650:, so that the wives will own property on their husband’s ancestral land, though half as much as their respective husband. This was considered to be the equivalent of a dowry for the brides, though Islamically it would not be considered a valid dowry as it is paid by the husband’s female relative rather than the husband himself or his male relative. Upon a divorce of one couple however, the other couple must also obtain a divorce and the former wives will exchange their property again. Another cause for its popularity is that it cements the friendship that already existed between the exchanging families.
20:
74:
550:
610:: after a consultation between the prospective groom's father and maternal uncle (who exchanged his sister for the groom's paternal aunt) the uncle talks to the prospective bride's maternal uncles first, then to her father. If the bride or the groom were adopted, both their adoptive and biological parents participate in the arrangement. Traditionally, the decision was made without consulting the siblings themselves, but in 1970s they could reject the proposed partner.
484:. If a Bun man marries a woman from a different village via sister exchange, she moves to Bun and sends a daughter to her home village later. It is rare and undesirable for Bun men to marry without providing a sister as a reciprocity; in this case, he usually leaves the village and resides with his wife's kin. Other types of marriage are undesirable because Bun people consider reciprocity a priority in marriage arrangements; the only exception is marrying a widow.
2785:
323:
542:
144:
when two men exchange women who they cannot marry. James Weiner draws a parallel between the spread of sister exchange in New Guinea and the prevalence of a certain attitude towards food and vital substances: this marriage is practised by peoples who do not see food as a source of life for men, using
85:
study sister exchange. It establishes a symmetrical link between men and binds them together—which can be used to settle pre-existing conflicts. Mark Busse stressed that, since women are not alienable possessions, the exchange was not the end of the transaction but merely the beginning, in accordance
613:
If a prospective groom does not have a maternal sister of appropriate age or if she does not want to marry the brother of the prospective bride, he might exchange his classificatory sister instead (daughter of the father's brother). This option complicates things as more people need to agree for the
330:
The most detailed accounts about sister exchange in Africa came from descriptions of Tiv people. British colonial officials made reports about the Tiv system before abolishing it in 1927; however, that did not solve the problems that the
British attributed to this type of marriage. Unlike many other
309:
Exchange marriage was the standard way of acquiring a marriage partner for
Mambila, although other options existed too. If a Mambila man who had married without the exchange found someone who could exchange sisters, he returned his wife to her brother and married with exchange instead. Children from
293:
The Gumuz marriage is arranged by the elders who hold all the power over their children; the exchange must occur between members of different patrilineal clans. This is the only socially acceptable way of marriage; marrying a woman without providing a sister or daughter in exchange often results in
152:
Several sociologists including LĂ©vi-Strauss claimed that sister exchange is a "primitive" and "simple" system, however, this arrangement involves reaching consensus with not only the siblings themselves but also their parents and other kin because of other factors at play: how old are the siblings,
602:
Wamek men are close with their sisters; they give each other food (women provide sago while men give them game), maternal uncles help rearing children and make marriage arrangements for their sister's sons. The bonds between maternal uncles and daughters are weaker but exist nonetheless. Men see
297:
The elders hold less power in Kwama society, women are seen as honourable and important members of the society. They can refuse the arrangement and their family complies with their wishes, but usually the sister agrees in order to not upset her brother. Men see the exchange as an act of losing a
132:
supported this view too, adding that this exchange does not involve disposal of values but lies in the domain of interpersonal relations where kin get indebted to one another. She wrote: "′a model of active subjects exchanging passive objects′ is clearly inadequate for the analysis of sister
498:
Discussions about marriage must conclude in agreements not only between the men and women themselves but also their parents and other close relatives. It is, however, customary for a woman's brother (and other male relatives) to have a right to use her in exchange (if she agrees).
153:
how are the couples related to each other etc. Another difficulty arises if a man does not have an unmarried sister. He might remain unmarried, the marriage might occur without sister exchange, or some criteria for choosing appropriate marriage partners might become more flexible.
61:
Researchers disagree about the reasoning behind sister exchange but most believe that it is some type of reciprocity. Several anthropologists and sociologists expressed objections to the term "sister exchange" believing that it is not accurately describing the actual arrangement.
105:
that exchanged women are "the supreme gift"; he also asserted that sister exchange embodies the principle of reciprocity present in all marriage and kinship systems. At the same time, the research available to him did not firmly establish the existence of sister exchange without
110:
and LĂ©vi-Strauss expressed doubts in whether it is real. However, local census data in
Nigeria and other West African countries from 1920s already included information about people who primarily practised sister exchange without cross-cousin marriage. Similarly to LĂ©vi-Strauss,
164:
who studied Umeda believed that "sister exchange" is not an appropriate term for this type of marriage referring to the fact that the "exchanged" women do not cease being sisters to their brothers; he also argued that sister exchange is not a proper exchange either.
294:
violence and must be "settled" by giving a daughter to the wife's clan later. Elders have considerable authority and often marry their children when the sister is very young—in this case, she moves to her future husband's place and is raised there.
529:, practise sister exchange marriage. Umeda believe that exchanging sisters is worse than if a man seduces or steals a woman to marry, and put the blame for this type of marriage on the Dutch colonisation. Newlywed Umeda men also perform
641:
communities. The relatives giving their bridegroom or bride away are typically well-acquainted or friends with the other family. The popularity of berdel marriage is sometimes attributed to the fact that it costs less as there is no
614:
marriage to take place. There also is a requirement to return a woman back to the lineage where the man took a sister from (he might return his first-born daughter) as well as giving that lineage a sago swamp.
1494:
Ertem, Meliksah, and Tahire
Kocturk. "Opinions on early-age marriage and marriage customs among Kurdish-speaking women in southeast Turkey." BMJ Sexual & Reproductive Health 34.3 (2008): 147–152.
93:
Many anthropologists pondered the social benefits of sister exchange and reasons why this exchange takes place without any evident "scarcity" of women—contrary to the theory of exchange laid out by
491:
system where many women from the same generation are called "sister"; it is also not important if the exchanged woman belongs to the same clan as him. There is also a strong preference to marry
331:
peoples, marrying cross-cousins was forbidden for Tiv. After the marriage if one of the exchanged women had more children than the other, she gave them away to her to make the numbers equal.
599:
relatives are not allowed to become marriage partners; a marriage between second cousins is considered improper although might happen in practice, and third cousins are acceptable partners.
128:
did not agree with LĂ©vi-Strauss' position that women are merely objects in this exchange; he argued that women comply with their brothers' wishes because it gives them power and protection.
298:
sister who is missed. If money is used instead of providing a sister, the brother can ask for a big sum justifying it by the strength of love between his sister and her husband.
256:
65:
Despite earlier claims of its simplicity, sister exchange is a complex arrangement that involves many family members and not simply the four people who are getting married.
561:
tribes have a strong preference for sister exchange over other types of marriage considering them unacceptable. Boazi-speaking Wamek tribe who live on marshy plains of the
115:
wrote that sister exchange is similar to bride price and the former can also be considered a type of exchange marriage with the woman substituted by material possessions.
1625:
Busse, Mark (2005). ""We Will
Exchange Sisters Until the World Ends": Inequality, Marriage and Gender Relations in the Lake Murray Middle Fly Area, Papua New Guinea".
350:
descent groups. Sister exchange is considered the most appropriate type of marriage, emphasising the ideal symmetric relationship between descent groups unlike
38:
marry each other. In order to get married, a man needs to persuade his sister to marry the bride's brother. It is practised as a primary method of organising
646:, bridewealth or similar exchange of monetary transaction by the groom himself. However, the brides typically exchange their own share of property, which is
2129:
201:
514:
118:
301:
Uduk, unlike Gumuz and Kwama, are matrilineal; they abandoned sister exchange but do not use bridewealth because they see it akin to slavery.
1867:
2426:
2021:
1838:
The Early
Mongols: Language, Culture and History. Studies in honor of Igor de Rachewiltz on the occasion of his 80th birthday
1648:
1836:
Uno, Nobuhiro (2009). "Exchange-marriage in The Royal
Families of Nomadic States". In Rybatzki, Volker; et al. (eds.).
1530:
Pope, Nicole. "Harmful
Practices." Honor Killings in the Twenty-First Century. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2012. 59–70.
82:
448:. Warnindhilyagwa prefer sister-exchange marriages to other types, yet they are rare due to the low population numbers.
2584:
647:
1860:
221:
506:, Bun men did not use their classificatory daughters (for example, their brother's daughter) to make an exchange.
487:
The ideal candidate for the sister exchange is the groom's full sister but this is not compulsory: Bun people use
2009:
2765:
2357:
562:
2374:
2352:
2043:
1165:
1658:
661:. In the event where a family officiant offers a woman to the other family, it is sometimes referred to as
495:. Bun people, however, are not rigid in following these rules if it means that a man would stay unmarried.
23:
Chart of sister exchange marriage type. Triangle = male, circle = female. Colours represent descent groups.
1521:
Ozkan, Ali Rafet. "Marriage among the
Gypsies of Turkey." The Social Science Journal 43.3 (2006): 461–470.
2469:
2004:
1853:
2811:
2789:
2519:
1798:
492:
456:
Sister exchange marriage is practised by all inhabitants of the South
Central Lowlands of New Guinea.
176:
who pointed out that the exchange is usually organised by senior men (fathers, uncles) and not by the
2621:
271:
1662:
2089:
1999:
1546:
2446:
2421:
1643:. Caroline Humphrey, Stephen Hugh-Jones (eds.). Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
1547:"Bride capture, sister exchange and gift marriage among the makuna: A model of marriage exchange"
2641:
2362:
2177:
98:
2593:
2094:
112:
107:
2646:
2636:
2631:
2598:
2569:
2109:
1674:
1170:
592:
387:
1721:
8:
2656:
2651:
2603:
2574:
2546:
2464:
2347:
2305:
2136:
469:
421:
314:
was paid instead, the children born in this union were returned to the mother's brother.
1814:
1678:
2474:
2315:
2164:
2143:
2099:
2026:
2014:
1954:
1949:
1876:
1737:
1604:
1503:
Anatolia, Acta Medica. "Being An Adolescent Mother." Acta Med Anatol 2.1 (2014): 14–18.
653:
Since there are four people getting married, such a marriage is often referred to as a
437:
193:
55:
1686:
603:
their sisters as nurturers while complaining about their wives who order them around.
2538:
2524:
2492:
2454:
2379:
2369:
2227:
2172:
2157:
2070:
2048:
2038:
1976:
1971:
1944:
1895:
1818:
1794:
1782:
1741:
1690:
1644:
1608:
1566:
713:
503:
129:
77:
When a man does not have a sister, he can exchange his classificatory sister instead.
31:
19:
2770:
2760:
2729:
2250:
2207:
2084:
1810:
1772:
1761:"Straight sister-exchange and the transition from elementary to complex structures"
1733:
1682:
1596:
1558:
584:
526:
522:
488:
473:
465:
445:
433:
408:, and about a third of all marriages in rural Pakistan are arranged on this basis.
351:
1562:
577:
to his father-in-law for an extended period of time, sometimes 10 years and more.
2697:
2579:
2406:
2274:
2245:
2115:
2058:
2053:
1959:
1927:
1777:
1760:
637:
is exchanged with a bride or bridegroom of another family. It is common in a few
518:
383:
263:
123:
2685:
2680:
2436:
2411:
2320:
2240:
2212:
2190:
2182:
2150:
2122:
2063:
2031:
1917:
1905:
1890:
697:
558:
425:
217:
2805:
2738:
2692:
2509:
2459:
2217:
2104:
1981:
1900:
1822:
1786:
1745:
1694:
1584:
1570:
588:
530:
429:
368:
137:
73:
2755:
1708:
596:
574:
343:
287:
279:
233:
173:
141:
87:
569:
which literally means "to give women". This marriage type is also used by
549:
2675:
2497:
2300:
1636:
570:
404:
347:
311:
283:
275:
229:
189:
161:
2431:
2279:
1939:
634:
477:
213:
188:
This type of marriage system was described in the "middle belt" of the
94:
2551:
1910:
573:
people just North-East from the Lake Murray. After marriage the groom
322:
2712:
2626:
2416:
2295:
1845:
441:
375:
169:
47:
43:
2717:
2707:
2667:
2561:
2514:
1964:
1934:
1922:
1631:. Research in anthropology and linguistics. University of Auckland.
1600:
481:
399:
371:
237:
209:
51:
39:
1626:
541:
390:. This marriage exchange was used to strengthen political unions.
2613:
2310:
267:
205:
35:
136:
Writing about the origins of this type of marriage, sociologist
2702:
2385:
2256:
2076:
689:
673:. The male counterpart to the same situation is referred to as
379:
339:
225:
1713:
The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies
1512:
Lloyd-Jones, Amelia. "Turkey: A Newly Industrialized Country."
2504:
2264:
1178:
643:
638:
630:
241:
197:
177:
146:
255:
140:
came to the conclusion that sister exchange arises from the
2269:
1628:
A polymath anthropologist: essays in honour of Ann Chowning
1214:
247:
Mbuti consider exchange marriages the only permanent type.
1277:
1275:
1250:
1248:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
877:
875:
58:; and can replace other methods in 1.4% of the societies.
1476:
1440:
802:
800:
743:
741:
1641:
Barter, exchange, and value: an anthropological approach
1452:
1416:
1389:
1365:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
934:
932:
919:
917:
1406:
1404:
1272:
1260:
1245:
1226:
1202:
1190:
1077:
992:
968:
872:
860:
81:
Sociologists and anthropologists who are interested in
1377:
1319:
1317:
1292:
1290:
1122:
1067:
1065:
1050:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1021:
1011:
1009:
1007:
980:
902:
892:
890:
797:
738:
692:, 5% of marriage are berdel marriages, and are called
1639:(1992). "Barter and gift-exchange in old Melanesia".
1089:
929:
914:
758:
756:
310:
the exchanged woman belonged to their father, but if
86:
with the rules of generosity and honour described by
1464:
1428:
1401:
1329:
775:
773:
771:
464:
Bun is a village located in the dense rainforest in
1353:
1341:
1314:
1302:
1287:
1110:
1062:
1033:
1004:
956:
944:
887:
444:also exchange classificatory cross-cousins between
1146:
848:
836:
824:
785:
753:
374:clan members exchanged sisters and daughters with
1618:Sister exchange among the Wamek of the Middle Fly
812:
768:
726:
2803:
1134:
606:It is fathers and maternal uncles who arrange a
480:. Locals usually practise sister exchange and
1861:
354:and gift marriage that imply debt relation.
274:historically exchanged sisters but by 1970s
1620:(PhD). University of California, San Diego.
1868:
1854:
1799:"Marriage Exchanges: A Melanesian Comment"
168:Another objection to this term comes from
1793:
1776:
974:
648:equal to half of their brother’s property
565:in Papua New Guinea call sister exchange
1719:
1281:
1266:
1254:
1239:
1220:
1208:
806:
548:
540:
536:
321:
254:
72:
18:
1840:. Indiana University. pp. 179–180.
1722:"Flexibility Of Sister Exchange In Bun"
1583:
1196:
1184:
881:
553:Chart of the Boazi marriage arrangement
2804:
1875:
1758:
1587:(March 1997). "Generalized Exchange".
1104:
938:
923:
617:
1849:
1707:
1657:
1624:
1615:
1544:
1482:
1470:
1458:
1446:
1434:
1422:
1410:
1395:
1383:
1371:
1359:
1347:
1335:
1323:
1128:
1116:
1083:
1071:
1056:
1044:
1027:
1015:
998:
986:
962:
950:
908:
896:
866:
854:
830:
818:
791:
779:
732:
402:, sister exchange marriage is called
1635:
1308:
1296:
842:
762:
747:
342:people from the eastern part of the
103:The Elementary Structures of Kinship
1835:
1815:10.1146/annurev.an.13.100184.000353
1759:Muller, Jean-Claude (August 1980).
1152:
1140:
482:rarely marry outside of the village
68:
42:in 3% of the world's societies: in
13:
1738:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1978.tb01341.x
416:
278:abandoned this method completely,
14:
2823:
1687:10.1038/scientificamerican1275-84
2784:
2783:
629:is a type of marriage wherein a
1524:
1515:
1506:
1497:
1488:
1158:
587:and concludes with a period of
2766:Marriage in pre-Islamic Arabia
1720:McDowell, Nancy (March 1978).
282:partially substituted it with
156:
1:
2375:Ghost marriage in South Sudan
1803:Annual Review of Anthropology
1589:American Journal of Sociology
1563:10.1080/00141844.1981.9981209
1537:
591:which, by extension, implies
236:); and on the border between
1778:10.1525/ae.1980.7.3.02a00090
493:classificatory cross-cousins
451:
411:
382:clans which is mentioned in
34:agreement where two sets of
7:
1715:. London: Cohen & West.
1545:Ă…rhem, Kaj (January 1981).
707:
393:
362:
334:
196:, on the plateau region of
10:
2828:
1663:"Sister-Exchange Marriage"
700:such marriages are called
326:Modern Tiv bride and groom
304:
2779:
2748:
2728:
2665:
2612:
2560:
2537:
2485:
2445:
2399:
2340:
2331:
2288:
2226:
2200:
1992:
1883:
346:exchange sisters between
183:
719:
583:occurs between opposing
509:
250:
357:
2363:Chinese ghost marriage
1187:, pp. 1393, 1398.
1166:"Marriage by exchange"
554:
546:
459:
327:
317:
260:
220:); it is also used in
149:transmission instead.
78:
24:
552:
545:Boazi-speaking tribes
544:
537:Wamek and other Boazi
325:
272:Ethiopia–Sudan border
258:
113:Charles Kingsley Meek
108:cross-cousin marriage
76:
22:
1765:American Ethnologist
1616:Busse, Mark (1987).
1485:, pp. 348, 350.
1449:, pp. 354, 353.
1171:The New Humanitarian
593:uxorilocal residence
290:still practised it.
2604:Royal intermarriage
2306:Mystery of Crowning
1679:1975SciAm.233f..84J
1667:Scientific American
1461:, pp. 347–348.
1425:, pp. 345–346.
1398:, pp. 328–329.
1374:, pp. 343–345.
1223:, pp. 208–209.
750:, pp. 156–157.
618:Kurdish communities
533:for their in-laws.
470:East Sepik Province
424:people who inhabit
99:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss
2470:Marriage allowance
2100:Widow conservation
1877:Types of marriages
1795:Strathern, Marilyn
1086:, pp. 87, 89.
1001:, pp. 86, 94.
555:
547:
438:Northern Territory
328:
261:
79:
56:Sub-Saharan Africa
25:
2812:Types of marriage
2799:
2798:
2533:
2532:
2520:Mixed-orientation
2370:Widow inheritance
2049:Marriage in Islam
2039:Clerical marriage
1661:(December 1975).
1650:978-0-521-40493-8
1386:, pp. 82–83.
1131:, pp. 53–54.
1059:, pp. 86–88.
1030:, pp. 84–85.
989:, pp. 30–31.
911:, pp. 9, 11.
869:, p. 18, 31.
714:Exchange of women
667:daughter swapping
659:four-way marriage
655:parallel marriage
504:Mundugumor people
388:Jami' al-tawarikh
266:peoples from the
244:(Koman peoples).
130:Marilyn Strathern
2819:
2787:
2786:
2761:Mail-order bride
2338:
2337:
2208:Marriageable age
2022:Eastern Orthodox
1870:
1863:
1856:
1847:
1846:
1841:
1832:
1830:
1829:
1797:(October 1984).
1790:
1780:
1755:
1753:
1752:
1716:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1654:
1632:
1621:
1612:
1595:(5): 1383–1415.
1580:
1578:
1577:
1531:
1528:
1522:
1519:
1513:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1495:
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1194:
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1175:
1174:. March 8, 2007.
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1025:
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1002:
996:
990:
984:
978:
972:
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948:
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936:
927:
921:
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906:
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846:
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834:
828:
822:
816:
810:
804:
795:
789:
783:
777:
766:
760:
751:
745:
736:
730:
675:brother swapping
627:sibling swapping
527:Papua New Guinea
523:Sandaun Province
519:hunter-gatherers
489:Iroquois kinship
474:Papua New Guinea
466:Angoram District
434:Bickerton Island
352:bride kidnapping
127:
69:Social functions
32:type of marriage
16:Type of marriage
2827:
2826:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2817:
2816:
2802:
2801:
2800:
2795:
2775:
2744:
2724:
2661:
2608:
2556:
2529:
2481:
2441:
2395:
2333:
2327:
2284:
2236:Sister exchange
2222:
2196:
1988:
1928:Serial monogamy
1884:Legal scenarios
1879:
1874:
1844:
1827:
1825:
1750:
1748:
1699:
1697:
1651:
1575:
1573:
1540:
1535:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1489:
1481:
1477:
1469:
1465:
1457:
1453:
1445:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1421:
1417:
1409:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1382:
1378:
1370:
1366:
1358:
1354:
1346:
1342:
1334:
1330:
1322:
1315:
1307:
1303:
1295:
1288:
1280:
1273:
1265:
1261:
1253:
1246:
1238:
1227:
1219:
1215:
1207:
1203:
1199:, p. 1399.
1195:
1191:
1183:
1179:
1164:
1163:
1159:
1155:, pp. 7–8.
1151:
1147:
1139:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1115:
1111:
1103:
1090:
1082:
1078:
1070:
1063:
1055:
1051:
1043:
1034:
1026:
1022:
1014:
1005:
997:
993:
985:
981:
973:
969:
961:
957:
949:
945:
937:
930:
922:
915:
907:
903:
895:
888:
884:, p. 1388.
880:
873:
865:
861:
853:
849:
841:
837:
829:
825:
817:
813:
805:
798:
790:
786:
778:
769:
761:
754:
746:
739:
731:
727:
722:
710:
683:nephew swapping
663:sister swapping
623:Berdel marriage
620:
575:provided labour
539:
512:
462:
454:
422:Warnindhilyagwa
419:
417:Warnindhilyagwa
414:
396:
384:History of Yuan
365:
360:
337:
320:
307:
286:payments while
253:
192:ravaged by the
186:
159:
121:
71:
28:Sister exchange
17:
12:
11:
5:
2825:
2815:
2814:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2752:
2750:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2742:
2734:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2695:
2690:
2689:
2688:
2678:
2672:
2670:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2618:
2616:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2590:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2585:Middle Eastern
2577:
2566:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2554:
2549:
2543:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2501:
2500:
2489:
2487:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2457:
2451:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2403:
2401:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2389:
2377:
2367:
2366:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2344:
2342:
2335:
2332:Circumstantial
2329:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2318:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2253:
2243:
2238:
2232:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2194:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2161:
2154:
2147:
2140:
2133:
2126:
2119:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2068:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2041:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2018:
2017:
2002:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1969:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1931:
1930:
1920:
1915:
1914:
1913:
1908:
1898:
1893:
1887:
1885:
1881:
1880:
1873:
1872:
1865:
1858:
1850:
1843:
1842:
1833:
1791:
1771:(3): 518–529.
1756:
1732:(3): 207–231.
1717:
1705:
1655:
1649:
1633:
1622:
1613:
1601:10.1086/231087
1585:Bearman, Peter
1581:
1557:(1–2): 47–63.
1541:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1523:
1514:
1505:
1496:
1487:
1475:
1473:, p. 348.
1463:
1451:
1439:
1437:, p. 346.
1427:
1415:
1413:, p. 330.
1400:
1388:
1376:
1364:
1352:
1340:
1338:, p. xiv.
1328:
1313:
1311:, p. 154.
1301:
1299:, p. 156.
1286:
1284:, p. 228.
1271:
1269:, p. 227.
1259:
1257:, p. 210.
1244:
1242:, p. 209.
1225:
1213:
1211:, p. 208.
1201:
1189:
1177:
1157:
1145:
1133:
1121:
1109:
1107:, p. 519.
1088:
1076:
1061:
1049:
1032:
1020:
1003:
991:
979:
975:Strathern 1984
967:
955:
943:
941:, p. 523.
928:
926:, p. 518.
913:
901:
886:
871:
859:
847:
845:, p. 157.
835:
823:
811:
809:, p. 207.
796:
784:
767:
765:, p. 158.
752:
737:
724:
723:
721:
718:
717:
716:
709:
706:
698:Arab countries
685:respectively.
671:niece swapping
619:
616:
559:Boazi-speaking
538:
535:
511:
508:
461:
458:
453:
450:
426:Groote Eylandt
418:
415:
413:
410:
395:
392:
364:
361:
359:
356:
336:
333:
319:
316:
306:
303:
264:Koman-speaking
252:
249:
185:
182:
158:
155:
70:
67:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2824:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2792:
2791:
2782:
2781:
2778:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2739:Mariage blanc
2736:
2735:
2733:
2731:
2727:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2664:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2642:International
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2586:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2571:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2484:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2372:
2371:
2368:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2336:
2330:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2287:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2225:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2160:
2159:
2155:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2127:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2118:
2117:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2069:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1991:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1970:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1866:
1864:
1859:
1857:
1852:
1851:
1848:
1839:
1834:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1709:Mauss, Marcel
1706:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1629:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1542:
1527:
1518:
1509:
1500:
1491:
1484:
1479:
1472:
1467:
1460:
1455:
1448:
1443:
1436:
1431:
1424:
1419:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1397:
1392:
1385:
1380:
1373:
1368:
1362:, p. xv.
1361:
1356:
1350:, p. 70.
1349:
1344:
1337:
1332:
1326:, p. 82.
1325:
1320:
1318:
1310:
1305:
1298:
1293:
1291:
1283:
1282:McDowell 1978
1278:
1276:
1268:
1267:McDowell 1978
1263:
1256:
1255:McDowell 1978
1251:
1249:
1241:
1240:McDowell 1978
1236:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1222:
1221:McDowell 1978
1217:
1210:
1209:McDowell 1978
1205:
1198:
1193:
1186:
1181:
1173:
1172:
1167:
1161:
1154:
1149:
1142:
1137:
1130:
1125:
1119:, p. 48.
1118:
1113:
1106:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1085:
1080:
1074:, p. 92.
1073:
1068:
1066:
1058:
1053:
1047:, p. 86.
1046:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1029:
1024:
1018:, p. 94.
1017:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1000:
995:
988:
983:
977:, p. 42.
976:
971:
965:, p. 24.
964:
959:
953:, p. 23.
952:
947:
940:
935:
933:
925:
920:
918:
910:
905:
899:, p. 84.
898:
893:
891:
883:
878:
876:
868:
863:
856:
851:
844:
839:
833:, p. 50.
832:
827:
820:
815:
808:
807:McDowell 1978
803:
801:
794:, p. 12.
793:
788:
781:
776:
774:
772:
764:
759:
757:
749:
744:
742:
734:
729:
725:
715:
712:
711:
705:
703:
699:
695:
691:
686:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
651:
649:
645:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
615:
611:
609:
604:
600:
598:
594:
590:
589:bride service
586:
582:
578:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
551:
543:
534:
532:
531:bride service
528:
524:
520:
516:
507:
505:
500:
496:
494:
490:
485:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
457:
449:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
430:Woodah Island
427:
423:
409:
407:
406:
401:
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
370:
367:High-ranking
355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
332:
324:
315:
313:
302:
299:
295:
291:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
257:
248:
245:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
194:slave traders
191:
181:
179:
175:
171:
166:
163:
154:
150:
148:
143:
139:
138:Peter Bearman
134:
131:
125:
120:
116:
114:
109:
104:
100:
96:
91:
89:
84:
75:
66:
63:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
21:
2788:
2756:Dishu system
2737:
2622:Human–animal
2594:Same-surname
2384:
2255:
2235:
2189:
2163:
2156:
2149:
2142:
2135:
2128:
2121:
2114:
2095:Self-uniting
2075:
2059:Nikah mut'ah
1960:Nikah mut'ah
1837:
1826:. Retrieved
1809:(1): 41–73.
1806:
1802:
1768:
1764:
1749:. Retrieved
1729:
1725:
1712:
1698:. Retrieved
1673:(6): 84–94.
1670:
1666:
1659:James, Wendy
1640:
1637:Gell, Alfred
1627:
1617:
1592:
1588:
1574:. Retrieved
1554:
1550:
1526:
1517:
1508:
1499:
1490:
1478:
1466:
1454:
1442:
1430:
1418:
1391:
1379:
1367:
1355:
1343:
1331:
1304:
1262:
1216:
1204:
1197:Bearman 1997
1192:
1185:Bearman 1997
1180:
1169:
1160:
1148:
1143:, p. 5.
1136:
1124:
1112:
1079:
1052:
1023:
994:
982:
970:
958:
946:
904:
882:Bearman 1997
862:
857:, p. 8.
850:
838:
826:
821:, p. 5.
814:
787:
782:, p. 3.
735:, p. 4.
728:
701:
693:
687:
682:
679:son swapping
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
652:
626:
622:
621:
612:
607:
605:
601:
597:matrilateral
580:
579:
566:
556:
515:Umeda people
513:
501:
497:
486:
463:
455:
420:
403:
397:
366:
344:Amazon basin
338:
329:
308:
300:
296:
292:
288:Gumuz people
280:Kwama people
262:
246:
187:
180:themselves.
174:Donald Tuzin
167:
160:
151:
142:incest taboo
135:
119:Jan van Baal
117:
102:
92:
88:Marcel Mauss
80:
64:
60:
27:
26:
2676:Concubinage
2647:Interracial
2637:Interethnic
2632:Inter-caste
2570:Consanguine
2498:Watta satta
2447:Convenience
2301:Handfasting
2090:Scientology
2064:Nikah 'urfi
1906:Nikah 'urfi
1105:Muller 1980
939:Muller 1980
924:Muller 1980
696:, while in
694:degis tokus
571:Pa-speaking
563:Lake Murray
476:, near the
405:watta satta
348:patrilineal
312:bride price
284:bridewealth
276:Uduk people
190:West Africa
162:Alfred Gell
157:Terminology
133:exchange."
122: [
83:reciprocity
2668:monogamous
2657:Morganatic
2652:Interfaith
2575:Avunculate
2547:Common-law
2465:Green card
2432:Tongyangxi
2348:Posthumous
2289:Ceremonial
2280:Tongyangxi
2137:Prajapatya
1940:Remarriage
1828:2020-08-30
1751:2020-08-26
1700:2020-08-26
1576:2020-08-26
1538:References
1483:Busse 1987
1471:Busse 1987
1459:Busse 1987
1447:Busse 1987
1435:Busse 1987
1423:Busse 1987
1411:Busse 1987
1396:Busse 1987
1384:Busse 2005
1372:Busse 1987
1360:Busse 1987
1348:Busse 1987
1336:Busse 1987
1324:Busse 2005
1129:Ă…rhem 1981
1117:Ă…rhem 1981
1084:James 1975
1072:James 1975
1057:James 1975
1045:James 1975
1028:James 1975
1016:James 1975
999:James 1975
987:Busse 1987
963:Busse 1987
951:Busse 1987
909:Busse 1987
897:James 1975
867:Mauss 1966
855:Busse 1987
831:Ă…rhem 1981
819:Busse 1987
792:Busse 1987
780:Busse 1987
733:Busse 1987
635:bridegroom
608:seki towam
581:Seki towam
567:seki towam
478:Yuat River
259:Gumuz girl
95:Adam Smith
2713:Polyandry
2627:Hypergamy
2475:Predatory
2417:Hypergamy
2400:Financial
2316:Las Vegas
2296:Betrothal
2251:Abduction
2173:Ayyavazhi
2165:Paishacha
2144:Gandharva
2015:Josephite
2005:Christian
1993:Religious
1955:Hollywood
1950:Temporary
1901:Customary
1823:0084-6570
1787:0094-0496
1746:0029-8077
1695:0036-8733
1609:222436096
1571:0014-1844
1309:Gell 1992
1297:Gell 1992
843:Gell 1992
763:Gell 1992
748:Gell 1992
452:Melanesia
442:Australia
412:Australia
376:Khongirad
170:Robin Fox
101:wrote in
48:Melanesia
44:Australia
40:marriages
2806:Category
2790:Category
2718:Polygyny
2708:Polygamy
2599:Homogamy
2562:Endogamy
2539:De facto
2525:Sororate
2515:Sologamy
2493:Exchange
2455:Lavender
2380:Levirate
2228:Arranged
2158:Rakshasa
2071:Levirate
2010:Catholic
1977:Putative
1972:Voidable
1965:Wedlease
1945:Same-sex
1935:Marriage
1923:Monogamy
1896:Covenant
1711:(1966).
1153:Uno 2009
1141:Uno 2009
708:See also
595:. Close
585:moieties
446:moieties
400:Pakistan
394:Pakistan
372:Borjigin
363:Mongolia
335:Amazonia
268:savannas
238:Ethiopia
210:Cameroon
52:Amazonia
36:siblings
2771:Walking
2730:Sexless
2614:Exogamy
2552:Plaçage
2358:Germany
2311:Wedding
2275:Shotgun
2110:Vivaaha
2085:Natural
2044:Islamic
1911:Plaçage
1726:Oceania
1675:Bibcode
639:Kurdish
502:Unlike
468:of the
436:in the
305:Mambila
270:on the
218:Mambila
206:Nigeria
202:Mbelime
145:direct
2703:Bigamy
2698:Plural
2580:Cousin
2407:Boston
2386:Yibbum
2353:France
2257:Raptio
2246:Forced
2116:Brahma
2077:Yibbum
2054:Misyar
2032:Quaker
2027:Mormon
2000:Jewish
1821:
1785:
1744:
1693:
1647:
1607:
1569:
1551:Ethnos
690:Turkey
369:Mongol
340:Macuna
226:Uganda
184:Africa
178:grooms
2749:Other
2681:Group
2505:Heqin
2486:Other
2437:Trial
2422:Naked
2412:Flash
2341:Death
2334:basis
2321:Proxy
2265:Heqin
2241:Flash
2213:Child
2191:Manus
2183:Yogic
2178:Vedic
2151:Asura
2130:Arsha
2123:Daiva
2105:Hindu
1918:Fleet
1891:Civil
1605:S2CID
720:Notes
702:sigar
681:, or
644:dowry
631:bride
521:from
510:Umeda
380:Oirat
251:Koman
242:Sudan
234:Mbuti
198:Benin
147:semen
126:]
30:is a
2693:Open
2686:Line
2666:Non-
2510:Love
2460:Sham
2427:Peer
2270:Miai
2218:Teen
1982:Void
1819:ISSN
1783:ISSN
1742:ISSN
1691:ISSN
1645:ISBN
1567:ISSN
557:All
432:and
386:and
378:and
358:Asia
240:and
230:Amba
224:and
208:and
172:and
54:and
2201:Age
1811:doi
1773:doi
1734:doi
1683:doi
1671:233
1597:doi
1593:102
1559:doi
688:In
669:or
657:or
633:or
625:or
525:in
472:of
460:Bun
440:of
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318:Tiv
222:DRC
214:Tiv
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