74:
1144:
121:
1215:, which is mostly an autosomal recessive disorder. Certain ethnicities have higher incidences of different forms. For example, the most common type, called oculocutaneous albinism type 2 (OCA2), is especially frequent among people of black African descent and white Europeans. People with OCA2 usually have fair skin, but are often not as pale as OCA1. They (OCA2 or OCA1? see comments in History) have pale blonde to golden, strawberry blonde, or even brown hair, and most commonly blue eyes. 98.7–100% of modern Europeans are carriers of the derived allele
845:
62:
450:. This selenium analogue of pheomelanin has been successfully synthesized through chemical and biosynthetic routes using selenocystine as a feedstock. Due to selenium's higher atomic number, the obtained selenomelanin can be expected to provide better protection against ionising radiation as compared to the other known forms of melanin. This protection has been demonstrated with radiation experiments on human cells and bacteria, opening up the possibility of applications in space travel.
471:
1168:
782:
836:
409:
42:
1132:
7082:
1156:
1180:
1327:. Effective in treating white skin, in general, lasers are less successful in removing port-wine stains in people of Asian or African descent. Higher concentrations of melanin in darker-skinned individuals simply diffuse and absorb the laser radiation, inhibiting light absorption by the targeted tissue. In a similar manner, melanin can complicate laser treatment of other dermatological conditions in people with darker skin.
688:, convert resources to melanin to enhance their thermoregulation. As the wood tiger moth has populations over a large range of latitudes, it has been observed that more northern populations showed higher rates of melanization. In both yellow and white male phenotypes of the wood tiger moth, individuals with more melanin had a heightened ability to trap heat but an increased predation rate due to a weaker and less effective
418:
320:
264:
1448:, and possibly others). The first modern humans had darker skin as the indigenous people of Africa today. Following migration and settlement in Asia and Europe, the selective pressure dark UV-radiation protecting skin decreased where radiation from the sun was less intense. This resulted in the current range of human skin color. Of the two common gene variants known to be associated with pale human skin,
536:. Although, in general, human beings possess a similar concentration of melanocytes in their skin, the melanocytes in some individuals and ethnic groups produce variable amounts of melanin. The ratio of eumelanin (74%) and pheomelanin (26%) in the epidermis is constant regardless of the degree of pigmentation. Some humans have very little or no melanin synthesis in their bodies, a condition known as
7094:
336:. Pheomelanin is also present in the skin, and redheads consequently often have a more pinkish hue to their skin as well. Exposure of the skin to ultraviolet light increases pheomelanin content, as it does for eumelanin; but rather than absorbing light, pheomelanin within the hair and skin reflect yellow to red light, which may increase damage from UV radiation exposure.
242:, causing the skin to darken. Eumelanin is an effective absorbent of light; the pigment is able to dissipate over 99.9% of absorbed UV radiation. Because of this property, eumelanin is thought to protect skin cells from UVA and UVB radiation damage, reducing the risk of folate depletion and dermal degradation. Exposure to UV radiation is associated with increased risk of
598:. In invertebrates, a major aspect of the innate immune defense system against invading pathogens involves melanin. Within minutes after infection, the microbe is encapsulated within melanin (melanization), and the generation of free radical byproducts during the formation of this capsule is thought to aid in killing them. Some types of fungi, called
825:. This can be thought of as a single monomer that accounts for the measured elemental composition and some properties of melanin, but is unlikely to be found in nature. Solano claims that this misleading trend stems from a report of an empirical formula in 1948, but provides no other historical detail.
433:
that form a 'corona', that are responsible for the substance's solubility. The peptide chains are linked to the L-DOPA core polymer via peptide bonds. This lead to a proposed biosynthetic process involving the hydroxylation of tyrosinylated peptides formed via proteases during sporogenesis, which are
1468:
As with peoples having migrated northward, those with light skin migrating toward the equator acclimatize to the much stronger solar radiation. Nature selects for less melanin when ultraviolet radiation is weak. Most people's skin darkens when exposed to UV light, giving them more protection when it
1543:
metal ions through its carboxylate and phenolic hydroxyl groups, often much more efficiently than the powerful chelating ligand ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA). Thus, it may serve to sequester potentially toxic metal ions, protecting the rest of the cell. This hypothesis is supported by the fact
331:
Pheomelanins (or phaeomelanins) impart a range of yellowish to reddish colors. Pheomelanins are particularly concentrated in the lips, nipples, glans of the penis, and vagina. When a small amount of eumelanin in hair (which would otherwise cause blond hair) is mixed with pheomelanin, the result is
1407:
Not all the effects of pigmentation are advantageous. Pigmentation increases the heat load in hot climates, and dark-skinned people absorb 30% more heat from sunlight than do very light-skinned people, although this factor may be offset by more profuse sweating. In cold climates dark skin entails
1223:
reduction or absence of melanin pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes. The estimated frequency of OCA2 among
African-Americans is 1 in 10,000, which contrasts with a frequency of 1 in 36,000 in white Americans. In some African nations, the frequency of the disorder is even higher, ranging from 1 in
644:
strands that form feathers. Pheomelanin synthesis in birds implies the consumption of cysteine, a semi‐essential amino acid that is necessary for the synthesis of the antioxidant glutathione (GSH) but that may be toxic if in excess in the diet. Indeed, many carnivorous birds, which have a high
543:
Because melanin is an aggregate of smaller component molecules, there are many different types of melanin with different proportions and bonding patterns of these component molecules. Both pheomelanin and eumelanin are found in human skin and hair, but eumelanin is the most abundant melanin in
298:
In natural conditions, DHI and DHICA often co-polymerize, resulting in a range of eumelanin polymers. These polymers contribute to the variety of melanin components in human skin and hair, ranging from light yellow/red pheomelanin to light brown DHICA-enriched eumelanin and dark brown or black
1287:
synthesis. While no correlation between race and the level of neuromelanin in the substantia nigra has been reported, the significantly lower incidence of
Parkinson's in blacks than in whites has "prompt some to suggest that cutaneous melanin might somehow serve to protect the neuromelanin in
1231:
Ocular albinism affects not only eye pigmentation but visual acuity, as well. People with albinism typically test poorly, within the 20/60 to 20/400 range. In addition, two forms of albinism, with approximately 1 in 2,700 most prevalent among people of Puerto Rican origin, are associated with
399:
Up until the 1960s, melanin was classified into eumelanin and pheomelanin. However in 1955 a melanin associated with nerve cells was discovered, neuromelanin. In 1972 a water-soluble form, pyomelanin was discovered. In 1976, allomelanin, the fifth form of the melanins was found in nature.
311:, it is accompanied by a decrease in DHICA-eumelanin and pheomelanin. A small amount of black eumelanin in the absence of other pigments causes grey hair. A small amount of eumelanin in the absence of other pigments causes blond hair. Eumelanin is present in the skin and hair, etc.
343:
availability, which is transported into the melanosome, reacting with dopaquinone to form cys-dopa. Cys-dopa then undergoes several transformations before forming pheomelanin. In chemical terms, pheomelanins differ from eumelanins in that the oligomer structure incorporates
734:
1412:. Since pigmentation appears to be not entirely advantageous to life in the tropics, other hypotheses about its biological significance have been advanced; for example a secondary phenomenon induced by adaptation to parasites and tropical diseases.
1257:
in North
America. The incidence of albinism in Hopi Indians has been estimated as approximately 1 in 200 individuals. Similar patterns of albinism and deafness have been found in other mammals, including dogs and rodents. However, a lack of melanin
378:
in the brain. Humans have the largest amount of NM, which is present in lesser amounts in other primates, and totally absent in many other species. The biological function remains unknown, although human NM has been shown to efficiently bind
1423:
evolved dark skin color, as an adaptation to a loss of body hair that increased the effects of UV radiation. Before the development of hairlessness, early humans might have had light skin underneath their fur, similar to that found in other
283:(DHICA). DHI-derived eumelanin is dark brown or black and insoluble, and DHICA -derived eumelanin which is lighter and soluble in alkali. Both eumelanins arise from the oxidation of tyrosine in specialized organelles called
306:
V and VI) skin finds that DHI-eumelanin comprises the largest portion, approximately 60–70%, followed by DHICA-eumelanin at 25–35%, and pheomelanin only 2–8%. Notably, while an enrichment of DHI-eumelanin occurs in during
2017:
Alaluf S, Heath A, Carter N, Atkins D, Mahalingam H, Barrett K, et al. (2001). "Variation in
Melanin Content and Composition in Type V and VI Photoexposed and Photoprotected Human Skin: The Dominant Role of DHI".
122:
1262:
does not appear to be directly responsible for deafness associated with hypopigmentation, as most individuals lacking the enzymes required to synthesize melanin have normal auditory function. Instead, the absence of
1278:
functioning, there is decreased neuromelanin in the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus as a consequence of specific dropping out of dopaminergic and noradrenergic pigmented neurons. This results in diminished
3379:
Millar SE, Miller MW, Stevens ME, Barsh GS (October 1995). "Expression and transgenic studies of the mouse agouti gene provide insight into the mechanisms by which mammalian coat color patterns are generated".
3897:
1291:
In addition to melanin deficiency, the molecular weight of the melanin polymer may be decreased by various factors such as oxidative stress, exposure to light, perturbation in its association with melanosomal
1199:, which are larger, chunky, and refractile, and range in color from green to yellow or red-brown. In heavily pigmented lesions, dense aggregates of melanin can obscure histologic detail. A dilute solution of
412:
SEM micrograph of
Aspergillus niger (strain: melanoliber) conodiophore possessing a large number of small conidospores (colorized). These spores release peptidomelanin into the surrounding medium during
1632:
of melanoma cells is crucial to metastasis and growth; non-pigmented tumors were larger than pigmented tumors, and spread far more easily. Pigmented and non-pigmented cells are both present in melanoma
3598:
2236:
Greco G, Panzella L, Verotta L, d'Ischia M, Napolitano A (April 2011). "Uncovering the structure of human red hair pheomelanin: benzothiazolylthiazinodihydroisoquinolines as key building blocks".
1228:, who are of primarily Swiss and German ancestry. People with this IB variant of the disorder commonly have white hair and skin at birth, but rapidly develop normal skin pigmentation in infancy.
3621:
2488:
1528:
are more at risk of sun-related eye problems. Furthermore, the ocular lens yellows with age, providing added protection. However, the lens also becomes more rigid with age, losing most of its
1343:
has an affinity for melanin-containing tissues because of its precursor function in melanin synthesis or its irreversible binding of melanin. This has been suggested to underlie the increased
2271:
Fedorow H, Tribl F, Halliday G, Gerlach M, Riederer P, Double KL (2005). "Neuromelanin in human dopamine neurons: comparison with peripheral melanins and relevance to
Parkinson's disease".
821:
It is now understood that melanins do not have a single structure or stoichiometry. Nonetheless, chemical databases such as PubChem include structural and empirical formulae; typically
1400:
have larger quantities of eumelanin in their skins. This makes their skins brown or black and protects them against high levels of exposure to the sun, which more frequently result in
4560:
Meier-Davis SR, Dines K, Arjmand FM, et al. (December 2012). "Comparison of oral and transdermal administration of rasagiline mesylate on human melanoma tumor growth in vivo".
231:
tint given to some skin or hair colors. Neuromelanin is found in the brain. Research has been undertaken to investigate its efficacy in treating neurodegenerative disorders such as
656:
which regulates the distribution of melanin. The mechanisms of the gene have been extensively studied in mice to provide an insight into the diversity of mammalian coat patterns.
295:
can transform into either 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DHI) or 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA). DHI and DHICA are oxidized and then polymerize to form the two eumelanins.
1323:
Higher eumelanin levels also can be a disadvantage, however, beyond a higher disposition toward vitamin D deficiency. Dark skin is a complicating factor in the laser removal of
3585:
Mosse IB, Dubovic BV, Plotnikova SI, Kostrova LN, Molophei V, Subbot ST, et al. (20–25 May 2001). Obelic B, Ranogajev-Komor M, Miljanic S, Krajcar Bronic I (eds.).
1432:
evolved in Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago, and then populated the rest of the world through migration between 80,000 and 50,000 years ago, in some areas
1195:
Melanin is brown, non-refractile, and finely granular with individual granules having a diameter of less than 800 nanometers. This differentiates melanin from common
3432:
3336:
215:. Eumelanin is the most common type. Pheomelanin, which is produced when melanocytes are malfunctioning due to derivation of the gene to its recessive format, is a
3096:
Gunderson AR, Frame AM, Swaddle JP, Forsyth MH (1 September 2008). "Resistance of melanized feathers to bacterial degradation: is it really so black and white?".
5331:
4714:
640:
pigments. Feathers that contain melanin are also 39% more resistant to abrasion than those that do not because melanin granules help fill the space between the
560:) as a defense mechanism against predators. Melanins also protect microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, against stresses that involve cell damage such as
4672:
Berth-Jones, J. (2010). "Constitutive pigmentation, human pigmentation and the response to sun exposure". In Burns T, Breathnach S, Cox N, Griffiths C (eds.).
4394:
5933:
3630:
4603:
King G, Yerger VB, Whembolua GL, Bendel RB, Kittles R, Moolchan ET (June 2009). "Link between facultative melanin and tobacco use among
African Americans".
4448:
Cable J, Huszar D, Jaenisch R, Steel KP (February 1994). "Effects of mutations at the W locus (c-kit) on inner ear pigmentation and function in the mouse".
5957:
5913:
5428:
246:, a cancer of melanocytes (melanin cells). Studies have shown a lower incidence for skin cancer in individuals with more concentrated melanin, i.e. darker
1249:
observed that "cats which are entirely white and have blue eyes are generally deaf". In humans, hypopigmentation and deafness occur together in the rare
3471:
4803:
2484:
681:
are one of the few groups in which melanin has not been easily detected, though researchers found data suggesting spiders do in fact produce melanin.
6693:
4874:
Lamason RL, Mohideen MA, Mest JR, et al. (December 2005). "SLC24A5, a putative cation exchanger, affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans".
1093:
714:
6902:
6627:
6240:
2163:
5518:
5139:
4535:
1561:
4436:
4422:
6554:
189:
3225:
Rodríguez-Martínez S, Galván I (2020). "Juvenile pheomelanin-based plumage coloration has evolved more frequently in carnivorous species".
797:
of fruits such as bananas. Chestnut shell melanin can be used as an antioxidant and coloring agent. Biosynthesis involves the oxidation of
193:
1477:
and the development of melanoma, a potentially deadly form of skin cancer, as well as other health problems related to exposure to strong
6622:
5962:
5324:
2061:
Ito S, Wakamatsu K (December 2011). "Diversity of human hair pigmentation as studied by chemical analysis of eumelanin and pheomelanin".
5952:
5908:
5758:
5423:
3953:
2720:
1433:
4483:
3535:"To quiver or to shiver: increased melanization benefits thermoregulation, but reduces warning signal efficacy in the wood tiger moth"
576:), and biochemical threats (such as host defenses against invading microbes). Therefore, in many pathogenic microbes (for example, in
5054:
Sarangarajan R, Apte SP (2005). "Melanin aggregation and polymerization: possible implications in age-related macular degeneration".
4368:
2112:
Slominski A, Tobin DJ, Shibahara S, Wortsman J (October 2004). "Melanin pigmentation in mammalian skin and its hormonal regulation".
2992:
6898:
6014:
5523:
813:
leading to the formation of catechol melanin. Despite this many plants contain compounds which inhibit the production of melanins.
2912:
Sköld HN, Aspengren S, Cheney KL, Wallin M (2016). "Chapter Four - Fish
Chromatophores—From Molecular Motors to Animal Behavior".
462:
as the eumelanins and pheomelanins, but unlike those molecules they have low molecular weight. They occur in some red human hair.
6637:
6617:
6612:
5754:
2551:
1320:, an important monotherapy drug in Parkinson's disease, has melanin binding properties, and melanoma tumor reducing properties.
425:
Peptidomelanin is another water-soluble form of melanin. It was found to be secreted into the surrounding medium by germinating
7009:
6814:
5317:
4308:
3819:
4984:
Liu Y, Hong L, Kempf VR, Wakamatsu K, Ito S, Simon JD (June 2004). "Ion-exchange and adsorption of Fe(III) by Sepia melanin".
7004:
6839:
6320:
5475:
4681:
4043:
4024:
3465:
1539:
Recent research suggests that melanin may serve a protective role other than photoprotection. Melanin is able to effectively
1224:
2,000 to 1 in 5,000. Another form of
Albinism, the "yellow oculocutaneous albinism", appears to be more prevalent among the
73:
6829:
6607:
6233:
5615:
5438:
2447:
1835:
1544:
that the loss of neuromelanin, observed in
Parkinson's disease, is accompanied by an increase in iron levels in the brain.
4117:"Tyrosinase inhibitors from natural and synthetic sources: structure, inhibition mechanism and perspective for the future"
1300:, or in local concentrations of metal ions. A decreased molecular weight or a decrease in the degree of polymerization of
6128:
5725:
5448:
1576:
may lead to formation of pro-oxidant melanin with lower-molecular-weight, implicated in the causation and progression of
636:
of birds owe their color to melanin and are less readily degraded by bacteria than unpigmented ones or those containing
6834:
6754:
5928:
5418:
4698:
1688:
1337:
are formed where there is a localized concentration of melanin in the skin. They are highly associated with pale skin.
2214:
6539:
6483:
5923:
5840:
5749:
3426:
3330:
2469:
617:, melanin occurs not only in the skin but also in internal organs such as eyes. Most fish species use eumelanin, but
552:
Melanins have very diverse roles and functions in various organisms. A form of melanin makes up the ink used by many
494:
5164:
Sarangarajan R, Apte SP (2005). "Melanization and phagocytosis: implications for age related macular degeneration".
4398:
6473:
5309:
5453:
4351:
Peracha MO, Cosgrove FM, Garcia-Valenzuela E, Eliott D (5 November 2015). Roy H Sr, Talavera F, Rowsey JJ (eds.).
3747:"Melanin-Like Nanomaterials for Advanced Biomedical Applications: A Versatile Platform with Extraordinary Promise"
1219:, a known cause of nonsyndromic oculocutaneous albinism. It is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by a
1032:
6957:
6713:
6226:
5595:
4330:
6420:
6819:
6730:
6549:
6468:
5987:
5468:
5463:
3152:
6919:
6878:
6824:
6415:
6138:
6133:
5850:
5513:
4251:"Microbial Tyrosinases: Promising Enzymes for Pharmaceutical, Food Bioprocessing, and Environmental Industry"
3455:
136:
4793:
4177:"Melanins: Skin Pigments and Much More—Types, Structural Models, Biological Functions, and Formation Routes"
2855:"Ionizing radiation changes the electronic properties of melanin and enhances the growth of melanized fungi"
2575:"Melanins: Skin Pigments and Much More—Types, Structural Models, Biological Functions, and Formation Routes"
6786:
4646:
1308:. In its pro-oxidant state, melanin has been suggested to be involved in the causation and progression of
6873:
6076:
6027:
5494:
1143:
667:
of alternating refractive index. When the scale of this pattern matches the wavelength of visible light,
429:(strain: melanoliber) spores. Peptidomelanin is formed as a copolymer between L-DOPA eumelanin and short
2155:
7072:
6893:
6559:
5782:
5498:
5399:
5394:
2608:"5,6-Dihydroxyindole eumelanin content in human skin with varying degrees of constitutive pigmentation"
1593:
1429:
5098:
4502:
7114:
6735:
6683:
6440:
6435:
6123:
6118:
6071:
6032:
5677:
3589:. IRPA Regional Congress on Radiation Protection in Central Europe: Radiation Protection and Health.
1521:
1473:. Dark-skinned people, who produce more skin-protecting eumelanin, have a greater protection against
1396:
rays. In general, people whose ancestors lived for long periods in the regions of the globe near the
1250:
725:
in the Soviet era, was increasingly supported by government funding in the wake of the discovery of
383:
such as iron, as well as other potentially toxic molecules. Therefore, it may play crucial roles in
6688:
6081:
5658:
1241:
6000:
5982:
3063:
Mouchet SR, Cortesi F, Bokic B, Lazovic V, Vukusic P, Marshall NJ, et al. (1 November 2023).
65:
Micrograph of Melanin pigment (light refracting granular material—center of image) in a pigmented
6749:
6642:
6385:
5812:
5787:
5715:
5697:
5478:– this diagram does not include the pathway for β-leucine synthesis via leucine 2,3-aminomutase)
5458:
2783:
Cerenius L, Söderhäll K (April 2004). "The prophenoloxidase-activating system in invertebrates".
1212:
578:
565:
323:
Part of the structural formula of pheomelanin. "(COOH)" can be COOH or H, or (more rarely) other
6776:
6632:
6478:
6199:
5992:
5845:
2314:
Double KL (2006). "Functional effects of neuromelanin and synthetic melanin in model systems".
1200:
603:
388:
267:
Part of the structural formula of eumelanin. "(COOH)" can be COOH or H, or (more rarely) other
129:
6022:
4210:"The chemistry of melanin. Mechanism of the oxidation of dihydroxyphenylalanine by tyrosinase"
3416:
3320:
789:
Melanin produced by plants are sometimes referred to as 'catechol melanins' as they can yield
7119:
6888:
6315:
6294:
6249:
6194:
5558:
5099:"Etiologic pathogenesis of melanoma: a unifying hypothesis for the missing attributable risk"
2463:
1167:
905:
685:
668:
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6804:
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5865:
5639:
5372:
5362:
5348:
5207:
4938:
4883:
4749:
4487:
3832:
3817:
Mosse IB (2012). "Genetic effects of ionizing radiation – some questions with no answers".
2866:
2357:
Kolipakala RS, Basu S, Sarkar S, Biju BM, Salazar D, Reddy L, et al. (7 August 2024).
1908:
Meredith P, Riesz J (2004). "Radiative relaxation quantum yields for synthetic eumelanin".
1859:"Neuromelanin, one of the most overlooked molecules in modern medicine, is not a spectator"
1727:
1629:
1613:
1577:
1309:
857:
529:
6740:
4353:
3065:"Morphological and Optical Modification of Melanosomes in Fish Integuments upon Oxidation"
885:
568:. Melanin also protects against damage from high temperatures, chemical stresses (such as
8:
7124:
6534:
6009:
6005:
5918:
5803:
5433:
5019:
Donatien PD, Orlow SJ (August 1995). "Interaction of melanosomal proteins with melanin".
4016:
3962:
3906:
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1656:
1585:
1529:
1334:
875:
599:
276:
6299:
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4942:
4887:
4753:
4141:
4116:
3836:
2870:
2826:
Castelvecchi D (26 May 2007). "Dark Power: Pigment seems to put radiation to good use".
2387:
2358:
1731:
6781:
6708:
6513:
6508:
6425:
6395:
6051:
5600:
5344:
5238:
5196:"Melanin presence inhibits melanoma cell spread in mice in a unique mechanical fashion"
5195:
5131:
5079:
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4961:
4926:
4907:
4851:
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4250:
4154:
4092:
4065:
3990:
3928:
3785:
3746:
3719:
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3660:
3587:
Melanin is Effective Radioprotector against Chronic Irradiation and Low Radiation Doses
3559:
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2339:
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1987:
1962:
1943:
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1885:
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1827:
1759:
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1625:
1389:
802:
798:
794:
619:
537:
474:
243:
162:
4522:
4226:
4209:
2511:
2031:
374:
Neuromelanin (NM) is an insoluble polymer pigment produced in specific populations of
6947:
6883:
6573:
6430:
5443:
5264:
5243:
5225:
5173:
5123:
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5036:
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4825:
Harding RM, Healy E, Ray AJ, Ellis NS, Flanagan N, Todd C, et al. (April 2000).
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3301:
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3252:
3207:
3109:
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2929:
2894:
2800:
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2694:
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2627:
2543:
2443:
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2423:
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2331:
2288:
2253:
2206:
2129:
2086:
2078:
2074:
2043:
2035:
1992:
1978:
1947:
1935:
1890:
1831:
1819:
1811:
1751:
1743:
1365:
1348:
1155:
1088:
dopaquinone + cysteine → 2-S-cysteinyldopa → benzothiazine intermediate → pheomelanin
1083:
dopaquinone + cysteine → 5-S-cysteinyldopa → benzothiazine intermediate → pheomelanin
459:
426:
380:
375:
303:
6218:
5339:
5135:
5083:
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4300:
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2812:
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2141:
1131:
930:
6698:
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6168:
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5113:
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5028:
4993:
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4946:
4911:
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4846:
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4457:
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4221:
4188:
4158:
4136:
4128:
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3910:
3840:
3780:
3764:
3751:
3714:
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3664:
3634:
3554:
3546:
3505:
3389:
3291:
3242:
3234:
3197:
3187:
3136:
3105:
3076:
3027:
2988:
2960:
2921:
2884:
2874:
2835:
2792:
2755:
2684:
2676:
2635:
2619:
2586:
2533:
2523:
2415:
2382:
2366:
2323:
2280:
2245:
2198:
2121:
2098:
2070:
2027:
1982:
1974:
1927:
1880:
1870:
1801:
1793:
1763:
1735:
1667:
1569:
1532:—the ability to change shape to focus from far to near—a detriment due probably to
1482:
1377:
1179:
1050:
1049:
The first step of the biosynthetic pathway for both eumelanins and pheomelanins is
947:
702:
573:
533:
514:
486:
478:
470:
458:
Trichochromes (formerly called trichosiderins) are pigments produced from the same
87:
5118:
3970:
3915:
3892:
3844:
2300:
1780:
Cao W, Zhou X, McCallum NC, Hu Z, Ni QZ, Kapoor U, et al. (9 February 2021).
1628:
of about 4.93 kPa, compared to non-pigmented cells, with a value of 0.98 kPa. The
7098:
7040:
6760:
6718:
6703:
6673:
6647:
6544:
6390:
5744:
5620:
5503:
4573:
3694:
3296:
3279:
2925:
2879:
2839:
2202:
1638:
1609:
1478:
1324:
718:
664:
625:
510:
502:
2403:
61:
7086:
7059:
7052:
7030:
6952:
6518:
6458:
6348:
5220:
5194:
Sarna M, Krzykawska-Serda M, Jakubowska M, Zadlo A, Urbanska K (26 June 2019).
4066:"Comparison of Antioxidant Activities of Melanin Fractions from Chestnut Shell"
3359:
2760:
2743:
2185:
Thody AJ, Higgins EM, Wakamatsu K, Ito S, Burchill SA, Marks JM (August 1991).
2125:
1739:
1693:
1672:
1597:
1509:
1293:
1284:
1246:
1026:
810:
595:
557:
490:
232:
212:
4616:
4354:"Ocular Manifestations of Albinism: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology"
4132:
4082:
3639:
3616:
2327:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
1344:
299:
DHI-enriched eumelanin. These final polymers differ in solubility and color.
7108:
6978:
6907:
6868:
6463:
6105:
5885:
5533:
5229:
4710:
4034:
3978:
3924:
3852:
3776:
3710:
3702:
3648:
3256:
3041:
2972:
2631:
2528:
2427:
2402:
Cao W, McCallum NC, Ni QZ, Li W, Boyce H, Mao H, et al. (22 July 2020).
2378:
2370:
2359:"Fungal Peptidomelanin: A Novel Biopolymer for the Chelation of Heavy Metals"
2082:
2039:
1875:
1815:
1747:
1682:
1557:
1553:
1437:
1014:
1004:
721:
come from the laboratories and research groups of Irma Mosse. Mosse began in
591:
587:
518:
349:
345:
292:
220:
197:
4951:
4895:
4761:
3393:
2680:
6745:
6669:
6190:
6062:
5890:
5508:
5247:
5177:
5127:
5075:
5005:
4970:
4903:
4860:
4779:
4624:
4581:
4531:
4286:
4235:
4150:
4101:
3986:
3860:
3794:
3768:
3745:
Liu H, Yang Y, Liu Y, Pan J, Wang J, Man F, et al. (7 February 2020).
3728:
3656:
3617:"Melanin pigments of fungi under extreme environmental conditions (Review)"
3568:
3550:
3519:
3211:
3049:
3016:"Genome sequence and genetic diversity of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio"
2980:
2933:
2898:
2804:
2769:
2698:
2649:
2547:
2435:
2335:
2292:
2257:
2186:
2133:
2090:
2047:
2003:
1996:
1939:
1894:
1823:
1806:
1755:
1605:
1589:
1441:
1420:
1381:
1373:
1275:
726:
722:
569:
561:
369:
239:
185:
5040:
4469:
4267:
4193:
4176:
4051:
3401:
3176:"Bird Integumentary Melanins: Biosynthesis, Forms, Function and Evolution"
3014:
Xu P, Zhang X, Wang X, Li J, Liu G, Kuang Y, et al. (November 2014).
2591:
2574:
2210:
7035:
6973:
5870:
5836:
3305:
3192:
2419:
1922:
1797:
1565:
1517:
1470:
1393:
1305:
1264:
1196:
1069:
844:
689:
653:
477:
occurs when melanocytes produce little melanin. This albino girl is from
324:
308:
268:
170:
169:. Melanin pigments are produced in a specialized group of cells known as
150:
3247:
7025:
6996:
6942:
6678:
6497:
6405:
6338:
6277:
6253:
6177:
6153:
5972:
5943:
5792:
5485:
5376:
5340:
3510:
3493:
3148:
3081:
3064:
2964:
2623:
1781:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1445:
1369:
1317:
1220:
1101:
1054:
981:
896:
697:
672:
660:
637:
607:
553:
525:
357:
288:
284:
205:
196:. Eumelanin is produced through a multistage chemical process known as
5067:
4350:
4334:
4170:
4168:
3238:
2663:
Cichorek M, Wachulska M, Stasiewicz A, Tymińska A (20 February 2013).
2249:
408:
6587:
6368:
6181:
6042:
5861:
5857:
5832:
5720:
5706:
5692:
5668:
5291:
5272:
4738:"The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans"
4380:
3760:
3594:
1698:
1547:
1540:
1525:
1409:
730:
645:
protein content in their diet, exhibit pheomelanin‐based coloration.
583:
544:
humans, as well as the form most likely to be deficient in albinism.
506:
498:
434:
then incorporated autoxidatively into a growing L-DOPA core polymer.
384:
247:
235:. Allomelanin and pyomelanin are two types of nitrogen free melanin.
201:
142:
24:
5193:
3358:
Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart WM (2000).
3140:
3032:
3015:
1782:"Unraveling the Structure and Function of Melanin through Synthesis"
1572:. Suboptimal conditions for the effective polymerization of melanin
1408:
more heat loss by radiation. Pigmentation also hinders synthesis of
1025:
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their
7081:
6592:
6377:
6286:
6145:
6109:
6096:
5828:
5773:
5649:
5611:
5568:
5537:
4842:
4359:
4165:
3951:
Mosse I (18 January 2022). "Radiobiology in my life – Irma Mosse".
3828:
3124:
2662:
1677:
1634:
1601:
1581:
1401:
1340:
1330:
1313:
1304:
has been proposed to turn the normally anti-oxidant polymer into a
1280:
1236:
1109:
dopaquinone → leucodopachrome → dopachrome → 5,6-dihydroxyindole →
1076:
1061:
806:
790:
781:
678:
443:
340:
333:
216:
208:
166:
154:
66:
20:
4794:"A Single Migration From Africa Populated the World, Studies Find"
1271:
impairment, though the reasons for this are not fully understood.
6937:
6809:
6725:
6665:
6266:
5735:
5630:
5607:
5582:
5573:
5409:
1573:
1533:
1513:
1486:
1474:
1456:
1425:
1397:
1364:
Melanocytes insert granules of melanin into specialized cellular
1268:
1216:
1110:
994:
917:
641:
633:
447:
430:
417:
158:
3891:
Mosse I, Kilchevsky A, Nikolova N, Zhelev N (14 December 2016).
3277:
2235:
2187:"Pheomelanin as well as eumelanin is present in human epidermis"
1963:"The protective role of melanin against UV damage in human skin"
1564:. It has been proposed that the ability of melanin to act as an
489:. It is also found in hair, the pigmented tissue underlying the
7047:
5899:
5586:
5385:
5352:
4736:
Tishkoff SA, Reed FA, Friedlaender FR, et al. (May 2009).
4433:
4419:
2512:"Biochemical sites of gene action for melanogenesis in mammals"
2111:
1651:
1502:
1065:
705:
against DNA damage from non-UV radiation. Important studies in
652:
pigmentation. The coat pattern of mammals is determined by the
649:
319:
228:
3584:
2063:
Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology
1239:
is well known, though poorly understood. In his 1859 treatise
5763:
4676:. Vol. 3 (8th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 58.9.
4364:
3890:
3357:
3278:
Jimbow K, Quevedo WC J, Fitzpatrick TB, Szabo G (July 1976).
1718:
Casadevall A (2018). "Melanin triggers antifungal defences".
1380:. The melanosomes in each recipient cell accumulate atop the
1225:
1104:→ 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid → quinone → eumelanin
1019:
450 to 550 °C (842 to 1,022 °F; 723 to 823 K)
663:
has been observed to be deposited in layers thus producing a
353:
280:
263:
238:
In the human skin, melanogenesis is initiated by exposure to
41:
3322:
Genetic Analysis: Genes, Genomes, and Networks in Eukaryotes
3095:
2404:"Selenomelanin: An Abiotic Selenium Analogue of Pheomelanin"
1568:
is directly proportional to its degree of polymerization or
1454:
does not appear to have undergone positive selection, while
3364:
2270:
1608:
by the RPE. This phenomenon has been attributed in part to
1450:
1254:
1118:
614:
102:
96:
5096:
4927:"Human skin pigmentation as an adaptation to UV radiation"
3614:
3532:
3062:
2911:
1954:
1711:
835:
77:
Micrograph of the epidermis, with melanin labeled at left.
4602:
1385:
224:
108:
4735:
4447:
3378:
3224:
2485:"New biomaterial could shield against harmful radiation"
2356:
2184:
4559:
3491:
2605:
2016:
1297:
1206:
829:
3,8-Dimethyl-2,7-dihydrobenzodiindole-4,5,9,10-tetrone
582:, a fungus) melanins appear to play important roles in
4500:
4363:. Additional contributions from Kilbourn Gordon, III.
3893:"Some problems and errors in cytogenetic biodosimetry"
2946:
2509:
862:
3,8-Dimethyl-2,7-dihydrobenzodiindole-4,5,9,10-tetrone
823:
3,8-Dimethyl-2,7-dihydrobenzodiindole-4,5,9,10-tetrone
7070:
6248:
5097:
Meyskens FL, Farmer PJ, Anton-Culver H (April 2004).
4983:
4011:
Dadachova E, Casadevall A (2011). Horikoshi K (ed.).
3610:
3608:
816:
111:
105:
5958:
Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex
5914:
Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex
5429:
Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex
4824:
4503:"Redox regulation in human melanocytes and melanoma"
3485:
2853:
Dadachova E, Bryan RA, Huang X, et al. (2007).
2735:
1267:
in the stria vascularis of the inner ear results in
99:
4873:
4827:"Evidence for Variable Selective Pressures at MC1R"
4651:
The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program
4010:
3886:
3884:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3872:
3870:
3676:
3674:
3580:
3578:
3533:Hegna RH, Nokelainen O, Hegna JR, Mappes J (2013).
2852:
1856:
1079:by two pathways to benzothiazines and pheomelanins
93:
90:
4352:
3605:
2914:International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology
2905:
1548:Physical properties and technological applications
6694:Inherited patterned lentiginosis in black persons
5566:
4006:
4004:
3740:
3738:
3125:"Melanin and the Abrasion Resistance of Feathers"
2782:
1779:
501:. In the brain, tissues with melanin include the
485:In humans, melanin is the primary determinant of
16:Group of natural pigments found in most organisms
7106:
6903:Eczematid-like purpura of Doucas and Kapetanakis
5267:. Department of Computer Science and Technology.
5163:
5053:
4924:
4501:Meyskens FL, Farmer P, Fruehauf JP (June 2001).
3867:
3671:
3615:Gessler NN, Egorova AS, Belozerskaya TA (2014).
3575:
2846:
1469:is needed. This is the physiological purpose of
1274:In Parkinson's disease, a disorder that affects
1117:Detailed metabolic pathways can be found in the
929:
505:and pigment-bearing neurons within areas of the
327:. The arrows denote where the polymer continues.
271:. The arrow denotes where the polymer continues.
5519:Aminocarboxymuconate-semialdehyde decarboxylase
4931:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4671:
4248:
3056:
2401:
1096:and follow two more pathways to the eumelanins
1009:< −20 °C (−4 °F; 253 K)
884:
4001:
3898:Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment
3735:
3680:
3453:
2947:Kottler VA, Künstner A, Schartl M (May 2015).
2606:Del Bino S, Ito S, Sok J, Wakamatsu K (2022).
1960:
1664:, a syndrome characterised by hypopigmentation
1619:
339:Pheomelanin production is highly dependent on
223:portions that are largely responsible for the
6555:Yemenite deaf-blind hypopigmentation syndrome
6234:
5325:
5189:
5187:
5018:
3946:
3944:
3942:
3812:
3810:
3808:
3806:
3804:
3744:
3492:Hsiung BK, Blackledge TA, Shawkey MD (2015).
3013:
2741:
1907:
793:on alkali fusion. It is commonly seen in the
737:. Her most significant contribution is Mosse
735:Belarusian Institute of Genetics and Cytology
421:The biochemical composition of peptidomelanin
4346:
4344:
3280:"Some aspects of melanin biology: 1950–1975"
3173:
2825:
2516:Annales de Génétique et de Sélection Animale
2060:
352:units that are produced, instead of DHI and
6623:Reticular pigmented anomaly of the flexures
5963:3-hydroxy-2-methylbutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase
3447:
3360:"Gene interaction in coat color of mammals"
3180:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
2665:"Skin melanocytes: biology and development"
2482:
287:. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme
6241:
6227:
5953:Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase
5909:Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase
5424:Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase
5332:
5318:
5184:
3954:International Journal of Radiation Biology
3939:
3801:
1775:
1773:
1717:
1552:Evidence exists for a highly cross-linked
1232:mortality beyond melanoma-related deaths.
904:
394:
161:, which among other functions provide the
40:
5934:Methylmalonate semialdehyde dehydrogenase
5237:
5219:
5117:
4960:
4950:
4850:
4769:
4521:
4341:
4276:
4266:
4249:Zaidi KU, Ali AS, Ali SA, Naaz I (2014).
4225:
4192:
4140:
4091:
4081:
3914:
3784:
3718:
3681:Nenoi M, Wang B, Vares G (12 June 2014).
3638:
3599:Croatian Radiation Protection Association
3558:
3509:
3421:. Springer Science & Business Media.
3295:
3246:
3201:
3191:
3080:
3031:
2940:
2888:
2878:
2759:
2688:
2639:
2590:
2537:
2527:
2386:
2313:
1986:
1921:
1884:
1874:
1857:Haining RL, Achat-Mendes C (March 2017).
1805:
1190:
713:, 1985. Much of our understanding of the
6899:Doucas and Kapetanakis pigmented purpura
6628:Naegeli–Franceschetti–Jadassohn syndrome
5524:Aminomuconate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase
4114:
3284:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology
2408:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2191:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology
1786:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1624:Heavily pigmented melanoma cells have a
1288:substantia nigra from external toxins."
1044:
785:Chemical structure of indole-5,6-quinone
780:
602:, appear to be able to use melanin as a
469:
416:
407:
318:
262:
72:
60:
6638:X-linked reticulate pigmentary disorder
6618:Reticulate acropigmentation of Kitamura
6613:Pigmentatio reticularis faciei et colli
5755:1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase
5296:Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes
5277:Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes
5273:"Tyrosine metabolism—Reference pathway"
4925:Jablonski NG, Chaplin G (11 May 2010).
3414:
3318:
2669:Advances in Dermatology and Allergology
1901:
1770:
1415:
1351:rates in darker pigmented individuals.
741:, 2000 on mice but also includes Mosse
524:The melanin in the skin is produced by
332:orange hair, which is typically called
176:There are five basic types of melanin:
7107:
7010:Dyschromatosis universalis hereditaria
6815:Familial progressive hyperpigmentation
6015:Betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase
4831:The American Journal of Human Genetics
4699:"Why Humans and Their Fur Parted Ways"
4605:Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior
4311:from the original on 25 September 2017
4174:
3820:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
3122:
3007:
2572:
2217:from the original on 25 September 2022
1372:. These are then transferred into the
1211:There are approximately nine types of
1092:Also, dopaquinone can be converted to
671:arises: giving a number of species an
442:It is possible to enrich melanin with
7005:Dyschromatosis symmetrica hereditaria
6840:Transient neonatal pustular melanosis
6222:
5476:Template:Leucine metabolism in humans
5313:
4207:
4063:
3950:
3816:
3622:Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology
3474:from the original on 12 November 2023
2995:from the original on 22 February 2024
2450:from the original on 6 September 2023
2166:from the original on 11 February 2020
733:, and as of 2022 continues under the
281:5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid
6830:Photoleukomelanodermatitis of Kobori
6608:Dermatopathia pigmentosa reticularis
5616:Guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase
4696:
4121:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
3457:Natural Photonics and Bioinspiration
3155:from the original on 23 January 2020
2953:Pigment Cell & Melanoma Research
2742:Hamilton AJ, Gomez BL (March 2002).
2612:Pigment Cell & Melanoma Research
2599:
1596:(RPE) also may be implicated in the
1536:crosslinking caused by UV exposure.
1354:
1235:The connection between albinism and
1207:Genetic disorders and disease states
610:and harness this energy for growth.
149: 'black, dark') is a family of
6129:4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase
5726:Formiminotransferase cyclodeaminase
5449:Isovaleryl coenzyme A dehydrogenase
4541:from the original on 30 August 2024
4255:Biochemistry Research International
3494:"Spiders do have melanin after all"
3435:from the original on 30 August 2024
3339:from the original on 30 August 2024
3174:Galván I, Solano F (8 April 2016).
2554:from the original on 30 August 2024
2491:from the original on 30 August 2024
1838:from the original on 30 August 2024
1253:, predominantly observed among the
1122:
920:
46:One possible structure of Eumelanin
13:
6835:Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation
6755:Poikiloderma vasculare atrophicans
5929:3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase
5419:3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase
5145:from the original on 3 August 2020
5033:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1995.tb20794.x
4462:10.1111/j.1600-0749.1994.tb00015.x
4371:from the original on 28 March 2017
2160:MetaCyc Metabolic Pathway Database
1932:10.1111/j.1751-1097.2004.tb00012.x
1689:Risks and benefits of sun exposure
1460:has undergone positive selection.
817:Interpretation as a single monomer
590:by protecting the microbe against
547:
275:Eumelanin has two forms linked to
14:
7136:
6540:Postinflammatory hypopigmentation
6484:Progressive macular hypomelanosis
5924:3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase
5841:Gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase
5750:Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase
5257:
4717:from the original on 18 June 2009
4523:10.1034/j.1600-0749.2001.140303.x
2723:from the original on 17 July 2020
2510:Prota, G., Searle, A. G. (1978).
2032:10.1034/j.1600-0749.2001.140505.x
1384:, where they protect the nuclear
684:Some moth species, including the
403:
7092:
7080:
6474:Idiopathic guttate hypomelanosis
5265:"Absorption spectrum of melanin"
5021:European Journal of Biochemistry
4998:10.1111/j.1600-0749.2004.00140.x
3683:"In vivo radioadaptive response"
3418:Biology of the Arthropod Cuticle
3110:10.1111/j.0908-8857.2008.04413.x
2797:10.1111/j.0105-2896.2004.00116.x
2075:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2011.04278.x
1979:10.1111/j.1751-1097.2007.00226.x
1203:is an effective melanin bleach.
1178:
1166:
1154:
1142:
1130:
1100:dopaquinone → leucodopachrome →
965:
959:
843:
834:
453:
437:
253:
181:
86:
6958:Titanium metallic discoloration
6714:Partial unilateral lentiginosis
5596:Serine hydroxymethyltransferase
5157:
5090:
5047:
5012:
4977:
4918:
4867:
4818:
4806:from the original on 2 May 2019
4786:
4729:
4690:
4665:
4639:
4596:
4562:Cutaneous and Ocular Toxicology
4553:
4494:
4476:
4441:
4427:
4413:
4387:
4323:
4293:
4242:
4214:Journal of Biological Chemistry
4201:
4115:Kim YJ, Uyama H (15 May 2005).
4108:
4064:Yao ZY, Qi JH (22 April 2016).
4057:
3526:
3498:Journal of Experimental Biology
3408:
3372:
3351:
3312:
3271:
3218:
3167:
3116:
3089:
2819:
2776:
2748:Journal of Medical Microbiology
2705:
2656:
2566:
2503:
2476:
2395:
2350:
2307:
2285:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.02.001
2264:
2229:
2178:
1967:Photochemistry and Photobiology
1910:Photochemistry and Photobiology
1029:(at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
363:
6731:Erythema dyschromicum perstans
6010:Homocysteine methyltransferase
5988:Methionine adenosyltransferase
5469:Methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase
5464:Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase
4674:Rook's Textbook of Dermatology
3460:(1st ed.), Artech House,
3454:Mouchet SR, Deparis O (2021),
2744:"Melanins in fungal pathogens"
2148:
2105:
2054:
1961:Brenner M, Hearing VJ (2008).
1850:
971:
953:
314:
302:Analysis of highly pigmented (
219:-derivative that contains poly
177:
1:
6920:Hemosiderin hyperpigmentation
6879:Pigmented purpuric dermatosis
6825:Periorbital hyperpigmentation
6321:Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome
6139:Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase
6134:Homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase
5851:Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase
5514:3-hydroxyanthranilate oxidase
5454:α-Ketoisocaproate dioxygenase
5119:10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-03-0638
4227:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)35614-X
3971:10.1080/09553002.2022.2026517
3916:10.1080/13102818.2016.1259018
3845:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2012.05.009
2468:: CS1 maint: date and year (
1705:
1388:from mutations caused by the
1359:
1075:Dopaquinone can combine with
648:Melanin is also important in
606:that enables them to capture
6787:Shiitake mushroom dermatitis
4647:"Human Skin Color Variation"
4574:10.3109/15569527.2012.676119
3961:(3: Women in Radiobiology).
3297:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12512500
2926:10.1016/bs.ircmb.2015.09.005
2880:10.1371/journal.pone.0000457
2840:10.1002/scin.2007.5591712106
2203:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12480680
1863:Neural Regeneration Research
1522:high-frequency visible light
1508:Melanin in the eyes, in the
258:
7:
6874:Iron metallic discoloration
6550:Vagabond's leukomelanoderma
6077:Methylmalonyl CoA epimerase
6028:Cystathionine beta synthase
5495:Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase
4937:(Supplement 2): 8962–8968.
3325:. Oxford University Press.
2487:. Northwestern University.
2483:Mark Heiden (8 July 2020).
2238:Journal of Natural Products
1644:
1637:, so that they can both be
1620:Role in melanoma metastasis
1404:in lighter-skinned people.
717:effects of melanin against
10:
7141:
6820:Pallister–Killian syndrome
6469:Albinism–deafness syndrome
6001:regeneration of methionine
5983:generation of homocysteine
5783:Ornithine aminotransferase
5499:Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase
5400:Glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase
5395:Saccharopine dehydrogenase
5221:10.1038/s41598-019-45643-9
2761:10.1099/0022-1317-51-3-189
2126:10.1152/physrev.00044.2003
1740:10.1038/d41586-018-02370-x
1594:retinal pigment epithelium
1526:blue, green, and grey eyes
1463:
1430:Anatomically modern humans
367:
135:
18:
7018:
6995:
6966:
6928:
6861:
6852:
6795:
6769:
6736:Lichen planus pigmentosus
6684:Centrofacial lentiginosis
6656:
6600:
6581:
6572:
6527:
6496:
6451:
6441:Griscelli syndrome type 3
6436:Griscelli syndrome type 2
6416:Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome
6404:
6376:
6361:
6329:
6308:
6285:
6274:
6260:
6176:
6166:
6124:Tyrosine aminotransferase
6119:Phenylalanine hydroxylase
6104:
6094:
6072:Propionyl-CoA carboxylase
6060:
6041:
6033:Cystathionine gamma-lyase
5971:
5942:
5898:
5883:
5821:
5801:
5772:
5734:
5705:
5690:
5678:L-threonine dehydrogenase
5667:
5648:
5629:
5581:
5557:
5532:
5484:
5408:
5384:
5371:
5359:
4697:Wade N (19 August 2003).
4617:10.1016/j.pbb.2009.02.011
4331:"Oculocutaneous Albinism"
4133:10.1007/s00018-005-5054-y
4083:10.3390/molecules21040487
3640:10.1134/s0003683814020094
2713:"oculocutaneous albinism"
2328:10.1007/s00702-006-0450-5
1023:
940:
868:
856:
851:
842:
833:
776:
629:use pheomelanin instead.
528:, which are found in the
465:
376:catecholaminergic neurons
51:
39:
34:
6689:Generalized lentiginosis
6421:Chédiak–Higashi syndrome
6082:Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase
5659:D-cysteine desulfhydrase
5106:Clinical Cancer Research
4305:pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
3703:10.1177/0960327114537537
3098:Journal of Avian Biology
2529:10.1186/1297-9686-10-1-1
2371:10.1021/acsomega.4c03704
1876:10.4103/1673-5374.202928
1242:On the Origin of Species
1197:blood breakdown pigments
513:. It also occurs in the
55:Heterogeneous biopolymer
19:Not to be confused with
6750:Poikiloderma of Civatte
6386:Oculocutaneous albinism
5813:Glutamate dehydrogenase
5788:Ornithine decarboxylase
5716:Histidine ammonia-lyase
5459:Leucine 2,3-aminomutase
4952:10.1073/pnas.0914628107
4896:10.1126/science.1116238
4762:10.1126/science.1172257
4395:"Causes of Variability"
4015:. Tokyo New York City:
3394:10.1242/dev.121.10.3223
2717:Genetics Home Reference
2681:10.5114/pdia.2013.33376
1213:oculocutaneous albinism
801:by the tyrosinase type
709:models include Hopwood
579:Cryptococcus neoformans
566:reactive oxygen species
395:Other forms of melanins
291:. The initial product,
6894:Gougerot–Blum syndrome
6777:Incontinentia pigmenti
6633:Dyskeratosis congenita
6560:Wende–Bauckus syndrome
6479:Phylloid hypomelanosis
6250:Pigmentation disorders
6200:Aspartate transaminase
6023:conversion to cysteine
5993:Adenosylhomocysteinase
5846:Glutathione synthetase
4181:New Journal of Science
4019:. pp. xxix+1247.
4013:Extremophiles handbook
3769:10.1002/advs.201903129
3601:. p. 35 (of 268).
3551:10.1098/rspb.2012.2812
2949:"Pheomelanin in fish?"
2579:New Journal of Science
1560:to matrix scaffolding
1251:Waardenburg's syndrome
1201:potassium permanganate
1191:Microscopic appearance
786:
604:photosynthetic pigment
482:
422:
414:
356:, when the amino acid
334:"red" or "ginger" hair
328:
272:
78:
70:
6316:Alezzandrini syndrome
6295:Quadrichrome vitiligo
6195:Asparagine synthetase
5363:Essential amino acids
4986:Pigment Cell Research
4802:. 22 September 2016.
4510:Pigment Cell Research
4450:Pigment Cell Research
4261:: 1–16 (see Fig. 3).
2785:Immunological Reviews
2114:Physiological Reviews
2020:Pigment Cell Research
1516:, helps protect from
1045:Biosynthetic pathways
784:
669:structural coloration
473:
420:
411:
322:
266:
76:
64:
6913:Angioma serpiginosum
6805:Acanthosis nigricans
6344:Waardenburg syndrome
5866:Glutamine synthetase
5640:Alanine transaminase
4401:on 23 September 2006
4337:on 23 December 2008.
3963:Taylor & Francis
3907:Taylor & Francis
3193:10.3390/ijms17040520
2420:10.1021/jacs.0c05573
1798:10.1021/jacs.0c12322
1685:, melanin production
1614:macular degeneration
1592:melanization in the
1578:macular degeneration
1416:Evolutionary origins
1310:macular degeneration
858:Preferred IUPAC name
493:of the eye, and the
6643:Galli–Galli disease
6535:Nevus depigmentosus
6006:Methionine synthase
5919:Enoyl-CoA hydratase
5804:alpha-ketoglutarate
5721:Urocanate hydratase
5434:Enoyl-CoA hydratase
5212:2019NatSR...9.9280S
5056:Ophthalmic Research
4943:2010PNAS..107.8962J
4888:2005Sci...310.1782L
4754:2009Sci...324.1035T
4484:"Lewy Body Disease"
4268:10.1155/2014/854687
4194:10.1155/2014/498276
3837:2012JEnvR.112...70M
3631:Pleiades Publishing
3415:Neville AC (2012).
2871:2007PLoSO...2..457D
2592:10.1155/2014/498276
2414:(29): 12802–12810.
1732:2018Natur.555..319C
1657:Albinism in biology
1376:cells of the human
1345:nicotine dependence
989: g·mol
830:
389:Parkinson's disease
277:5,6-dihydroxyindole
6889:Majocchi's disease
6782:Scratch dermatitis
6709:Mucosal lentigines
6509:Vasospastic macule
6426:Griscelli syndrome
6052:Threonine aldolase
5601:Serine dehydratase
5345:Protein metabolism
5200:Scientific Reports
4799:The New York Times
4703:The New York Times
3545:(1755): 20122812.
3511:10.1242/jeb.128801
3319:Meneely P (2014).
3123:Bonser RH (1995).
3082:10.3390/opt4040041
2965:10.1111/pcmr.12359
2624:10.1111/pcmr.13062
1662:Griscelli syndrome
1586:Signaling pathways
1390:ionizing radiation
1033:Infobox references
828:
803:polyphenol oxidase
799:indole-5,6-quinone
795:enzymatic browning
787:
620:Stegastes apicalis
600:radiotrophic fungi
483:
423:
415:
329:
273:
244:malignant melanoma
79:
71:
7068:
7067:
6991:
6990:
6987:
6986:
6948:Arsenic poisoning
6884:Schamberg disease
6848:
6847:
6741:Café au lait spot
6568:
6567:
6492:
6491:
6431:Elejalde syndrome
6357:
6356:
6216:
6215:
6212:
6211:
6208:
6207:
6162:
6161:
6090:
6089:
5879:
5878:
5686:
5685:
5553:
5552:
5444:HMG-CoA reductase
5068:10.1159/000085533
4748:(5930): 1035–44.
4683:978-1-4051-6169-5
4208:Mason HS (1948).
4175:Solano F (2014).
4127:(15): 1707–1723.
4044:978-4-431-53897-4
4026:978-4-431-53898-1
3504:(22): 3632–3635.
3467:978-163-081-797-8
3388:(10): 3223–3232.
3239:10.1111/ibi.12770
3026:(11): 1212–1219.
2573:Solano F (2014).
2250:10.1021/np100740n
2069:(12): 1369–1380.
1726:(7696): 319–320.
1355:Human adaptations
1349:smoking cessation
1173:L-leucodopachrome
1041:Chemical compound
1039:
1038:
769:, 2007 and Mosse
695:Melanin protects
594:responses of its
564:from the sun and
460:metabolic pathway
427:Aspergillus niger
381:transition metals
59:
58:
7132:
7115:Human skin color
7097:
7096:
7095:
7085:
7084:
7076:
6859:
6858:
6699:Ink spot lentigo
6598:
6597:
6579:
6578:
6374:
6373:
6300:Vitiligo ponctué
6283:
6282:
6272:
6271:
6243:
6236:
6229:
6220:
6219:
6174:
6173:
6102:
6101:
5896:
5895:
5703:
5702:
5579:
5578:
5564:
5563:
5382:
5381:
5334:
5327:
5320:
5311:
5310:
5306:
5304:
5302:
5287:
5285:
5283:
5268:
5252:
5251:
5241:
5223:
5191:
5182:
5181:
5166:Molecular Vision
5161:
5155:
5154:
5152:
5150:
5144:
5121:
5103:
5094:
5088:
5087:
5051:
5045:
5044:
5016:
5010:
5009:
4981:
4975:
4974:
4964:
4954:
4922:
4916:
4915:
4882:(5755): 1782–6.
4871:
4865:
4864:
4854:
4837:(4): 1351–1361.
4822:
4816:
4815:
4813:
4811:
4790:
4784:
4783:
4773:
4733:
4727:
4726:
4724:
4722:
4694:
4688:
4687:
4669:
4663:
4662:
4660:
4658:
4643:
4637:
4636:
4600:
4594:
4593:
4557:
4551:
4550:
4548:
4546:
4540:
4525:
4507:
4498:
4492:
4491:
4490:on 21 July 2009.
4486:. Archived from
4480:
4474:
4473:
4445:
4439:
4431:
4425:
4417:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4406:
4397:. Archived from
4391:
4385:
4384:
4378:
4376:
4356:
4348:
4339:
4338:
4333:. Archived from
4327:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4297:
4291:
4290:
4280:
4270:
4246:
4240:
4239:
4229:
4205:
4199:
4198:
4196:
4187:(498276): 1–28.
4172:
4163:
4162:
4144:
4112:
4106:
4105:
4095:
4085:
4061:
4055:
4038:
4008:
3999:
3998:
3948:
3937:
3936:
3918:
3888:
3865:
3864:
3814:
3799:
3798:
3788:
3752:Advanced Science
3742:
3733:
3732:
3722:
3678:
3669:
3668:
3642:
3612:
3603:
3602:
3582:
3573:
3572:
3562:
3530:
3524:
3523:
3513:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3481:
3479:
3451:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3412:
3406:
3405:
3376:
3370:
3369:
3355:
3349:
3348:
3346:
3344:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3299:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3250:
3222:
3216:
3215:
3205:
3195:
3171:
3165:
3164:
3162:
3160:
3120:
3114:
3113:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3035:
3011:
3005:
3004:
3002:
3000:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2892:
2882:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2823:
2817:
2816:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2763:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2728:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2692:
2660:
2654:
2653:
2643:
2603:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2541:
2531:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2467:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2390:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2268:
2262:
2261:
2233:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2014:
2001:
2000:
1990:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1925:
1923:cond-mat/0312277
1905:
1899:
1898:
1888:
1878:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1809:
1792:(7): 2622–2637.
1777:
1768:
1767:
1715:
1668:Human skin color
1641:and metastatic.
1570:molecular weight
1483:photodegradation
1481:, including the
1325:port-wine stains
1182:
1170:
1158:
1146:
1134:
999:1.6 to 1.8 g/cm
988:
973:
967:
961:
955:
948:Chemical formula
933:
922:
908:
888:
847:
838:
831:
827:
574:oxidizing agents
515:zona reticularis
495:stria vascularis
479:Papua New Guinea
387:and the related
304:Fitzpatrick type
146:
139:
127:
126:
125:
124:
117:
114:
113:
110:
107:
104:
101:
98:
95:
92:
44:
32:
31:
7140:
7139:
7135:
7134:
7133:
7131:
7130:
7129:
7105:
7104:
7103:
7093:
7091:
7079:
7071:
7069:
7064:
7014:
6983:
6962:
6930:
6924:
6869:Hemochromatosis
6854:
6844:
6797:
6791:
6765:
6761:Riehl melanosis
6719:PUVA lentigines
6704:Lentigo maligna
6674:Lentigo simplex
6658:
6652:
6648:Revesz syndrome
6591:
6586:
6564:
6545:Pityriasis alba
6523:
6514:Woronoff's ring
6501:
6488:
6447:
6408:
6400:
6391:Ocular albinism
6367:
6353:
6331:
6325:
6304:
6276:
6265:
6256:
6247:
6217:
6204:
6158:
6086:
6056:
6037:
5967:
5938:
5889:
5875:
5817:
5797:
5768:
5745:Proline oxidase
5730:
5698:α-ketoglutarate
5696:
5682:
5663:
5644:
5625:
5621:Creatine kinase
5571:
5549:
5528:
5504:Arylformamidase
5480:
5404:
5367:
5365:are in Capitals
5355:
5351:and catabolism
5338:
5300:
5298:
5292:"Melanogenesis"
5290:
5281:
5279:
5271:
5263:
5260:
5255:
5192:
5185:
5162:
5158:
5148:
5146:
5142:
5101:
5095:
5091:
5052:
5048:
5017:
5013:
4982:
4978:
4923:
4919:
4872:
4868:
4823:
4819:
4809:
4807:
4792:
4791:
4787:
4734:
4730:
4720:
4718:
4695:
4691:
4684:
4670:
4666:
4656:
4654:
4645:
4644:
4640:
4601:
4597:
4558:
4554:
4544:
4542:
4538:
4505:
4499:
4495:
4482:
4481:
4477:
4446:
4442:
4432:
4428:
4418:
4414:
4404:
4402:
4393:
4392:
4388:
4374:
4372:
4349:
4342:
4329:
4328:
4324:
4314:
4312:
4299:
4298:
4294:
4247:
4243:
4206:
4202:
4173:
4166:
4113:
4109:
4062:
4058:
4027:
4009:
4002:
3949:
3940:
3889:
3868:
3815:
3802:
3743:
3736:
3679:
3672:
3613:
3606:
3583:
3576:
3539:Proc. R. Soc. B
3531:
3527:
3490:
3486:
3477:
3475:
3468:
3452:
3448:
3438:
3436:
3429:
3413:
3409:
3377:
3373:
3356:
3352:
3342:
3340:
3333:
3317:
3313:
3276:
3272:
3223:
3219:
3172:
3168:
3158:
3156:
3141:10.2307/1369048
3121:
3117:
3094:
3090:
3061:
3057:
3033:10.1038/ng.3098
3020:Nature Genetics
3012:
3008:
2998:
2996:
2945:
2941:
2910:
2906:
2851:
2847:
2824:
2820:
2781:
2777:
2740:
2736:
2726:
2724:
2711:
2710:
2706:
2661:
2657:
2604:
2600:
2571:
2567:
2557:
2555:
2508:
2504:
2494:
2492:
2481:
2477:
2461:
2460:
2453:
2451:
2400:
2396:
2355:
2351:
2316:J Neural Transm
2312:
2308:
2269:
2265:
2234:
2230:
2220:
2218:
2183:
2179:
2169:
2167:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2120:(4): 1155–228.
2110:
2106:
2059:
2055:
2015:
2004:
1959:
1955:
1906:
1902:
1855:
1851:
1841:
1839:
1807:1854/LU-8699336
1778:
1771:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1703:
1647:
1626:Young's modulus
1622:
1550:
1479:solar radiation
1466:
1418:
1362:
1357:
1294:matrix proteins
1209:
1193:
1186:
1183:
1174:
1171:
1162:
1159:
1150:
1147:
1138:
1135:
1094:leucodopachrome
1047:
1042:
1035:
1030:
986:
976:
970:
964:
958:
950:
936:
923:
911:
891:
878:
864:
863:
819:
779:
719:gamma radiation
715:radioprotective
686:wood tiger moth
665:Bragg reflector
626:Cyprinus carpio
550:
548:Other organisms
511:locus coeruleus
468:
456:
440:
406:
397:
372:
366:
317:
261:
256:
211:is followed by
120:
119:
89:
85:
47:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7138:
7128:
7127:
7122:
7117:
7102:
7101:
7089:
7066:
7065:
7063:
7062:
7060:Depigmentation
7057:
7056:
7055:
7045:
7044:
7043:
7033:
7031:Skin whitening
7028:
7022:
7020:
7016:
7015:
7013:
7012:
7007:
7001:
6999:
6993:
6992:
6989:
6988:
6985:
6984:
6982:
6981:
6976:
6970:
6968:
6964:
6963:
6961:
6960:
6955:
6953:Lead poisoning
6950:
6945:
6940:
6934:
6932:
6926:
6925:
6923:
6922:
6917:
6916:
6915:
6910:
6905:
6896:
6891:
6886:
6876:
6871:
6865:
6863:
6856:
6850:
6849:
6846:
6845:
6843:
6842:
6837:
6832:
6827:
6822:
6817:
6812:
6807:
6801:
6799:
6793:
6792:
6790:
6789:
6784:
6779:
6773:
6771:
6767:
6766:
6764:
6763:
6758:
6752:
6743:
6738:
6733:
6728:
6722:
6721:
6716:
6711:
6706:
6701:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6676:
6662:
6660:
6654:
6653:
6651:
6650:
6645:
6640:
6635:
6630:
6625:
6620:
6615:
6610:
6604:
6602:
6595:
6576:
6570:
6569:
6566:
6565:
6563:
6562:
6557:
6552:
6547:
6542:
6537:
6531:
6529:
6525:
6524:
6522:
6521:
6519:Nevus anemicus
6516:
6511:
6505:
6503:
6494:
6493:
6490:
6489:
6487:
6486:
6481:
6476:
6471:
6466:
6461:
6459:Cross syndrome
6455:
6453:
6449:
6448:
6446:
6445:
6444:
6443:
6438:
6433:
6423:
6418:
6412:
6410:
6402:
6401:
6399:
6398:
6393:
6388:
6382:
6380:
6371:
6359:
6358:
6355:
6354:
6352:
6351:
6349:Tietz syndrome
6346:
6341:
6335:
6333:
6327:
6326:
6324:
6323:
6318:
6312:
6310:
6306:
6305:
6303:
6302:
6297:
6291:
6289:
6280:
6269:
6258:
6257:
6246:
6245:
6238:
6231:
6223:
6214:
6213:
6210:
6209:
6206:
6205:
6203:
6202:
6197:
6187:
6185:
6171:
6164:
6163:
6160:
6159:
6157:
6156:
6142:
6141:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6115:
6113:
6099:
6092:
6091:
6088:
6087:
6085:
6084:
6079:
6074:
6068:
6066:
6058:
6057:
6055:
6054:
6048:
6046:
6039:
6038:
6036:
6035:
6030:
6018:
6017:
6012:
5996:
5995:
5990:
5978:
5976:
5969:
5968:
5966:
5965:
5960:
5955:
5949:
5947:
5940:
5939:
5937:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5916:
5911:
5905:
5903:
5893:
5881:
5880:
5877:
5876:
5874:
5873:
5868:
5854:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5825:
5823:
5819:
5818:
5816:
5815:
5809:
5807:
5799:
5798:
5796:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5779:
5777:
5770:
5769:
5767:
5766:
5761:
5752:
5747:
5741:
5739:
5732:
5731:
5729:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5712:
5710:
5700:
5688:
5687:
5684:
5683:
5681:
5680:
5674:
5672:
5665:
5664:
5662:
5661:
5655:
5653:
5646:
5645:
5643:
5642:
5636:
5634:
5627:
5626:
5624:
5623:
5618:
5604:
5603:
5598:
5592:
5590:
5576:
5561:
5555:
5554:
5551:
5550:
5548:
5547:
5543:
5541:
5530:
5529:
5527:
5526:
5521:
5516:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5491:
5489:
5482:
5481:
5472:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5415:
5413:
5406:
5405:
5403:
5402:
5397:
5391:
5389:
5379:
5369:
5368:
5360:
5357:
5356:
5337:
5336:
5329:
5322:
5314:
5308:
5307:
5288:
5269:
5259:
5258:External links
5256:
5254:
5253:
5183:
5156:
5089:
5046:
5011:
4976:
4917:
4866:
4843:10.1086/302863
4817:
4785:
4728:
4689:
4682:
4664:
4653:. 20 June 2012
4638:
4595:
4552:
4493:
4475:
4440:
4426:
4412:
4386:
4340:
4322:
4292:
4241:
4200:
4164:
4107:
4056:
4025:
4000:
3938:
3866:
3800:
3734:
3670:
3604:
3574:
3525:
3484:
3466:
3446:
3427:
3407:
3371:
3350:
3331:
3311:
3270:
3233:(1): 238–244.
3217:
3166:
3135:(2): 590–591.
3115:
3104:(5): 539–545.
3088:
3075:(4): 563–562.
3055:
3006:
2959:(3): 355–356.
2939:
2904:
2845:
2818:
2775:
2734:
2704:
2655:
2618:(6): 622–626.
2598:
2565:
2502:
2475:
2394:
2349:
2322:(6): 751–756.
2306:
2279:(2): 109–124.
2273:Prog Neurobiol
2263:
2228:
2197:(2): 340–344.
2177:
2147:
2104:
2053:
2026:(5): 337–347.
2002:
1953:
1900:
1869:(3): 372–375.
1849:
1769:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1694:Skin whitening
1691:
1686:
1680:
1675:
1673:Melanin theory
1670:
1665:
1659:
1654:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1639:drug-resistant
1621:
1618:
1604:outer segment
1598:downregulation
1562:melanoproteins
1549:
1546:
1524:; people with
1465:
1462:
1417:
1414:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1302:ocular melanin
1285:norepinephrine
1247:Charles Darwin
1208:
1205:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1184:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1129:
1123:External links
1121:database (see
1115:
1114:
1106:
1105:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1084:
1073:
1072:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1031:
1027:standard state
1024:
1021:
1020:
1017:
1011:
1010:
1007:
1001:
1000:
997:
991:
990:
984:
978:
977:
974:
968:
962:
956:
951:
946:
943:
942:
938:
937:
935:
934:
926:
924:
916:
913:
912:
910:
909:
901:
899:
893:
892:
890:
889:
881:
879:
874:
871:
870:
866:
865:
861:
860:
854:
853:
849:
848:
840:
839:
818:
815:
811:catecholamines
778:
775:
765:, 2006, Mosse
761:, 2002, Mosse
757:, 2001, Mosse
753:, 1998, Mosse
749:, 1997, Mosse
745:, 1994, Mosse
558:cephalopod ink
549:
546:
509:, such as the
467:
464:
455:
452:
439:
436:
405:
404:Peptidomelanin
402:
396:
393:
368:Main article:
365:
362:
316:
313:
260:
257:
255:
252:
213:polymerization
57:
56:
53:
49:
48:
45:
37:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7137:
7126:
7123:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7113:
7112:
7110:
7100:
7090:
7088:
7083:
7078:
7077:
7074:
7061:
7058:
7054:
7051:
7050:
7049:
7046:
7042:
7039:
7038:
7037:
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7023:
7021:
7017:
7011:
7008:
7006:
7003:
7002:
7000:
6998:
6994:
6980:
6979:Tar melanosis
6977:
6975:
6972:
6971:
6969:
6965:
6959:
6956:
6954:
6951:
6949:
6946:
6944:
6941:
6939:
6936:
6935:
6933:
6927:
6921:
6918:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6908:Lichen aureus
6906:
6904:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6881:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6866:
6864:
6860:
6857:
6851:
6841:
6838:
6836:
6833:
6831:
6828:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6802:
6800:
6794:
6788:
6785:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6774:
6772:
6768:
6762:
6759:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6723:
6720:
6717:
6715:
6712:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6671:
6667:
6664:
6663:
6661:
6659:circumscribed
6655:
6649:
6646:
6644:
6641:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6605:
6603:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6589:
6584:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6571:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6532:
6530:
6526:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6510:
6507:
6506:
6504:
6502:hypomelanosis
6499:
6495:
6485:
6482:
6480:
6477:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6465:
6464:ABCD syndrome
6462:
6460:
6457:
6456:
6454:
6450:
6442:
6439:
6437:
6434:
6432:
6429:
6428:
6427:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6413:
6411:
6407:
6403:
6397:
6394:
6392:
6389:
6387:
6384:
6383:
6381:
6379:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6350:
6347:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6336:
6334:
6328:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6314:
6313:
6311:
6307:
6301:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6292:
6290:
6288:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6273:
6270:
6268:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6244:
6239:
6237:
6232:
6230:
6225:
6224:
6221:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6192:
6189:
6188:
6186:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6172:
6170:
6165:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6144:
6143:
6140:
6137:
6135:
6132:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6116:
6114:
6111:
6107:
6106:PHENYLALANINE
6103:
6100:
6098:
6093:
6083:
6080:
6078:
6075:
6073:
6070:
6069:
6067:
6064:
6059:
6053:
6050:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6040:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6020:
6019:
6016:
6013:
6011:
6007:
6004:
6002:
5998:
5997:
5994:
5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5980:
5979:
5977:
5974:
5970:
5964:
5961:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5941:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5906:
5904:
5901:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5887:
5886:propionyl-CoA
5882:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5863:
5859:
5856:
5855:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5827:
5826:
5824:
5820:
5814:
5811:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5800:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5780:
5778:
5775:
5771:
5765:
5762:
5760:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5742:
5740:
5737:
5733:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5679:
5676:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5666:
5660:
5657:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5647:
5641:
5638:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5628:
5622:
5619:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5606:
5605:
5602:
5599:
5597:
5594:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5577:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5562:
5560:
5556:
5545:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5535:
5534:PHENYLALANINE
5531:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5496:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5477:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5439:HMG-CoA lyase
5437:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5417:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5407:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5392:
5390:
5387:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5374:
5370:
5366:
5364:
5358:
5354:
5350:
5346:
5342:
5335:
5330:
5328:
5323:
5321:
5316:
5315:
5312:
5297:
5293:
5289:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5261:
5249:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5231:
5227:
5222:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5197:
5190:
5188:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5160:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5112:(8): 2581–3.
5111:
5107:
5100:
5093:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5062:(3): 136–41.
5061:
5057:
5050:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5027:(1): 159–64.
5026:
5022:
5015:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4980:
4972:
4968:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4921:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4877:
4870:
4862:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4821:
4805:
4801:
4800:
4795:
4789:
4781:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4732:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4693:
4685:
4679:
4675:
4668:
4652:
4648:
4642:
4634:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4611:(4): 589–96.
4610:
4606:
4599:
4591:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4556:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4516:(3): 148–54.
4515:
4511:
4504:
4497:
4489:
4485:
4479:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4444:
4438:
4435:
4430:
4424:
4421:
4416:
4400:
4396:
4390:
4382:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4361:
4355:
4347:
4345:
4336:
4332:
4326:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4296:
4288:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4245:
4237:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4204:
4195:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4171:
4169:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4111:
4103:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4060:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4007:
4005:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3955:
3947:
3945:
3943:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3899:
3894:
3887:
3885:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3821:
3813:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3805:
3796:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3741:
3739:
3730:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3677:
3675:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3623:
3618:
3611:
3609:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3581:
3579:
3570:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3529:
3521:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3488:
3473:
3469:
3463:
3459:
3458:
3450:
3434:
3430:
3428:9783642809101
3424:
3420:
3419:
3411:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3375:
3367:
3366:
3361:
3354:
3338:
3334:
3332:9780199681266
3328:
3324:
3323:
3315:
3307:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3274:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3221:
3213:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3170:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3119:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3092:
3083:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3059:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3010:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2943:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2908:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2849:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2822:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2779:
2771:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2754:(3): 189–91.
2753:
2749:
2745:
2738:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2700:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2651:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2602:
2593:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2490:
2486:
2479:
2471:
2465:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2353:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2310:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2244:(4): 675–82.
2243:
2239:
2232:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2181:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2156:"pheomelanin"
2151:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1973:(3): 539–49.
1972:
1968:
1964:
1957:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1904:
1896:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1853:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1774:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1714:
1710:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1683:Melanogenesis
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1554:heteropolymer
1545:
1542:
1537:
1535:
1531:
1530:accommodation
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1461:
1459:
1458:
1453:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1438:archaic human
1436:with certain
1435:
1434:interbreeding
1431:
1427:
1422:
1413:
1411:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1392:of the sun's
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1326:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1296:, changes in
1295:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1181:
1176:
1169:
1164:
1161:L-dopaquinone
1157:
1152:
1145:
1140:
1133:
1128:
1127:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1112:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1095:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1078:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1034:
1028:
1022:
1018:
1016:
1015:Boiling point
1013:
1012:
1008:
1006:
1005:Melting point
1003:
1002:
998:
996:
993:
992:
985:
983:
980:
979:
952:
949:
945:
944:
939:
932:
928:
927:
925:
919:
915:
914:
907:
903:
902:
900:
898:
895:
894:
887:
883:
882:
880:
877:
873:
872:
867:
859:
855:
850:
846:
841:
837:
832:
826:
824:
814:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
783:
774:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
699:
693:
691:
687:
682:
680:
676:
674:
670:
666:
662:
657:
655:
651:
646:
643:
639:
635:
630:
628:
627:
622:
621:
616:
611:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
588:pathogenicity
585:
581:
580:
575:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
545:
541:
539:
535:
531:
527:
522:
520:
519:adrenal gland
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
480:
476:
472:
463:
461:
454:Trichochromes
451:
449:
445:
438:Selenomelanin
435:
432:
428:
419:
410:
401:
392:
390:
386:
382:
377:
371:
361:
359:
355:
351:
350:benzothiazole
347:
346:benzothiazine
342:
337:
335:
326:
321:
312:
310:
305:
300:
296:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
270:
265:
254:Melanin types
251:
249:
245:
241:
236:
234:
230:
226:
222:
221:benzothiazine
218:
214:
210:
207:
203:
199:
198:melanogenesis
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
153:organized as
152:
148:
145:
138:
134:
131:
130:Ancient Greek
123:
116:
83:
75:
68:
63:
54:
52:Material type
50:
43:
38:
33:
30:
26:
22:
7120:Skin anatomy
6746:Poikiloderma
6670:Lentiginosis
6582:
6363:
6191:Asparaginase
6169:oxaloacetate
6149:
6063:succinyl-CoA
6021:
5999:
5981:
5891:succinyl-CoA
5509:Kynureninase
5473:
5361:
5299:. Retrieved
5295:
5280:. Retrieved
5276:
5203:
5199:
5169:
5165:
5159:
5147:. Retrieved
5109:
5105:
5092:
5059:
5055:
5049:
5024:
5020:
5014:
4992:(3): 262–9.
4989:
4985:
4979:
4934:
4930:
4920:
4879:
4875:
4869:
4834:
4830:
4820:
4808:. Retrieved
4797:
4788:
4745:
4741:
4731:
4719:. Retrieved
4702:
4692:
4673:
4667:
4655:. Retrieved
4650:
4641:
4608:
4604:
4598:
4568:(4): 312–7.
4565:
4561:
4555:
4543:. Retrieved
4513:
4509:
4496:
4488:the original
4478:
4456:(1): 17–32.
4453:
4449:
4443:
4429:
4415:
4405:18 September
4403:. Retrieved
4399:the original
4389:
4379:– via
4373:. Retrieved
4358:
4335:the original
4325:
4315:25 September
4313:. Retrieved
4304:
4295:
4258:
4254:
4244:
4220:(1): 83–99.
4217:
4213:
4203:
4184:
4180:
4124:
4120:
4110:
4073:
4069:
4059:
4012:
3958:
3952:
3902:
3896:
3824:
3818:
3756:
3750:
3690:
3686:
3626:
3620:
3590:
3586:
3542:
3538:
3528:
3501:
3497:
3487:
3476:, retrieved
3456:
3449:
3437:. Retrieved
3417:
3410:
3385:
3381:
3374:
3363:
3353:
3341:. Retrieved
3321:
3314:
3290:(1): 72–89.
3287:
3283:
3273:
3248:10261/207451
3230:
3226:
3220:
3183:
3179:
3169:
3159:25 September
3157:. Retrieved
3132:
3128:
3118:
3101:
3097:
3091:
3072:
3068:
3058:
3023:
3019:
3009:
2997:. Retrieved
2956:
2952:
2942:
2917:
2913:
2907:
2862:
2858:
2848:
2831:
2828:Science News
2827:
2821:
2788:
2784:
2778:
2751:
2747:
2737:
2727:25 September
2725:. Retrieved
2716:
2707:
2675:(1): 30–41.
2672:
2668:
2658:
2615:
2611:
2601:
2582:
2578:
2568:
2556:. Retrieved
2519:
2515:
2505:
2493:. Retrieved
2478:
2464:cite journal
2452:. Retrieved
2411:
2407:
2397:
2362:
2352:
2319:
2315:
2309:
2276:
2272:
2266:
2241:
2237:
2231:
2221:25 September
2219:. Retrieved
2194:
2190:
2180:
2168:. Retrieved
2159:
2150:
2117:
2113:
2107:
2066:
2062:
2056:
2023:
2019:
1970:
1966:
1956:
1916:(2): 211–6.
1913:
1909:
1903:
1866:
1862:
1852:
1840:. Retrieved
1789:
1785:
1723:
1719:
1713:
1623:
1606:phagocytosis
1551:
1538:
1507:
1467:
1455:
1449:
1442:Neanderthals
1421:Early humans
1419:
1406:
1382:cell nucleus
1374:keratinocyte
1363:
1339:
1329:
1322:
1301:
1290:
1273:
1259:
1240:
1234:
1230:
1210:
1194:
1185:L-dopachrome
1116:
1091:
1074:
1048:
869:Identifiers
822:
820:
788:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
729:microbes in
727:radiotrophic
723:radiobiology
710:
706:
696:
694:
683:
677:
658:
647:
631:
624:
618:
612:
577:
570:heavy metals
562:UV radiation
551:
542:
523:
484:
457:
441:
424:
413:germination.
398:
373:
370:Neuromelanin
364:Neuromelanin
360:is present.
338:
330:
325:substituents
301:
297:
274:
269:substituents
240:UV radiation
237:
200:, where the
186:neuromelanin
175:
151:biomolecules
143:
140:
133:
81:
80:
29:
6974:Carotenosis
6601:Reticulated
6332:development
6278:melanocytes
5871:Glutaminase
5837:glutathione
5546:(see below)
5206:(1): 9280.
4375:8 September
3965:: 474–478.
3909:: 460–468.
3763:: 1903129.
3697:: 272–283.
3633:: 105–113.
3597:(Croatia):
3382:Development
2999:22 February
2920:: 171–219.
2865:(5): e457.
2834:(21): 325.
1842:13 February
1612:sparing in
1566:antioxidant
1518:ultraviolet
1495:carotenoids
1491:riboflavins
1485:of certain
1471:sun tanning
1394:ultraviolet
1370:melanosomes
1306:pro-oxidant
1265:melanocytes
1113:→ eumelanin
1070:dopaquinone
941:Properties
659:Melanin in
654:agouti gene
632:The darker
554:cephalopods
530:basal layer
526:melanocytes
446:instead of
315:Pheomelanin
309:sun tanning
293:dopaquinone
285:melanosomes
233:Parkinson's
190:allomelanin
182:pheomelanin
171:melanocytes
128:; from
7125:Hair color
7109:Categories
7026:Skin color
6997:Dyschromia
6943:Chrysiasis
6679:Liver spot
6498:Leukoderma
6406:Melanosome
6339:Piebaldism
6330:Melanocyte
6254:Dyschromia
6178:asparagine
6154:Tyrosinase
5973:METHIONINE
5944:ISOLEUCINE
5793:Agmatinase
5486:TRYPTOPHAN
5377:acetyl-CoA
5341:Metabolism
5172:: 482–90.
4434:EntrezGene
4420:EntrezGene
4076:(4): 487.
3687:Toxicology
3478:7 November
3186:(4): 520.
2791:: 116–26.
2522:(1): 1–8.
2495:29 January
1706:References
1630:elasticity
1590:upregulate
1558:covalently
1499:tocopherol
1446:Denisovans
1360:Physiology
1347:and lower
1318:Rasagiline
1276:neuromotor
1221:congenital
1137:L-tyrosine
1102:dopachrome
1055:tyrosinase
982:Molar mass
897:ChemSpider
876:CAS Number
707:Drosophila
701:flies and
698:Drosophila
690:aposematic
673:iridescent
661:arthropods
638:carotenoid
608:gamma rays
487:skin color
358:L-cysteine
289:tyrosinase
279:(DHI) and
206:amino acid
194:pyomelanin
6798:ungrouped
6588:Melanosis
6528:Ungrouped
6396:in humans
6369:amelanism
6309:Syndromic
6182:aspartate
6043:THREONINE
5862:glutamine
5858:glutamate
5833:glutamate
5707:HISTIDINE
5693:glutamate
5669:threonine
5349:synthesis
5230:2045-2322
5149:24 August
4721:24 August
4711:0362-4331
4657:24 August
4545:24 August
4381:eMedicine
4301:"Melanin"
4070:Molecules
4052:711778164
4035:700199222
3995:245823003
3979:0955-3002
3925:1310-2818
3853:0265-931X
3831:: 70–75.
3777:2198-3844
3761:Wiley-VCH
3711:0960-3271
3649:0003-6838
3595:Dubrovnik
3439:26 August
3343:26 August
3265:202018215
3257:1474-919X
3042:1061-4036
2973:1755-1471
2632:1755-1471
2558:24 August
2454:30 August
2444:220413025
2428:0002-7863
2379:2470-1343
2363:ACS Omega
2170:24 August
2083:1468-3083
2040:0893-5785
1948:222101966
1832:231872855
1816:0002-7863
1748:0028-0836
1699:Vitamin D
1440:species (
1410:vitamin D
1402:melanomas
1378:epidermis
1051:catalysed
886:8049-97-6
731:Chernobyl
679:Arachnids
650:mammalian
584:virulence
534:epidermis
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