (2009).

2525: 2277: 2242: 2081: 2056: 1849: 1701:

Colonization and enslavement as carried out by European countries became involved with

1263: 1065: 1056:(rs4911414 and rs1015362) to skin type variation within a "fair/medium/olive" context. 549: 79: 62: 8316: 7150: 6993: 6958: 4583:"Genetic Architecture of Skin and Eye Color in an African-European Admixed Population" 3801: 2988: 2824:"Avoidance of overheating and selection for both hair loss and bipedality in hominins" 2742:"Was skin cancer a selective force for black pigmentation in early hominin evolution?" 2478: 9670: 9571: 9526: 9392: 9333: 9323: 9094: 9058: 8912: 8706: 8569: 8550: 8547:

Dermatologic, Cosmeceutic, and Cosmetic Development: Therapeutic and Novel Approaches

8517: 8496: 8475: 8432: 8428: 8395: 8391: 8358: 8320: 8252: 8233: 8198: 8140: 8078: 7985: 7937: 7897: 7850: 7810: 7445: 7112: 7026: 6998: 6931: 6882: 6829: 6753: 6713: 6669: 6628: 6564: 6522: 6487: 6446: 6387: 6290: 6145: 6015: 5947: 5880: 5787: 5725: 5690: 5639: 5558: 5488: 5450: 5396: 5326: 5257: 5212: 5089: 5027: 5023: 4980: 4903: 4889: 4829: 4780: 4709: 4705: 4674: 4614: 4566: 4527: 4477: 4427: 4398:"Correcting for purifying selection: an improved human mitochondrial molecular clock" 4382: 4370: 4352: 4305: 4301: 4266: 4212: 4171: 4130: 4081: 4032: 3958: 3898: 3880: 3839: 3821: 3781: 3763: 3721: 3668: 3614: 3596: 3576: 3554: 3506: 3461: 3457: 3425: 3338: 3320: 3238: 3226: 3218: 3148: 3140: 3086: 3078: 3027: 3019: 2961: 2953: 2917: 2909: 2871: 2853: 2779: 2761: 2722: 2704: 2700: 2659: 2632: 2624: 2517: 2513: 2482: 2447: 2405: 2322: 2282: 2218: 2086: 2012: 2007: 1990: 1971: 1967: 1937: 1649: 1461: 1428: 1398:

skin colors, these discolorations can appear as patches or areas of ashen-gray skin.

1361: 1215: 693: 689: 634: 607: 449: 371: 347:, resulting in the great variety of human skin tones. Melanin controls the amount of 298: 173: 139: 124: 8407: 7909: 7822: 6943: 6841: 6576: 5959: 5500: 4992: 4317: 3743: 3518: 3187: 2973: 1614:

the shade and had the main meal followed by a nap, a practice similar to the modern

1167:

in some studied populations. However, in light skinned populations, namely those of

9402: 9155: 8972: 8934: 8781: 8465: 8444: 8424: 8387: 8370: 8350: 8312: 8283: 8266: 8223: 8188: 8180: 8132: 8101: 8051: 8016: 7977: 7889: 7802: 7404: 7124: 7104: 6988: 6978: 6921: 6894: 6874: 6821: 6705: 6659: 6620: 6554: 6514: 6477: 6436: 6426: 6377: 6367: 6280: 6272: 6157: 6137: 6005: 5992:

Shi, Peng; Lu, Xue Mei; Luo, Huai Rong; Xiang-Yu, Jin-Gong; Zhang, Ya Ping (2001).

5939: 5870: 5862: 5799: 5779: 5717: 5680: 5670: 5629: 5621: 5548: 5538: 5480: 5440: 5432: 5386: 5376: 5338: 5318: 5247: 5202: 5192: 5119: 5079: 5071: 5019: 4972: 4893: 4885: 4819: 4811: 4770: 4762: 4701: 4664: 4654: 4604: 4594: 4554: 4517: 4509: 4457: 4417: 4409: 4360: 4344: 4297: 4256: 4246: 4202: 4161: 4120: 4112: 4071: 4063: 4022: 4014: 3948: 3940: 3888: 3870: 3829: 3813: 3771: 3755: 3711: 3703: 3658: 3650: 3604: 3588: 3498: 3453: 3415: 3328: 3312: 3210: 3175: 3130: 3070: 3039: 3011: 2945: 2901: 2861: 2843: 2769: 2753: 2712: 2696: 2616: 2529: 2509: 2474: 2439: 2397: 2314: 2272: 2262: 2076: 2068: 2002: 1963: 1884: 1349: 614: 420: 143: 8005:"Effects of Suntan on Judgements of Healthiness and Attractiveness by Adolescents" 3502: 3201:

Rocha, Jorge (2019-07-30). "The Evolutionary History of Human Skin Pigmentation".

9209: 9182: 9080: 9038: 8650: 8246: 7780: 7760: 7686: 7332: 7052: 7045: 7020: 6747: 6709: 6591:

Human Heridity Principles and Issues'. Cengage 9th edition. Retrieved 2014-02-16.

6431: 6317: 6246: 6227: 6115: 6096: 6077: 6058: 6039: 5979: 5888: 5749: 5543: 5421:"A Genomewide Association Study of Skin Pigmentation in a South Asian Population" 5381: 4853: 4800:"Signals of recent positive selection in a worldwide sample of human populations" 4733: 4659: 4599: 4389: 4251: 2928: 2905: 846: 812: 730: 603: 540:

groups, as well as Early Holocene Western and central European hunter-gatherers (

470:, but retained only by part of the extant populations, thus forming an aspect of 313: 212: 8590: 6543:"Human skin pigmentation: Melanocytes modulate skin color in response to stress" 3357:"Penn-led Study Identifies Genes Responsible for Diversity of Human Skin Colors" 9029: 8733: 8719: 8658: 7846: 7836: 7725: 7571: 6624: 6330: 6197:"Reference SNP (refSNP) Cluster Report: rs1800401 ** With Pathogenic allele **" 6172:"Reference SNP (refSNP) Cluster Report: rs1126809 ** With Pathogenic allele **" 5625: 4938:"Reference SNP (refSNP) Cluster Report: rs6058017 ** With Pathogenic allele **" 4766: 4413: 3592: 3214: 2052: 1764: 1691: 1252: 1030: 934: 663: 560: 525: 496: 492: 254: 181: 177: 8610: 8228: 8211: 7893: 7806: 6825: 6331:"Everything You Wanted to Know About Puberty (for Teens) - Nemours KidsHealth" 5943: 5866: 5783: 5675: 5576: 5484: 4976: 3875: 3707: 3654: 2443: 877:(SLC24A5) regulates calcium in melanocytes and is important in the process of 520:

The genetic mutations leading to light skin, though partially different among

9737: 9197: 9050: 8740: 8470: 8453: 6526: 6482: 6465: 5905: 5820: 5275: 5047: 4356: 3884: 3825: 3767: 3600: 3577:"Palaeogenomics of Upper Palaeolithic to Neolithic European hunter-gatherers" 3324: 3222: 3144: 3082: 3023: 2957: 2913: 2857: 2765: 2708: 2663: 2628: 2326: 2057:"The colours of humanity: the evolution of pigmentation in the human lineage" 1730:

wrote that, "To be both prettiest and black was impossible," and elaborated:

1680: 1661: 1441: 1380: 1334: 1139:

Around the same age, women experience darkening of some areas of their skin.

1037:

is significantly associated with reduced tanning ability and also associated

878: 611: 276: 250: 189: 8354: 7981: 7754:"Mirror mirror on the wall, who is the FAIREST of them all?" Skin lightening 6983: 6372: 5721: 5322: 5197: 5123: 4348: 4018: 3944: 3817: 3759: 3420: 3403: 3316: 3135: 3106: 2848: 2604: 2267: 2243:"Colloquium Paper: Human skin pigmentation as an adaptation to UV radiation" 9704: 9680: 9203: 9191: 9133: 9007: 8955: 8920: 8845: 8752: 8500: 8479: 8436: 8399: 8362: 8324: 8237: 8202: 8144: 7989: 7901: 7814: 7368: 7116: 7002: 6935: 6886: 6833: 6786:. Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency. Archived from 6717: 6632: 6568: 6491: 6450: 6391: 6310: 6294: 6019: 5951: 5884: 5791: 5729: 5694: 5643: 5562: 5492: 5454: 5400: 5330: 5261: 5252: 5235: 5216: 5093: 5031: 4984: 4907: 4833: 4784: 4713: 4678: 4618: 4531: 4431: 4374: 4309: 4270: 4216: 4175: 4134: 4085: 4036: 3962: 3902: 3843: 3785: 3725: 3672: 3618: 3510: 3465: 3429: 3342: 3230: 3152: 3074: 3031: 2965: 2921: 2875: 2783: 2757: 2726: 2636: 2620: 2521: 2486: 2451: 2409: 2401: 2286: 2090: 2072: 2016: 1686:

Many cultures have historically favored lighter skin for women. Before the

1660:

According to classical scholar Frank Snowden, skin color did not determine

1196: 1148: 1127: 644: 402: 397: 389: 284: 206: 93: 6673: 6648:"Genetic epidemiology of vitiligo: multilocus recessivity cross-validated" 6559: 6542: 6149: 6010: 5994:"Melanocortin-1 receptor gene variants in four Chinese ethnic populations" 5993: 4815: 4333:"A genome-wide genetic screen uncovers determinants of human pigmentation" 4003:"Loci associated with skin pigmentation identified in African populations" 3301:"Loci associated with skin pigmentation identified in African populations" 1975: 335:

Both the amount and type of melanin produced is controlled by a number of

9087: 9014: 8986: 8979: 8927: 8274:

Jablonski, Nina G. (2004). "The Evolution of Human Skin and Skin Color".

8120: 6240:

Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs1015362 **clinically associated**

6221:

Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs4911414 **clinically associated**

5743:

Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs1042602 **clinically associated**

5173:"The evolution of skin pigmentation-associated variation in West Eurasia" 4207: 4190: 4166: 4149: 3744:"The evolution of skin pigmentation-associated variation in West Eurasia" 3090: 1991:"Who, what, where, and when: influences on cutaneous vitamin D synthesis" 1836: 1798: 1794: 1777: 1727: 1714: 1610: 1407: 1314: 1272: 1236: 965: 618: 442: 348: 325: 290:

The genetic mechanism behind human skin color is mainly regulated by the

216: 197: 147: 128: 8136: 5075: 4727:

Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs642742 **clinically associated**

3015: 858:

skin variant of SLC45A2 spread throughout Europe after 5,800 years ago.

850: 9709: 9642: 9636: 9072: 8993: 6878: 6518: 6141: 4116: 4067: 3798: 2949: 2318: 1894: 1869: 1864: 1810:

have a reputation for their white-painted faces, and the appeal of the

1781: 1760: 1741: 1719: 1391: 1345: 1144: 905: 793: 746: 698: 651: 585:

and light skin evolving only recently after modern humans had expanded

537: 446: 294: 280: 272: 169: 161: 132: 112: 108: 7842:

Killer Commodities: Public Health and the Corporate Production of Harm

6276: 4469: 3166:

Nina, Jablonski (2004). "The evolution of human skin and skin color".

2574:"The Genetics and Evolution of Skin Color: The Case of Desiree's Baby" 647:

is very high, even though it can be modified by exposure to sunlight.

61:"Skin pigmentation" redirects here. For animal skin pigmentation, see 9656: 9139: 9044: 6698:

Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis

5044: 2815: 1874: 1786: 1745: 1279:

of melanin accumulation and are less severe. The four known types of

1191: 1187: 1172: 1049: 816: 734: 702: 683: 553: 521: 484: 392:

heat dissipation required for activity in hot open environments and

302: 193: 135: 104: 3688: 2887: 2885: 2430:

Sturm, R. A. (2006). "A golden age of human pigmentation genetics".

2348:"Researchers discover genetic causes of higher melanoma risk in men" 945: 784: 9588: 9000: 8965: 8942: 8663: 8598: 8184: 6926: 6909: 5765:"Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry and admixture mapping" 5436: 5156: 5005: 4558: 4513: 4461: 1790: 1374: 1341: 1310: 1232: 1219: 1179: 1027: 917: 655: 474:. About 100,000–70,000 years ago, some anatomically modern humans ( 329: 317: 243: 220: 120: 75: 8619: 5519:"Skin Color Variation in Orang Asli Tribes of Peninsular Malaysia" 3097: 713: 70: 9685: 9150: 8726: 8614: 6259:

Nan, Hongmei; Kraft, Peter; Hunter, David J.; Han, Jiali (2009).

3981:"Genes responsible for diversity of human skin colors identified" 2882: 2217:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. 1824: 1710: 1695: 1424: 1368: 1240: 1211: 1200: 1135: 1131: 1115: 1108: 1104: 897: 886: 874: 756: 671: 548:

that migrated into Europe beginning around 9,000 years ago, with

532: 411: 328:, a pink to red hue is found in particularly large quantities in 306: 266: 157: 116: 6498: 5844: 5148: 4870: 3442: 1827:

emphasizing tanned skin. Skin whitening is also not uncommon in

1325: 1002:

Tanning response in humans is controlled by a variety of genes.

316:, and their reduced forms. Most are derived from the amino acid 8568:(4th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. p. 268. 7960: 7602:"In India's Huge Marketplace, Advertisers Find Fair Skin Sells" 4797: 2934: 1828: 1807: 1706: 1669: 1615: 1412: 1207: 1168: 1123: 1119: 582: 438: 430: 344: 321: 310: 291: 165: 4286: 279:. Melanin is made within small membrane–bound packages called 9694: 9650: 9225: 9116: 9106: 8248:

Living Color: The Biological and Social Meaning of Skin Color

8003:

Broadstock, Marita; Borland, Ron; Gason, Robyn (2006-07-31).

7274:"Documentary, Studies Renew Debate About Skin Color's Impact" 7022:

Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience

4927:. Hapmap.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (2009-10-19). Retrieved 2011-02-27. 3550:

Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective

3046: 1803: 1665: 1293: 1160: 1087: 764: 737:

seen in Africa and other environments with high UV exposure.

576: 231: 185: 131:, disorders, or some combination thereof. Differences across 3996: 3994: 3631: 8884: 7966: 7147:

Julian Samora Research Institute, Michigan State University

6404: 4961: 4631: 4579: 3297: 1673: 1394:, these pigment problems are not connected with the liver. 991: 953: 670:

knockouts, showing that these genes are indeed involved in

667: 425: 380: 336: 7792: 6956: 4748: 4395: 3401: 8295:

Jablonski, Nina G.; Chaplin, George (2002). "Skin Deep".

6811: 5848:"A global view of the OCA2-HERC2 region and pigmentation" 4874:"Predicting Phenotype from Genotype: Normal Pigmentation" 4330: 3991: 2300: 2298: 2296: 1164: 415: 235: 224: 7879: 7623: 6127: 5707: 5418: 5233: 4098: 3926: 3484:"European Skin Turned Pale Only Recently, Gene Suggests" 2682: 8611:"The Biology of Skin Color — HHMI BioInteractive Video" 8031: 6746:

Jablonski, Nina (2010). Muehlenbein, Michael P. (ed.).

5761: 5659:"Adaptation of human skin color in various populations" 5299: 3859:"Adaptation of human skin color in various populations" 3103: 2746:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

1114:

The skin of children becomes darker as they go through

957: 662:. Notably, the function of these genes was verified in 8002: 6646:

Nath, S. K.; Majumder, P. P.; Nordlund, J. J. (1994).

6249:. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (2008-12-30). Retrieved 2011-02-27. 6230:. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (2008-12-30). Retrieved 2011-02-27. 5982:. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (2008-12-30). Retrieved 2011-02-27. 5752:. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (2008-12-30). Retrieved 2011-02-27. 4856:. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (2008-12-30). Retrieved 2011-02-27. 4736:. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (2008-12-30). Retrieved 2011-02-27. 3573: 2980: 2799:"Why Did Darker and Lighter Human Skin Colors Evolve?" 2293: 531:

The theory is partially supported by a study into the

160:. Melanin is produced within the skin in cells called 7633:. Northwestern University. 2010-03-10. Archived from 6908:

Parra, E. J.; Kittles, R. A.; Shriver, M. D. (2004).

4099:

Elias, PM; Menon, G; Wetzel, BK; Williams, J (2010).

3446:

Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology

2822:

Ruxton, Graeme D.; Wilkinson, David M. (2011-12-12).

1638: 365: 332:, the lips, nipples, glans of the penis, and vagina. 6645: 6611:

Halder, RM; Chappell, JL (2009). "Vitiligo update".

6306: 6304: 4495: 4191:"Molecular genetics of human pigmentation diversity" 3929:"The timing of pigmentation lightening in Europeans" 3194: 215:. Natural skin color can also darken as a result of 8169:"Evidence for Variable Selective Pressures at MC1R" 8118: 7996: 7369:"Blonde, Blue-Eyed Euro-Cute Latinos on Spanish TV" 6907: 5929: 4544: 4498:"Evidence for Variable Selective Pressures at MC1R" 4447: 3380: 1767:creams. Fairer skin-tones also correlate to higher 9129:(archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans) 8489:Human Biology; an International Record of Research 4232: 1953: 1936: 238:. However, in other populations, notably those of 115:color among individuals is caused by variation in 6301: 6258: 2987:Bramble, Dennis M.; Lieberman, Daniel E. (2004). 2104: 2102: 2100: 2061:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 1163:are found to have lighter skin pigmentation than 9735: 8564:Weller, R; Hunter, J; Savin, J; Dahl, M (2008). 8414: 8294: 6356:"Aging of the Hair Follicle Pigmentation System" 5991: 5414: 5412: 5410: 2986: 2602: 2464: 2380: 2376: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2240: 2051: 7088: 6963:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6109:Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs2228479 6090:Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs1805005 6071:Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs1805009 6052:Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs1805008 6033:Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs1805007 4847:Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs2424984 3748:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3477: 3475: 3256:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–213. 2891: 2828:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2821: 2247:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2236: 2234: 2047: 2045: 2043: 2041: 2034:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–213. 1924:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 192–213. 87: 8544: 7763:. Scienceinafrica.co.za. Retrieved 2011-02-27. 6610: 5973:Reference SNP(refSNP) Cluster Report: rs885479 5466: 5464: 4491: 4489: 4487: 4443: 4441: 4228: 4226: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3912: 2097: 1816: 1752:", Puerto Rican slang for "glass of milk" to " 1111:production does not peak until after puberty. 96:showing some spectrum of human skin coloration 9604: 8635: 8510:Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation 8331: 8166: 8119:Banerjee, S. C.; Campo, S; Greene, K (2008). 8038:Leary, Mark R.; Jones, Jody L. (2006-07-31). 7511:"Skin whitener advertisements labeled racist" 7226: 7224: 6733:Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine 6540: 6504: 5516: 5407: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4744: 4742: 4691: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3389: 2989:"Endurance running and the evolution of Homo" 2367: 406:, this links hairlessness with the origin of 8605:"The Biology of Skin Color: Black and White" 8563: 8451: 7919: 7701:"Japanese girls choose whiter shade of pale" 7569: 7474: 7472: 7470: 7468: 7466: 7424:"Racial Bias Charged On Spanish-Language TV" 7067: 7009: 6639: 5293: 5227: 4791: 4685: 3472: 3436: 3269:"The Biology of Skin Color: Black and White" 2499: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2231: 2038: 1995:Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology 1360:Increased melanin production, also known as 1225: 596: 452:due to the increased exposure to sunlight. 9114: 7835: 7572:"Has skin whitening in India gone too far?" 6752:. Cambridge University Press. p. 177. 6730: 5755: 5512: 5510: 5470: 5461: 5170: 4955: 4484: 4438: 4223: 3909: 3741: 3374: 3251: 3052: 2029: 1943:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1919: 23: 9611: 9597: 8642: 8628: 8486: 8454:"Pigmentation, melanocortins and red hair" 8377: 8216:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 8091: 8037: 7221: 7063: 7061: 6959:"Color and genomic ancestry in Brazilians" 6854: 6735:. 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The OCA2 gene's derived 944: 783: 750: 712: 566: 69: 32:This is an accepted version of this page 8288:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143955 7925: 7829: 7698: 7599: 7058: 7046:Africa: Dispelling Myths about Albinism 7015: 6604: 5473:International Journal of Legal Medicine 5109: 4277: 3857:Deng, Lian; Xu, Shuhua (15 June 2017). 3742:Ju, Dan; Mathieson, Iain (2021-01-05). 3546: 3481: 3180:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143955 3159: 2739: 1621: 552:for lighter skin intensifying from the 234:are significantly lighter-skinned than 14: 9736: 8533:"Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Ways" 8507: 8245:Jablonski, Nina G. (10 January 2014). 8209: 8173:The American Journal of Human Genetics 7631:"Bleaching Creams: Fade to Beautiful?" 7537: 7517:from the original on 12 September 2009 7508: 7230: 7076:from the original on December 28, 2013 6541:Costin, G. E.; Hearing, V. J. 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Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 2006-01-28. 4925:HapMap: SNP report for rs2424984 4914:from the original on 2013-06-13. 4890:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2009.01317.x 4706:10.1034/j.1600-0749.2003.00055.x 4302:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2006.00341.x 3969:from the original on 2012-08-29. 3458:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2009.04.009 3266: 2701:10.1111/j.1755-148X.2009.00588.x 2514:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2011.04278.x 2111:"Why Human Skin Comes in Colors" 2008:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2006.02.004 1968:10.1097/00000372-198210000-00009 8591:"Key gene 'controls skin colour 7926:Koskoff, Sharon (28 May 2007). 7736:from the original on 2014-03-23 7662:from the original on 2010-04-08 7491:from the original on 2011-05-12 7411:from the original on 2017-06-22 7393:from the original on 2017-09-09 7375:from the original on 2017-09-02 7339:from the original on 2008-10-27 7313:from the original on 2013-02-23 7284:from the original on 2014-01-30 7251:from the original on 2011-05-10 7210:from the original on 2013-08-06 7181:from the original on 2014-10-13 6814:Photochemistry and Photobiology 6265:International Journal of Cancer 6203:from the original on 2015-02-03 6178:from the original on 2015-07-22 6083: 6064: 6045: 6026: 5985: 5966: 5923: 5838: 5736: 5710:Molecular Biology and Evolution 5701: 5650: 5593: 5569: 5240:Journal of Biological Chemistry 5164: 5142: 5130:from the original on 2015-04-14 5103: 5038: 4999: 4944:from the original on 2015-02-03 4930: 4918: 4840: 4720: 4625: 4573: 4538: 4324: 4043: 3973: 3933:Molecular Biology and Evolution 3850: 3792: 3682: 3567: 3540: 3408:Molecular Biology and Evolution 3349: 3291: 2790: 2733: 2676: 2643: 2596: 2584:from the original on 6 May 2015 2580:. Public Broadcasting Service. 2565: 2554:from the original on 2015-01-21 2536: 2493: 2458: 2423: 2131:from the original on 2014-02-25 1283:are caused by mutations in the 1077:are caused by mutations in the 773:genome-wide association studies 7839:; Beyer, Hans (28 July 2008). 7726:"The Heavy Cost of Light Skin" 7656:"Skin Deep: Dying to be White" 5355:López, Saioa (5 August 2014). 3635:Nature Ecology & Evolution 2055:; Chaplin, George (May 2017). 1947: 1880:Health effects of sun exposure 1488:Von Luschan's chromatic scale 1134:in males. In some people, the 410:about 2 million years ago. As 320:. Eumelanin is found in hair, 13: 1: 8276:Annual Review of Anthropology 7389:. Vidadeoro.com. 2010-10-25. 5110:Gibbons, Ann (2 April 2015). 3547:Tellier, Luc-Normand (2009). 3503:10.1126/science.316.5823.364a 3252:Muehlenbein, Michael (2010). 3168:Annual Review of Anthropology 2650:Wade, Nicholas (2003-08-19). 2578:RACE—The Power of an Illusion 2479:10.1016/s0378-1119(01)00694-1 2150:"The Human Family Tree Facts" 2030:Muehlenbein, Michael (2010). 1920:Muehlenbein, Michael (2010). 1906: 1655:von Luschan's chromatic scale 1257: 881:. The SLC24A5 gene's derived 833:identified as a contributor. 740: 7929:Art Deco of the Palm Beaches 7371:. Latinola.com. 2010-10-24. 7025:. Harvard University Press. 6710:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2004.11.016 6686:Cutis, August 2005, pp 19–23 6432:10.1371/journal.pone.0048294 5544:10.1371/journal.pone.0042752 5382:10.1371/journal.pone.0104367 4878:Journal of Forensic Sciences 4660:10.1371/journal.pone.0048294 4600:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003372 4252:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000867 2906:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.02.012 2797:Alex, Bridget (2019-01-28). 2572:Schneider, Patricia (2003). 2502:J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 927: 677: 180:, or the stimulation of the 7: 9577:Evolutionary biology Portal 8210:Holick, Michael F. (2004). 7882:Archives of Sexual Behavior 7868:was considered lower class. 7795:Archives of Sexual Behavior 7548:. New Delhi. Archived from 5657:Deng, Lian (15 June 2017). 4001:Crawford, Nicholas (2017). 2740:Greaves, Mel (2014-04-22). 1900:Race (human classification) 1842: 1536:Medium white to light brown 1320: 1059: 624: 546:Anatolian Neolithic Farmers 10: 9780: 9676:Color terminology for race 8514:Cambridge University Press 6749:Human Evolutionary Biology 6625:10.1016/j.sder.2009.04.008 6464:Kovacs, Christine (2008). 6320:, Johns Hopkins University 5626:10.1038/s41467-018-08147-0 4767:10.1016/j.cell.2007.10.055 4414:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.05.001 3593:10.1038/s41586-023-05726-0 3254:Human Evolutionary Biology 3215:10.1007/s00239-019-09902-7 2894:Journal of Human Evolution 2609:Journal of Human Evolution 2390:Journal of Human Evolution 2032:Human Evolutionary Biology 1922:Human Evolutionary Biology 1860:Color terminology for race 1642: 1459: 1405: 1250: 1159:It has been observed that 1063: 982:(DCT or TYRP2 rs2031526), 954:Oculocutaneous albinism II 892: 869: 744: 688:All modern humans share a 681: 628: 468:anatomically modern humans 358: 264: 60: 9718: 9666: 9626: 9542: 9522:Evolutionary anthropology 9499: 9473: 9426: 9364: 9283: 9242: 9235: 9181: 9105: 9028: 8953: 8907: 8900: 8883: 8843: 8779: 8750: 8714: 8705: 8672: 8657: 8073:Balkaran, Steven (1999). 7894:10.1007/s10508-008-9441-y 7807:10.1007/s10508-006-9093-8 7333:"Y Tu Black Mama Tambien" 6826:10.1562/2005-11-23-RA-739 5944:10.1007/s00439-006-0256-4 5906:"rs2031526 RefSNP Report" 5867:10.1007/s00439-011-1110-x 5821:"rs1800414 RefSNP Report" 5784:10.1007/s00439-002-0896-y 5676:10.1186/s41065-017-0036-2 5485:10.1007/s00414-006-0112-z 5276:"rs1426654 RefSNP Report" 4977:10.1007/s00439-004-1251-2 3876:10.1186/s41065-017-0036-2 3708:10.1016/j.cub.2017.05.023 3655:10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9 2444:10.1016/j.tig.2006.06.010 1890:Human physical appearance 1817: 1653:Skin colors according to 1226:Disorders of pigmentation 827: 809:Agouti signalling peptide 597:Functional considerations 119:, which is the result of 7303:"Racism Takes Many Hues" 7175:"What Are "Good Looks"?" 4290:Annals of Human Genetics 4195:Human Molecular Genetics 4154:Human Molecular Genetics 2213:Jablonski, Nina (2012). 1935:Jablonski, N.G. (2006). 1593:Very dark brown to black 779: 542:Western Hunter Gatherers 374:, and other great apes. 39:latest accepted revision 9428:Origin of modern humans 8355:10.1126/science.1116238 8229:10.1093/ajcn/80.6.1678S 8075:"Mass Media and Racism" 7982:10.1542/peds.109.6.1009 7783:. Retrieved 2012-09-25. 7278:Pittsburgh Post-Gazette 6984:10.1073/pnas.0126614100 6781:"Fitzpatrick Skin Type" 6373:10.4103/0974-7753.58550 5323:10.1126/science.1116238 5198:10.1073/pnas.2009227118 5124:10.1126/science.aab2435 4349:10.1126/science.ade6289 4019:10.1126/science.aan8433 3818:10.1126/science.abq0755 3760:10.1073/pnas.2009227118 3317:10.1126/science.aan8433 3136:10.1126/science.aaw7293 2849:10.1073/pnas.1113915108 2268:10.1073/pnas.0914628107 1939:Skin: A Natural History 1269:oculocutaneous albinism 1071:Oculocutaneous albinism 984:melanocortin 1 receptor 940: 803: 723:melanocortin 1 receptor 708: 631:Human genetic variation 472:human genetic variation 429:. Hairlessness exposes 361:Melanocortin 1 receptor 355:Evolution of skin color 8471:10.1093/qjmed/92.3.125 8222:(6 Suppl): 1678S–88S. 6483:10.1093/ajcn/88.2.520S 5253:10.1074/jbc.M707521200 3677:Supplementary Material 3075:10.1126/science.675247 2758:10.1098/rspb.2013.2955 2621:10.1006/jhev.2000.0403 2402:10.1006/jhev.2000.0403 2073:10.1098/rstb.2016.0349 1756:", literally "brown". 1737: 1657: 1421: 1338: 1331:Chief Justice of India 1307:Albinos are persecuted 1098: 980:dopachrome tautomerase 950: 911: 867: 815:, binding in place of 789: 760: 718: 572: 153:penetrating the skin. 123:(inherited from one's 97: 88: 83: 9436:Recent African origin 8674:Last common ancestors 7481:"Pride or Prejudice?" 7231:Nelson, Jill (1997). 6560:10.1096/fj.06-6649rev 6354:Tobin, D. J. (2009). 6011:10.1038/sj.cr.7290070 5722:10.1093/molbev/msj018 5606:Nature Communications 5012:Pigment Cell Research 4816:10.1101/gr.087577.108 4694:Pigment Cell Research 4189:Sturm, R. A. (2009). 3945:10.1093/molbev/mss207 3702:(12): 1801–1810.e10. 3421:10.1093/molbev/msl203 1732: 1688:Industrial Revolution 1652: 1555:Olive, moderate brown 1415: 1328: 948: 863: 787: 754: 716: 570: 414:gradually lost their 359:Further information: 230:In some populations, 111:hues. Differences in 73: 9451:Behavioral modernity 9441:Multiregional origin 9221:archaic Homo sapiens 9216:Homo heidelbergensis 9161:Red Deer Cave people 8566:Clinical Dermatology 7204:St. Petersburg Times 7200:"The Paper Bag Test" 5581:www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 4547:Current Anthropology 4450:Current Anthropology 3482:Gibbons, A. (2007). 3107:"Contemporaneity of 1855:Carnation (heraldry) 1622:Geographic variation 1130:in females, and the 1126:of the nipples, the 1045:(rs1800401) and a 2- 502:, were dark-skinned. 441:to degradation from 341:incomplete dominance 275:in a process called 9088:H. neanderthalensis 9008:H. e. tautavelensis 8508:Robins, AH (1991). 8347:2005Sci...310.1782L 8309:2002SciAm.287d..74J 8297:Scientific American 8267:10.1525/j.ctt1pn64b 8137:10.5993/AJHB.32.3.2 7658:. CNN. 2002-05-15. 7407:. Bellaonline.com. 6975:2003PNAS..100..177P 6423:2012PLoSO...748294C 5618:2019NatCo..10..358A 5535:2012PLoSO...742752A 5373:2014PLoSO...9j4367L 5315:2005Sci...310.1782L 5189:2021PNAS..11809227J 5076:10.1038/nature12960 5068:2014Natur.507..225O 4651:2012PLoSO...748294C 4148:McEvoy, B. (2006). 4050:Huang, Xin (2021). 3647:2019NatEE...3..765B 3067:1978Sci...201..625B 3016:10.1038/nature03052 3008:2004Natur.432..345B 2840:2011PNAS..10820965R 2834:(52): 20965–20969. 2419:on January 5, 2015. 2259:2010PNAS..107.8962J 2253:(Suppl 2): 8962–8. 2154:National Geographic 1989:Webb, A.R. (2006). 1433:indirect DNA damage 1402:Exposure to the sun 1231:conditions such as 839:Luca Cavalli-Sforza 339:that operate under 227:of the skin cells. 219:due to exposure to 129:exposure to the sun 29:Page version status 9275:Self-domestication 9066:H. heidelbergensis 9015:H. e. yuanmouensis 8980:H. e. lantianensis 8707:Australopithecines 8537:The New York Times 7934:Arcadia Publishing 7779:2014-03-30 at the 7759:2010-09-10 at the 7705:Guardian Unlimited 7685:2010-07-26 at the 7545:The Times of India 7446:"Black Electorate" 7241:The New York Times 7177:. Kenyon College. 7156:on January 6, 2011 7138:Hall, Ron (1997). 7051:2011-06-22 at the 6879:10.1002/ajpa.10079 6519:10.1002/ajpa.20453 6316:2010-08-03 at the 6245:2018-03-28 at the 6226:2018-03-28 at the 6142:10.1038/ng1195-328 6114:2018-03-28 at the 6095:2018-03-28 at the 6076:2016-11-08 at the 6057:2016-11-08 at the 6038:2016-11-08 at the 5978:2016-09-19 at the 5748:2016-04-16 at the 5183:(1): e2009227118. 4852:2016-05-01 at the 4732:2018-03-28 at the 4343:(6658): eade6289. 4208:10.1093/hmg/ddp003 4167:10.1093/hmg/ddl217 4117:10.1002/ajhb.21043 4068:10.1242/bio.056523 4013:(6365): eaan8433. 3267:Gina, Kirchweger. 2950:10.1002/ajhb.21123 2752:(1781): 20132955. 2656:The New York Times 2432:Trends in Genetics 2319:10.1002/ajpa.20555 2067:(1724): 20160349. 1850:Afro-textured hair 1772:Indian marketing. 1724:racial stereotypes 1658: 1422: 1339: 1275:, and eye damage. 1066:Albinism in humans 951: 937:for future study. 811:(ASIP) acts as an 790: 761: 727:positive selection 719: 666:experiments using 573: 550:selection pressure 125:biological parents 98: 63:Biological pigment 35: 9731: 9730: 9671:Fitzpatrick scale 9586: 9585: 9527:Paleoanthropology 9469: 9468: 9446:Archaic admixture 9324:Stoned ape theory 9260:Endurance running 9177: 9176: 9173: 9172: 9169: 9168: 9024: 9023: 8987:H. e. nankinensis 8943:H. tsaichangensis 8879: 8878: 8575:978-1-4051-4663-0 8556:978-0-8493-7589-7 8258:978-0-520-28386-2 8050:(17): 1390–1406. 7943:978-0-7385-4415-1 7856:978-0-7591-0979-7 7608:. Washington DC. 7097:Melanoma Research 7032:978-0-674-07626-6 7017:Snowden, Frank M. 6759:978-0-521-87948-4 6589:Cummings (2011). 6277:10.1002/ijc.24327 5062:(7491): 225–228. 4402:Am. J. Hum. Genet 3812:(6609): 940–951. 3587:(7950): 117–126. 3560:978-2-7605-1588-8 3273:Evolution Library 3061:(4356): 625–626. 3002:(7015): 345–352. 2803:Discover Magazine 2508:(12): 1369–1380. 2224:978-0-520-25153-3 1606: 1605: 1574:Brown, dark brown 1498:Light, pale white 1468:von Luschan scale 1462:Fitzpatrick scale 1456:Fitzpatrick scale 1362:hyperpigmentation 1356:Hyperpigmentation 1216:mask of pregnancy 1155:Sexual dimorphism 1035:SLC24A5 Phe374Leu 949:OCA2 (rs12913832) 855:Neolithic farmers 843:advent of farming 788:KITLG (rs1881227) 759:based on genetics 635:Race and genetics 608:Natural selection 526:Western Europeans 394:endurance running 376:Loss of body hair 261:Melanin and genes 174:physical exercise 140:natural selection 47:16 September 2024 26: 16:(Redirected from 9771: 9754:Human physiology 9744:Human skin color 9657:Dark/Black/Ebony 9637:Light/White/Fair 9620:Human skin color 9613: 9606: 9599: 9590: 9589: 9574: 9562: 9561: 9550: 9549: 9486:Human prehistory 9461:Recent evolution 9456:Early migrations 9398:Thermoregulation 9299:Expensive tissue 9270:Sexual selection 9240: 9239: 9112: 9111: 8994:H. e. pekinensis 8905: 8904: 8898: 8897: 8813:A. bahrelghazali 8782:Australopithecus 8712: 8711: 8682:Chimpanzee–human 8670: 8669: 8644: 8637: 8630: 8621: 8620: 8594: 8579: 8560: 8540: 8527: 8504: 8483: 8473: 8448: 8411: 8374: 8341:(5755): 1782–6. 8328: 8291: 8270: 8241: 8231: 8206: 8196: 8153: 8152: 8116: 8110: 8109: 8100:(17): 1390–406. 8089: 8083: 8082: 8077:. Archived from 8070: 8064: 8063: 8058:. Archived from 8035: 8029: 8028: 8023:. Archived from 8000: 7994: 7993: 7976:(6): 1009–1014. 7964: 7958: 7957: 7951: 7950: 7923: 7917: 7916: 7877: 7871: 7870: 7864: 7863: 7833: 7827: 7826: 7790: 7784: 7770: 7764: 7751: 7745: 7744: 7742: 7741: 7722: 7716: 7715: 7713: 7712: 7696: 7690: 7677: 7671: 7670: 7668: 7667: 7652: 7646: 7645: 7643: 7642: 7637:on July 20, 2011 7627: 7621: 7620: 7618: 7617: 7597: 7591: 7590: 7588: 7587: 7567: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7557: 7535: 7529: 7528: 7523: 7522: 7506: 7500: 7499: 7497: 7496: 7476: 7461: 7460: 7458: 7457: 7442: 7440: 7439: 7430:. Archived from 7419: 7417: 7416: 7401: 7399: 7398: 7383: 7381: 7380: 7365: 7363: 7362: 7347: 7345: 7344: 7328: 7322: 7321: 7319: 7318: 7299: 7293: 7292: 7290: 7289: 7270: 7264: 7263: 7257: 7256: 7250: 7237: 7228: 7219: 7218: 7216: 7215: 7196: 7190: 7189: 7187: 7186: 7171: 7165: 7164: 7162: 7161: 7155: 7149:. Archived from 7144: 7135: 7129: 7128: 7092: 7086: 7085: 7083: 7081: 7065: 7056: 7043: 7037: 7036: 7013: 7007: 7006: 6996: 6986: 6954: 6948: 6947: 6929: 6905: 6899: 6898: 6872: 6852: 6846: 6845: 6809: 6803: 6802: 6800: 6798: 6793:on 31 March 2016 6792: 6785: 6777: 6771: 6770: 6768: 6766: 6743: 6737: 6736: 6728: 6722: 6721: 6704:(1–2): 121–132. 6693: 6687: 6684: 6678: 6677: 6667: 6643: 6637: 6636: 6608: 6602: 6599: 6593: 6587: 6581: 6580: 6562: 6538: 6532: 6530: 6502: 6496: 6495: 6485: 6476:(2): 520S–528S. 6461: 6455: 6454: 6444: 6434: 6402: 6396: 6395: 6385: 6375: 6351: 6345: 6344: 6342: 6341: 6327: 6321: 6308: 6299: 6298: 6288: 6256: 6250: 6237: 6231: 6218: 6212: 6211: 6209: 6208: 6193: 6187: 6186: 6184: 6183: 6168: 6162: 6161: 6125: 6119: 6106: 6100: 6087: 6081: 6068: 6062: 6049: 6043: 6030: 6024: 6023: 6013: 5989: 5983: 5970: 5964: 5963: 5927: 5921: 5920: 5918: 5916: 5910:ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 5902: 5896: 5895: 5893: 5887:. Archived from 5878: 5852: 5842: 5836: 5835: 5833: 5831: 5825:ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 5817: 5811: 5810: 5808: 5802:. Archived from 5769: 5759: 5753: 5740: 5734: 5733: 5705: 5699: 5698: 5688: 5678: 5654: 5648: 5647: 5637: 5597: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5587: 5573: 5567: 5566: 5556: 5546: 5514: 5505: 5504: 5468: 5459: 5458: 5448: 5416: 5405: 5404: 5394: 5384: 5352: 5343: 5342: 5309:(5755): 1782–6. 5297: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5286: 5280:ncbi.nlm.nih.gov 5272: 5266: 5265: 5255: 5231: 5225: 5224: 5210: 5200: 5168: 5162: 5161: 5159: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5107: 5101: 5100: 5087: 5042: 5036: 5035: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4959: 4953: 4952: 4950: 4949: 4934: 4928: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4901: 4868: 4857: 4844: 4838: 4837: 4827: 4795: 4789: 4788: 4778: 4746: 4737: 4724: 4718: 4717: 4689: 4683: 4682: 4672: 4662: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4612: 4602: 4577: 4571: 4570: 4542: 4536: 4535: 4525: 4493: 4482: 4481: 4445: 4436: 4435: 4425: 4393: 4387: 4386: 4368: 4328: 4322: 4321: 4284: 4275: 4274: 4264: 4254: 4230: 4221: 4220: 4210: 4186: 4180: 4179: 4169: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4128: 4096: 4090: 4089: 4079: 4047: 4041: 4040: 4030: 3998: 3989: 3988: 3977: 3971: 3970: 3956: 3924: 3907: 3906: 3896: 3878: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3837: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3779: 3739: 3730: 3729: 3719: 3686: 3680: 3675: 3666: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3612: 3571: 3565: 3564: 3544: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3533: 3527: 3521:. Archived from 3488: 3479: 3470: 3469: 3440: 3434: 3433: 3423: 3399: 3384: 3378: 3372: 3371: 3369: 3368: 3353: 3347: 3346: 3336: 3295: 3289: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3249: 3243: 3242: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3163: 3157: 3156: 3138: 3119:in South Africa" 3109:Australopithecus 3101: 3095: 3094: 3050: 3044: 3043: 2993: 2984: 2978: 2977: 2932: 2926: 2925: 2889: 2880: 2879: 2869: 2851: 2819: 2813: 2812: 2810: 2809: 2794: 2788: 2787: 2777: 2737: 2731: 2730: 2720: 2680: 2674: 2673: 2671: 2670: 2647: 2641: 2640: 2600: 2594: 2593: 2591: 2589: 2569: 2563: 2562: 2560: 2559: 2540: 2534: 2533: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2427: 2421: 2420: 2418: 2412:. Archived from 2387: 2378: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2344: 2333: 2330: 2302: 2291: 2290: 2280: 2270: 2238: 2229: 2228: 2210: 2169: 2168: 2166: 2165: 2156:. Archived from 2146: 2140: 2139: 2137: 2136: 2130: 2115: 2106: 2095: 2094: 2084: 2049: 2036: 2035: 2027: 2021: 2020: 2010: 1986: 1980: 1979: 1951: 1945: 1944: 1942: 1932: 1926: 1925: 1917: 1885:Human hair color 1822: 1820: 1819: 1485:Tanning behavior 1473: 1472: 1350:oxidative stress 1022:(rs1805005) and 998:Tanning response 643:For skin color, 619:tanning response 556:period onwards. 421:skin reflectance 386:thermoregulation 314:carboxylic acids 305:, a brown-black 213:selective sweeps 144:sexual selection 103:ranges from the 101:Human skin color 91: 21: 9779: 9778: 9774: 9773: 9772: 9770: 9769: 9768: 9764:Skin physiology 9734: 9733: 9732: 9727: 9714: 9662: 9622: 9617: 9587: 9582: 9538: 9495: 9481:Human evolution 9465: 9422: 9366: 9360: 9339:Cooperative eye 9284:Specific models 9279: 9231: 9210:Homo antecessor 9165: 9101: 9095:H. rhodesiensis 9059:H. floresiensis 9020: 9001:H. e. soloensis 8973:H. e. georgicus 8949: 8913:H. gautengensis 8888: 8886: 8875: 8839: 8775: 8746: 8701: 8692:Orangutan–human 8661: 8653: 8651:Human evolution 8648: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8576: 8557: 8524: 8259: 8162: 8160:Further reading 8157: 8156: 8117: 8113: 8090: 8086: 8071: 8067: 8036: 8032: 8001: 7997: 7965: 7961: 7948: 7946: 7944: 7924: 7920: 7878: 7874: 7861: 7859: 7857: 7849:. p. 151. 7837:Singer, Merrill 7834: 7830: 7791: 7787: 7781:Wayback Machine 7771: 7767: 7761:Wayback Machine 7752: 7748: 7739: 7737: 7724: 7723: 7719: 7710: 7708: 7697: 7693: 7687:Wayback Machine 7678: 7674: 7665: 7663: 7654: 7653: 7649: 7640: 7638: 7629: 7628: 7624: 7615: 7613: 7606:Washington Post 7598: 7594: 7585: 7583: 7568: 7564: 7555: 7553: 7536: 7532: 7520: 7518: 7507: 7503: 7494: 7492: 7477: 7464: 7455: 7453: 7444: 7437: 7435: 7414: 7412: 7403: 7396: 7394: 7385: 7378: 7376: 7367: 7360: 7358: 7356:Washington Post 7342: 7340: 7329: 7325: 7316: 7314: 7301: 7300: 7296: 7287: 7285: 7272: 7271: 7267: 7254: 7252: 7248: 7235: 7229: 7222: 7213: 7211: 7198: 7197: 7193: 7184: 7182: 7173: 7172: 7168: 7159: 7157: 7153: 7142: 7136: 7132: 7093: 7089: 7079: 7077: 7066: 7059: 7053:Wayback Machine 7044: 7040: 7033: 7014: 7010: 6955: 6951: 6920:(11): S54–S60. 6914:Nature Genetics 6906: 6902: 6870:10.1.1.473.5972 6853: 6849: 6810: 6806: 6796: 6794: 6790: 6783: 6779: 6778: 6774: 6764: 6762: 6760: 6744: 6740: 6729: 6725: 6694: 6690: 6685: 6681: 6644: 6640: 6609: 6605: 6600: 6596: 6588: 6584: 6539: 6535: 6503: 6499: 6462: 6458: 6403: 6399: 6352: 6348: 6339: 6337: 6329: 6328: 6324: 6318:Wayback Machine 6309: 6302: 6257: 6253: 6247:Wayback Machine 6238: 6234: 6228:Wayback Machine 6219: 6215: 6206: 6204: 6195: 6194: 6190: 6181: 6179: 6170: 6169: 6165: 6130:Nature Genetics 6126: 6122: 6116:Wayback Machine 6107: 6103: 6097:Wayback Machine 6088: 6084: 6078:Wayback Machine 6069: 6065: 6059:Wayback Machine 6050: 6046: 6040:Wayback Machine 6031: 6027: 5990: 5986: 5980:Wayback Machine 5971: 5967: 5928: 5924: 5914: 5912: 5904: 5903: 5899: 5891: 5850: 5843: 5839: 5829: 5827: 5819: 5818: 5814: 5806: 5767: 5760: 5756: 5750:Wayback Machine 5741: 5737: 5706: 5702: 5655: 5651: 5598: 5594: 5585: 5583: 5575: 5574: 5570: 5515: 5508: 5469: 5462: 5417: 5408: 5353: 5346: 5298: 5294: 5284: 5282: 5274: 5273: 5269: 5232: 5228: 5169: 5165: 5147: 5143: 5133: 5131: 5108: 5104: 5043: 5039: 5004: 5000: 4960: 4956: 4947: 4945: 4936: 4935: 4931: 4923: 4919: 4869: 4860: 4854:Wayback Machine 4845: 4841: 4804:Genome Research 4796: 4792: 4747: 4740: 4734:Wayback Machine 4725: 4721: 4690: 4686: 4630: 4626: 4593:(3): e1003372. 4578: 4574: 4543: 4539: 4494: 4485: 4446: 4439: 4394: 4390: 4329: 4325: 4285: 4278: 4245:(3): e1000867. 4231: 4224: 4187: 4183: 4146: 4142: 4097: 4093: 4048: 4044: 3999: 3992: 3979: 3978: 3974: 3925: 3910: 3855: 3851: 3797: 3793: 3740: 3733: 3696:Current Biology 3687: 3683: 3630: 3626: 3572: 3568: 3561: 3545: 3541: 3531: 3529: 3525: 3486: 3480: 3473: 3441: 3437: 3400: 3387: 3379: 3375: 3366: 3364: 3355: 3354: 3350: 3296: 3292: 3282: 3280: 3265: 3261: 3250: 3246: 3199: 3195: 3164: 3160: 3102: 3098: 3051: 3047: 2991: 2985: 2981: 2933: 2929: 2890: 2883: 2820: 2816: 2807: 2805: 2795: 2791: 2738: 2734: 2681: 2677: 2668: 2666: 2648: 2644: 2601: 2597: 2587: 2585: 2570: 2566: 2557: 2555: 2542: 2541: 2537: 2498: 2494: 2463: 2459: 2428: 2424: 2416: 2385: 2379: 2368: 2357: 2355: 2346: 2345: 2336: 2303: 2294: 2239: 2232: 2225: 2211: 2172: 2163: 2161: 2148: 2147: 2143: 2134: 2132: 2128: 2113: 2107: 2098: 2053:Jablonski, Nina 2050: 2039: 2028: 2024: 1987: 1983: 1952: 1948: 1933: 1929: 1918: 1914: 1909: 1904: 1845: 1814: 1647: 1641: 1624: 1464: 1458: 1410: 1404: 1358: 1323: 1260: 1255: 1249: 1228: 1157: 1101: 1068: 1062: 1000: 990:(rs885479) and 975: 973:Candidate genes 943: 935:candidate genes 930: 914: 895: 872: 847:hunter-gatherer 830: 813:inverse agonist 806: 782: 749: 743: 731:selective sweep 717:MC1R (rs885479) 711: 690:common ancestor 686: 680: 660:gene regulation 658:transport, and 637: 627: 612:interfollicular 604:stratum corneum 599: 368: 363: 357: 311:dihydroxyindole 269: 263: 66: 55: 54: 53: 52: 51: 50: 34: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9777: 9767: 9766: 9761: 9756: 9751: 9749:Human genetics 9746: 9729: 9728: 9726: 9725: 9719: 9716: 9715: 9713: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9697: 9688: 9683: 9678: 9673: 9667: 9664: 9663: 9661: 9660: 9654: 9640: 9634: 9627: 9624: 9623: 9616: 9615: 9608: 9601: 9593: 9584: 9583: 9581: 9580: 9568: 9556: 9543: 9540: 9539: 9537: 9536: 9531: 9530: 9529: 9519: 9514: 9509: 9503: 9501: 9497: 9496: 9494: 9493: 9491:Human timeline 9488: 9483: 9477: 9475: 9471: 9470: 9467: 9466: 9464: 9463: 9458: 9453: 9448: 9443: 9438: 9432: 9430: 9424: 9423: 9421: 9420: 9415: 9410: 9405: 9400: 9395: 9390: 9385: 9380: 9375: 9369: 9367: 9362: 9361: 9359: 9358: 9357: 9356: 9351: 9343: 9342: 9341: 9336: 9328: 9327: 9326: 9321: 9316: 9314:Drunken monkey 9308: 9307: 9306: 9301: 9296: 9287: 9285: 9281: 9280: 9278: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9252: 9246: 9244: 9243:General models 9237: 9233: 9232: 9230: 9229: 9187: 9185: 9179: 9178: 9175: 9174: 9171: 9170: 9167: 9166: 9164: 9163: 9158: 9153: 9148: 9143: 9136: 9131: 9122: 9120: 9109: 9103: 9102: 9100: 9099: 9091: 9084: 9077: 9069: 9062: 9055: 9047: 9042: 9034: 9032: 9030:Archaic humans 9026: 9025: 9022: 9021: 9019: 9018: 9011: 9004: 8997: 8990: 8983: 8976: 8969: 8961: 8959: 8951: 8950: 8948: 8947: 8939: 8935:H. rudolfensis 8931: 8924: 8917: 8908: 8902: 8895: 8881: 8880: 8877: 8876: 8874: 8873: 8866: 8859: 8856:P. aethiopicus 8851: 8849: 8841: 8840: 8838: 8837: 8830: 8823: 8816: 8809: 8802: 8795: 8787: 8785: 8777: 8776: 8774: 8773: 8766: 8758: 8756: 8748: 8747: 8745: 8744: 8737: 8734:Sahelanthropus 8730: 8723: 8720:Nakalipithecus 8715: 8709: 8703: 8702: 8700: 8699: 8694: 8689: 8684: 8678: 8676: 8667: 8655: 8654: 8647: 8646: 8639: 8632: 8624: 8618: 8617: 8608: 8602: 8586: 8585:External links 8583: 8581: 8580: 8574: 8561: 8555: 8542: 8528: 8522: 8505: 8484: 8449: 8412: 8386:(3): 407–412. 8375: 8329: 8292: 8271: 8257: 8242: 8207: 8185:10.1086/302863 8179:(4): 1351–61. 8163: 8161: 8158: 8155: 8154: 8111: 8084: 8081:on 2011-11-24. 8065: 8062:on 2013-01-05. 8030: 8027:on 2013-01-05. 8015:(2): 157–172. 7995: 7959: 7942: 7918: 7888:(3): 798–806. 7872: 7855: 7847:AltaMira Press 7828: 7785: 7765: 7746: 7732:. 2000-04-18. 7717: 7691: 7672: 7647: 7622: 7592: 7562: 7552:on 22 May 2013 7530: 7501: 7462: 7323: 7309:. 2007-08-24. 7294: 7280:. 2006-12-26. 7265: 7220: 7206:. 2003-08-31. 7191: 7166: 7130: 7087: 7072:. abc.net.au. 7057: 7038: 7031: 7008: 6969:(1): 177–182. 6949: 6927:10.1038/ng1440 6900: 6847: 6804: 6772: 6758: 6738: 6723: 6688: 6679: 6638: 6603: 6594: 6582: 6553:(4): 976–994. 6533: 6513:(3): 470–482. 6497: 6456: 6417:(10): e48294. 6397: 6346: 6335:kidshealth.org 6322: 6300: 6251: 6232: 6213: 6188: 6163: 6120: 6101: 6082: 6063: 6044: 6025: 5984: 5965: 5938:(5): 613–621. 5932:Human Genetics 5922: 5897: 5894:on 2013-11-03. 5861:(5): 683–696. 5855:Human Genetics 5837: 5812: 5809:on 2012-04-15. 5778:(4): 387–399. 5772:Human Genetics 5754: 5735: 5716:(1): 179–188. 5700: 5649: 5592: 5568: 5506: 5460: 5437:10.1086/522235 5431:(6): 1119–32. 5406: 5367:(8): e104367. 5344: 5292: 5267: 5246:(9): 5486–95. 5226: 5163: 5157:10.1101/016477 5141: 5102: 5048:Sabeti, Pardis 5037: 5018:(2): 185–187. 4998: 4965:Human Genetics 4954: 4929: 4917: 4858: 4839: 4810:(5): 826–837. 4790: 4761:(6): 1179–89. 4738: 4719: 4684: 4645:(10): e48294. 4624: 4572: 4559:10.1086/381006 4553:(1): 105–124. 4537: 4514:10.1086/302863 4508:(4): 1351–61. 4483: 4462:10.1086/381006 4456:(6): 105–108. 4437: 4388: 4323: 4296:(3): 354–369. 4276: 4222: 4181: 4160:(2): 176–181. 4140: 4111:(4): 526–537. 4091: 4042: 3990: 3972: 3908: 3849: 3791: 3731: 3681: 3641:(5): 765–771, 3624: 3566: 3559: 3553:. p. 26. 3539: 3497:(5823): 364a. 3471: 3435: 3385: 3383:, p. 107. 3373: 3348: 3290: 3259: 3244: 3193: 3158: 3096: 3045: 2979: 2927: 2900:(2): 169–175. 2881: 2814: 2789: 2732: 2695:(4): 420–434. 2675: 2642: 2595: 2564: 2535: 2492: 2473:(1–2): 49–62. 2457: 2438:(9): 464–469. 2422: 2366: 2354:. 21 July 2016 2334: 2313:(1): 779–780. 2292: 2230: 2223: 2170: 2141: 2096: 2037: 2022: 1981: 1946: 1927: 1911: 1910: 1908: 1905: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1765:skin-whitening 1692:lead poisoning 1643:Main article: 1640: 1637: 1623: 1620: 1604: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1585: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1559: 1556: 1553: 1547: 1546: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1528: 1527: 1524: 1521: 1518: 1515: 1509: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1496: 1490: 1489: 1486: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1460:Main article: 1457: 1454: 1436:UV radiation. 1403: 1400: 1385: 1384: 1378: 1372: 1357: 1354: 1337:, has vitiligo 1322: 1319: 1262:Some types of 1259: 1256: 1253:Depigmentation 1251:Main article: 1248: 1247:Depigmentation 1245: 1227: 1224: 1156: 1153: 1100: 1097: 1064:Main article: 1061: 1058: 1043:OCA2 Arg305Trp 999: 996: 974: 971: 942: 939: 929: 926: 913: 910: 894: 891: 871: 868: 829: 826: 805: 802: 781: 778: 745:Main article: 742: 739: 710: 707: 682:Main article: 679: 676: 664:tissue culture 626: 623: 598: 595: 561:Nina Jablonski 518: 517: 514: 511: 503: 493:archaic humans 435:subcutaneously 367: 364: 356: 353: 262: 259: 255:discrimination 182:nervous system 178:sexual arousal 92:) family from 36: 30: 27: 25: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9776: 9765: 9762: 9760: 9757: 9755: 9752: 9750: 9747: 9745: 9742: 9741: 9739: 9724: 9721: 9720: 9717: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9692: 9689: 9687: 9684: 9682: 9679: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9668: 9665: 9658: 9655: 9652: 9648: 9644: 9641: 9638: 9635: 9632: 9629: 9628: 9625: 9621: 9614: 9609: 9607: 9602: 9600: 9595: 9594: 9591: 9579: 9578: 9573: 9569: 9567: 9566: 9557: 9555: 9554: 9545: 9544: 9541: 9535: 9532: 9528: 9525: 9524: 9523: 9520: 9518: 9515: 9513: 9510: 9508: 9505: 9504: 9502: 9498: 9492: 9489: 9487: 9484: 9482: 9479: 9478: 9476: 9472: 9462: 9459: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9447: 9444: 9442: 9439: 9437: 9434: 9433: 9431: 9429: 9425: 9419: 9416: 9414: 9411: 9409: 9406: 9404: 9401: 9399: 9396: 9394: 9391: 9389: 9386: 9384: 9381: 9379: 9376: 9374: 9371: 9370: 9368: 9363: 9355: 9352: 9350: 9347: 9346: 9345:Life history 9344: 9340: 9337: 9335: 9332: 9331: 9329: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9311: 9309: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9297: 9295: 9292: 9291: 9289: 9288: 9286: 9282: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9247: 9245: 9241: 9238: 9234: 9228: 9227: 9222: 9218: 9217: 9212: 9211: 9206: 9205: 9200: 9199: 9198:Homo ergaster 9194: 9193: 9189: 9188: 9186: 9184: 9180: 9162: 9159: 9157: 9154: 9152: 9149: 9147: 9144: 9142: 9141: 9137: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9128: 9127:H. s. sapiens 9124: 9123: 9121: 9119: 9118: 9113: 9110: 9108: 9107:Modern humans 9104: 9097: 9096: 9092: 9090: 9089: 9085: 9083: 9082: 9081:H. luzonensis 9078: 9075: 9074: 9070: 9068: 9067: 9063: 9061: 9060: 9056: 9053: 9052: 9048: 9046: 9043: 9041: 9040: 9039:H. antecessor 9036: 9035: 9033: 9031: 9027: 9017: 9016: 9012: 9010: 9009: 9005: 9003: 9002: 8998: 8996: 8995: 8991: 8989: 8988: 8984: 8982: 8981: 8977: 8975: 8974: 8970: 8968: 8967: 8966:H. e. erectus 8963: 8962: 8960: 8958: 8957: 8952: 8945: 8944: 8940: 8937: 8936: 8932: 8930: 8929: 8925: 8923: 8922: 8918: 8915: 8914: 8910: 8909: 8906: 8903: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8892: 8882: 8872: 8871: 8867: 8865: 8864: 8860: 8858: 8857: 8853: 8852: 8850: 8848: 8847: 8842: 8836: 8835: 8831: 8829: 8828: 8824: 8822: 8821: 8820:A. deyiremeda 8817: 8815: 8814: 8810: 8808: 8807: 8803: 8801: 8800: 8796: 8794: 8793: 8789: 8788: 8786: 8784: 8783: 8778: 8772: 8771: 8767: 8765: 8764: 8760: 8759: 8757: 8755: 8754: 8749: 8743: 8742: 8741:Kenyanthropus 8738: 8736: 8735: 8731: 8729: 8728: 8724: 8722: 8721: 8717: 8716: 8713: 8710: 8708: 8704: 8698: 8695: 8693: 8690: 8688: 8687:Gorilla–human 8685: 8683: 8680: 8679: 8677: 8675: 8671: 8668: 8665: 8660: 8656: 8652: 8645: 8640: 8638: 8633: 8631: 8626: 8625: 8622: 8616: 8612: 8609: 8606: 8603: 8600: 8596: 8589: 8588: 8577: 8571: 8567: 8562: 8558: 8552: 8548: 8543: 8539:. p. F1. 8538: 8534: 8529: 8525: 8523:0-521-36514-7 8519: 8515: 8511: 8506: 8502: 8498: 8495:(5): 773–80. 8494: 8490: 8485: 8481: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8464:(3): 125–31. 8463: 8459: 8455: 8450: 8446: 8442: 8438: 8434: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8418: 8413: 8409: 8405: 8401: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8376: 8372: 8368: 8364: 8360: 8356: 8352: 8348: 8344: 8340: 8336: 8330: 8326: 8322: 8318: 8314: 8310: 8306: 8302: 8298: 8293: 8289: 8285: 8281: 8277: 8272: 8268: 8264: 8260: 8254: 8250: 8249: 8243: 8239: 8235: 8230: 8225: 8221: 8217: 8213: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8195: 8190: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8165: 8164: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8131:(3): 243–52. 8130: 8126: 8122: 8115: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8095: 8088: 8080: 8076: 8069: 8061: 8057: 8053: 8049: 8045: 8041: 8034: 8026: 8022: 8018: 8014: 8010: 8006: 7999: 7991: 7987: 7983: 7979: 7975: 7971: 7963: 7956: 7945: 7939: 7936:. p. 2. 7935: 7931: 7930: 7922: 7915: 7911: 7907: 7903: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7887: 7883: 7876: 7869: 7858: 7852: 7848: 7844: 7843: 7838: 7832: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7808: 7804: 7801:(3): 369–75. 7800: 7796: 7789: 7782: 7778: 7775: 7769: 7762: 7758: 7755: 7750: 7735: 7731: 7727: 7721: 7706: 7702: 7695: 7688: 7684: 7681: 7676: 7661: 7657: 7651: 7636: 7632: 7626: 7611: 7607: 7603: 7596: 7581: 7577: 7573: 7566: 7551: 7547: 7546: 7541: 7534: 7527: 7516: 7512: 7505: 7490: 7486: 7482: 7475: 7473: 7471: 7469: 7467: 7451: 7447: 7434:on 2011-09-13 7433: 7429: 7425: 7410: 7406: 7392: 7388: 7374: 7370: 7357: 7353: 7338: 7334: 7327: 7312: 7308: 7304: 7298: 7283: 7279: 7275: 7269: 7262: 7247: 7243: 7242: 7234: 7227: 7225: 7209: 7205: 7201: 7195: 7180: 7176: 7170: 7152: 7148: 7141: 7134: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7102: 7098: 7091: 7075: 7071: 7064: 7062: 7054: 7050: 7047: 7042: 7034: 7028: 7024: 7023: 7018: 7012: 7004: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6953: 6945: 6941: 6937: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6911: 6904: 6896: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6880: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6851: 6843: 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6029: 6021: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5998:Cell Research 5995: 5988: 5981: 5977: 5974: 5969: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5926: 5911: 5907: 5901: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5849: 5841: 5826: 5822: 5816: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5766: 5758: 5751: 5747: 5744: 5739: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5704: 5696: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5653: 5645: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5596: 5582: 5578: 5572: 5564: 5560: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5529:(8): e42752. 5528: 5524: 5520: 5513: 5511: 5502: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5467: 5465: 5456: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5415: 5413: 5411: 5402: 5398: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5351: 5349: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5304: 5296: 5281: 5277: 5271: 5263: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5230: 5223: 5218: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5167: 5158: 5153: 5145: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5106: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5041: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5002: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4958: 4943: 4939: 4933: 4926: 4921: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4884:(2): 315–22. 4883: 4879: 4875: 4867: 4865: 4863: 4855: 4851: 4848: 4843: 4835: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4794: 4786: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4745: 4743: 4735: 4731: 4728: 4723: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4700:(3): 287–96. 4699: 4695: 4688: 4680: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4628: 4620: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4587:PLOS Genetics 4584: 4576: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4541: 4533: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4492: 4490: 4488: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4444: 4442: 4433: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4408:(6): 740–59. 4407: 4403: 4399: 4392: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4327: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4283: 4281: 4272: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4239:PLOS Genetics 4236: 4229: 4227: 4218: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4185: 4177: 4173: 4168: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4144: 4136: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4095: 4087: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4046: 4038: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 3997: 3995: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3917: 3915: 3913: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3853: 3845: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3795: 3787: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3738: 3736: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3685: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3628: 3620: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3570: 3562: 3556: 3552: 3551: 3543: 3528:on 2010-11-03 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3485: 3478: 3476: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3452:(2): 93–100. 3451: 3447: 3439: 3431: 3427: 3422: 3417: 3414:(3): 710–22. 3413: 3409: 3405: 3398: 3396: 3394: 3392: 3390: 3382: 3377: 3362: 3358: 3352: 3344: 3340: 3335: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3294: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3263: 3255: 3248: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3197: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3162: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3137: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3100: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3049: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2990: 2983: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2931: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2888: 2886: 2877: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2850: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2818: 2804: 2800: 2793: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2736: 2728: 2724: 2719: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2679: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2646: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2615:(1): 57–106. 2614: 2610: 2606: 2599: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2568: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2544:"pheomelanin" 2539: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2496: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2461: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2426: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2396:(1): 57–106. 2395: 2391: 2384: 2377: 2375: 2373: 2371: 2353: 2349: 2343: 2341: 2339: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2274: 2269: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2237: 2235: 2226: 2220: 2216: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2160:on 2013-08-05 2159: 2155: 2151: 2145: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2112: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2092: 2088: 2083: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2033: 2026: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1985: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1962:(5): 429–33. 1961: 1957: 1950: 1941: 1940: 1931: 1923: 1916: 1912: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1847: 1840: 1838: 1832: 1830: 1826: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1779: 1773: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1736: 1731: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1684: 1682: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1662:social status 1656: 1651: 1646: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1619: 1617: 1612: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1586: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1567: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1548: 1544: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1529: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1510: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1495: 1492: 1491: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1475: 1474: 1471: 1469: 1463: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1443: 1442:melanogenesis 1437: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1399: 1395: 1393: 1388: 1382: 1381:Solar lentigo 1379: 1376: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1366: 1365: 1363: 1353: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1336: 1335:P. Sathasivam 1332: 1327: 1318: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1302: 1300: 1296: 1295: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1276: 1274: 1270: 1265: 1254: 1244: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1204: 1202: 1198: 1193: 1189: 1184: 1181: 1176: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1152: 1150: 1149:keratinocytes 1146: 1140: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1112: 1110: 1106: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1089: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1067: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1048: 1044: 1041:(rs1126809), 1040: 1039:TYR Arg402Gln 1036: 1032: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1018:(rs1805009), 1017: 1014:(rs1805008), 1013: 1010:(rs1805007), 1009: 1005: 995: 993: 989: 985: 981: 970: 967: 963: 959: 955: 947: 938: 936: 925: 923: 919: 909: 907: 903: 899: 890: 888: 884: 880: 879:melanogenesis 876: 866: 862: 859: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 834: 825: 823: 818: 814: 810: 801: 799: 795: 786: 777: 774: 770: 766: 758: 753: 748: 738: 736: 732: 728: 724: 715: 706: 704: 700: 695: 691: 685: 675: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 648: 646: 641: 636: 632: 622: 620: 616: 613: 609: 605: 594: 590: 588: 587:out of Africa 584: 580: 579: 569: 565: 562: 557: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 534: 529: 527: 523: 515: 512: 510:dark-skinned. 508: 504: 501: 500: 494: 490: 489: 488: 486: 481: 477: 473: 469: 464: 462: 456: 453: 451: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 427: 422: 419:populations' 417: 413: 409: 405: 404: 399: 395: 391: 387: 384:links to the 383: 382: 377: 373: 362: 352: 350: 346: 342: 338: 333: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 293: 288: 286: 285:keratinocytes 282: 278: 277:melanogenesis 274: 268: 258: 256: 252: 251:social status 247: 245: 241: 237: 233: 228: 226: 222: 218: 214: 209: 208: 201: 199: 195: 191: 190:embarrassment 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 154: 152: 149: 145: 141: 137: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 105:darkest brown 102: 95: 90: 85: 81: 77: 72: 68: 64: 59: 48: 44: 40: 33: 28: 19: 9619: 9575: 9563: 9551: 9418:Gender roles 9413:Intelligence 9226:Homo sapiens 9224: 9220: 9214: 9208: 9204:Homo erectus 9202: 9196: 9192:Homo habilis 9190: 9151:Manot people 9140:H. s. idaltu 9138: 9134:Jebel Irhoud 9126: 9117:Homo sapiens 9115: 9093: 9086: 9079: 9071: 9064: 9057: 9049: 9037: 9013: 9006: 8999: 8992: 8985: 8978: 8971: 8964: 8956:Homo erectus 8954: 8941: 8933: 8926: 8919: 8911: 8901:Proto-humans 8890: 8887:proto-humans 8868: 8861: 8854: 8846:Paranthropus 8844: 8832: 8825: 8818: 8811: 8806:A. anamensis 8804: 8799:A. africanus 8797: 8792:A. afarensis 8790: 8780: 8768: 8761: 8753:Ardipithecus 8751: 8739: 8732: 8725: 8718: 8697:Gibbon–human 8565: 8546: 8536: 8509: 8492: 8488: 8461: 8457: 8423:(1): 103–5. 8420: 8416: 8383: 8379: 8338: 8334: 8303:(4): 74–82. 8300: 8296: 8279: 8275: 8247: 8219: 8215: 8176: 8172: 8128: 8124: 8114: 8097: 8093: 8087: 8079:the original 8068: 8060:the original 8047: 8043: 8033: 8025:the original 8012: 8008: 7998: 7973: 7969: 7962: 7953: 7947:. 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Retrieved 4932: 4920: 4881: 4877: 4842: 4807: 4803: 4793: 4758: 4754: 4722: 4697: 4693: 4687: 4642: 4638: 4627: 4590: 4586: 4575: 4550: 4546: 4540: 4505: 4501: 4453: 4449: 4405: 4401: 4391: 4340: 4336: 4326: 4293: 4289: 4242: 4238: 4201:(R1): 9–17. 4198: 4194: 4184: 4157: 4153: 4143: 4108: 4104: 4094: 4059: 4056:Biology Open 4055: 4045: 4010: 4006: 3985:ScienceDaily 3984: 3975: 3939:(1): 24–35. 3936: 3932: 3866: 3862: 3852: 3809: 3805: 3794: 3751: 3747: 3699: 3695: 3684: 3638: 3634: 3627: 3584: 3580: 3569: 3549: 3542: 3530:. Retrieved 3523:the original 3494: 3490: 3449: 3445: 3438: 3411: 3407: 3376: 3365:. Retrieved 3363:. 2017-10-12 3360: 3351: 3308: 3304: 3293: 3281:. Retrieved 3272: 3262: 3253: 3247: 3209:(1): 77–87. 3206: 3202: 3196: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3126: 3122: 3117:Homo erectus 3116: 3115:, and early 3113:Paranthropus 3112: 3108: 3099: 3058: 3054: 3048: 2999: 2995: 2982: 2944:(1): 35–43. 2941: 2937: 2930: 2897: 2893: 2831: 2827: 2817: 2806:. 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