1024:
846:
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they continued to claim ownership in
British Columbia, and resisted the American miners, sometimes by force. In 1865, Sinixt blocked 200 miners and mining activities at the confluence of the Columbia and Kootenay rivers in an attempt to protect their hunting and fishing rights as promised by the Crown as related by Gold Commissioner J.C Haynes in a letter to the then acting colonial government in Victoria. Haynes reported in colonial correspondence that the local Indian (Sinixt) Chief expressed his grievances to mining in the region on at least two separate occasions and that the Hudson's Bay Company had promised royalties from mining in the area.
224:
132:
718:, just upstream from the confluence of the Pend d'Oreille and Columbia Rivers, which was very near the border, in order to serve their former clients and also maintain a post on British territory. Adjacent Sinixt territory in British Columbia remained in the hands of the Sinixt. As late as the 1860s, Sinixt leaders still equated British title in their Northern territory as signifying Sinixt sovereignty. When Fort Shepherd was abandoned by the Hudson's Bay Company, for example, it was left in Sinixt hands.
833:. Reyes sees this as the end of the traditional life of the Colville and Lakes: "After the concrete was poured into the steel framework to form the base of the dam, the great salmon runs ended. … It brought to a close a great tradition that had existed for centuries. From that day on… there was always a shortage of food. The bands dispersed… the great days of the Sin-Aikst were over." A few years later, rising waters from the dam also engulfed the largely Sinixt community of
1087:
Court of Appeal upheld
Desautel's hunting rights. The Supreme Court of Canada agreed 24 October 2019, to hear the B.C. government's appeal of this decision. On April 23, 2021, the Supreme Court of Canada dismissed the appeal, upholding Mr. Desautel’s right to exercise Aboriginal rights under section 35 of the Constitution and recognizing the Lakes Tribe, a modern successor of the Sinixt, as an “Aboriginal people of Canada.”
617:, and others against the Blackfoot. While the Sinixt never directly fought the Blackfoot as a group, it is very likely that individual Sinixt joined their Salishan neighbours (and the Ktunaxa) in war parties and buffalo hunts to the Western Plains. Reyes says they had ongoing skirmishes with the Blackfoot, from whom, according to him, they stole horses. They also took part with other regional peoples in the
1000:, Sinixt Appointed Spokesperson Marilyn James, along with the Official Vallican Heritage Site Caretaker, Robert Watt stated that "Neither our ancestors nor the members of Sinixt Nation have ever relinquished our inherent rights to any individual, any government or any other organization, including other native tribes or native nations.
1040:, reciprocity and peaceful living. Orr was acknowledged as spiritual leader—a klakwilt. Marilyn James states that Orr got her authority as a klakwilt by being culturally whole, linguistically connected to Sinixt culture, and bringing people to spirit. The Sinixt connection to their traditional territory is underscored by the
1031:
Many Lakes (Sinixt) feel that to live ethically one must follow a moral code which maintains a reciprocal relationship between humans, the land, and the realm of spirits in which the ancestors dwell. (Ancestor) Eva Orr called this 'keeping the Lakes' way.' The ideal of keeping the Lakes' way requires
775:
to the Canada–US border, but the northern half was taken away in 1892, which separated it from Sinixt traditional territory in
British Columbia; in addition, as more tribes lost their land, the shrinking reservation had to absorb yet more people. Even then, they had to deal with incursions of miners,
508:
Reyes gives an account of various Sinixt customs, especially related to pregnancy, birth, and education, as well as some descriptions of funerary customs. Children were "closely monitored" by elders. Children were sent on "short excursions" to search for protective spirits; they were usually required
774:
Initially, the
Confederated Tribes were given a reservation east of the Columbia River. Three months later it was taken away because white settlers wanted it, and they were given a comparably large tract on the west side of the river on inferior land. Initially, this reservation extended all the way
706:
in 1846, some Sinixt remained in
American territory near Kettle Falls, where Fort Colville continued to operate. Kettle Falls (or just above it) was essentially the southern boundary of Sinixt Territory, and was shared with the Colville people. They were traditionally close to the Colville people,
512:
At about the age of six, the children began to be instructed in "the legends of the tribe and family history…, tribal ways and tribal laws." At eight or nine, they learned to swim and to run long distances; boys were taught to make and use weapons and fishing gear, while girls started to learn plant
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at Kettle Falls was constructed with the help of
Colville and Sinixt labor. According to Reyes, it was in the 1840s that the Sinixt experienced a major die-off, shrinking from about 3,000 to about 400 during the period of chief Kin-Ka-Nawha, nephew of See-Whel-Ken. In addition to suffering diseases
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to Crown land in the
Kootenays." Their lawyer David Aaron describes the intent of the action as "asserting a right (for the Sinixt) to be consulted, and to consent to all uses or dispositions of Crown land within that territory," and notes that private lands in the area will not be affected by the
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ruled in favor of Sinixt member Rick DeSautel, a resident of the
Colville reservation, over a dispute with Canadian authorities on hunting in Canadian territory. The ruling effectively recognized the Sinixt as having rights in Canada, despite being declared extinct in 1956. On May 2, 2019, the BC
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in the Slocan Valley are among the earliest very large houses of this type, with some having diameters of over 20 metres (66 feet). The Slocan
Narrows site also included some of the most recent very large pithouses. This and other evidence of a hierarchical and stratified society has led a
726:
Prospectors began entering Sinixt territory in
British Columbia in the 1850s and 1860s. Nevertheless, the Sinixt managed to maintain effective control over their northern traditional territory through the 1850s, 1860s, and 1870s, despite some conflict. While often accommodating white interests,
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for the first time in 1830-31, led by the Lower Sinixt chief See-Whel-Ken (died 1840). The Sinixt supported the company in its efforts to prevent American trappers and settlers from entering and taking over the territory. As fur traders, the Sinixt were among the most prolific of all the First
1819:
James, Marilyn. Affidavit of Marilyn James#2, In the Supreme Court of British Columbia, In the matter of Section 2 of the Judicial Review Procedure Act, R.S.B.C. 1996, c. 241 and British Columbia Timber Sale Licence A80073 issued under the Forest Act Chapter 157, Dated January 2, 2011
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Members of Sinixt Nation have contested this extinction, and are taking steps to reclaim their land rights in British Columbia, where about 80% of their ancestral territory lies. Further complicating the question of Canadian territory claimed by the Sinixt are the overlapping claims of
1832:
James, Marilyn. Affidavit of Marilyn James, In the Supreme Court of British Columbia, In the matter of Section 2 of the Judicial Review Procedure Act, R.S.B.C. 1996, c. 241 and British Columbia Timber Sale Licence A80073 issued under the Forest Act Chapter 157, Dated November 1, 2010
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for the winter months. Summers were spent fishing, hunting, and gathering other food resources in their mountain and lake-dominated homeland. Reyes says that they wintered in the more wind-sheltered valleys, but summered by the Columbia. Scholars have classified the Sinixt as
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resulted in a road being placed very near the large pithouse village and ancient burial site. Since 1989, a permanent Sinixt presence continues in the Slocan Valley, with local members overseeing the repatriation of remains and playing an increasing role in local affairs.
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A permanent Sinixt presence was re-established in British Columbia during the late 1980s when, following direction by an Elder, a number of Sinixt descendants returned to the Slocan Valley to protest road building affecting an important village site, now called the
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and other early traders noticed the pock-marked faces of older Sinixt and heard oral accounts of the epidemic. There is also evidence that the Sinixt were seriously affected by the major political upheavals that preceded the arrival of the Europeans.
743:. Nevertheless, a number of Sinixt remained permanently in Canada during the first half of the 20th century. Many others also returned to their ancestral land in B.C., to hunt and fish during the summer months, well into the 20th Century.
825:, the Lower Sinixt continued to fish in their traditional manner at Kettle Falls. They continued to elect a Salmon Chief. They fished with baskets on poles that caught the salmon who were not strong enough to clear the falls, and also with
857:, B.C. author Paula Pryce relates stories shared with her by Sinixt elders living in Washington State about visiting "the Northern Territory" from time to time after the extinction, "to pick berries, trade fish and visit sacred sites."
730:
However, their reduced numbers resulted in the Sinixt being unable to control development of the area as it was flooded with miners during a second mineral rush in the 1880s and 1890s. Several boomtowns were erected throughout the
746:
Kin-Ka-Nawha resigned his role as chief as an old man. He was succeeded by Joseph Cotolegu, with Andrew Aorpaghan (Chief Edwards) and James Bernard (c. 1870–1935) as subchiefs. They would succeed him, in turn, as leaders.
354:, Bob Campbell, "Headman" of the Sinixt in British Columbia, notes that, "As the mother nation, we often settled disputes among the (other) bands." Contributors to the article's forum refuted the claims as being without
946:
There were more than 250 Sinixt in Washington State at the time the Canadian Government declared the Sinixt extinct, along with other self-identifying Sinixt who had relocated with relatives to the Canadian part of the
509:
to bring back an object to prove that they had made the journey. As they grew older, until puberty, these journeys became longer. Each person was expected to acquire multiple spirits, because each had different powers.
581:, who had obtained control of Ktunaxa territory in the foothills and northwestern plains. Ethnographic and historical evidence suggests the Ktunaxa and the Sinixt battled each other over the territory along the lower
264:..." Other tribes used the Columbia as a trade route, passing through Sinixt territory to trade with the Sinixt and to trade further south. Parts of the traditional territory of the Sinixt are being claimed by the
248:, Paula Pryce notes that "despite their obscurity in Canada and the scattered documentation of their presence in the area, both archival and published material show that the Sinixt Interior Salish resided along the
1864:
The B.C. Court of Appeal has upheld Rick Desautel's right to hunt in Canada, even though he is an American citizen and his First Nation, the Sinixt, was declared extinct by the federal government in 1956.
1044:, the highest territorial and cultural legal doctrine of the Sinixt, which sets out their territorial responsibility to all land, water, plant, animal and cultural resources within the Sinixt territory.
1923:
Summary Report for the “Mobilizing American Indian and Alaska Native Communities Workshop on Improving Cardiovascular Health”, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute — Indian Health Board Partnership
1687:
Cultural Complexity: A New Chronology of the Upper Columbia Drainage Area, Complex Hunters-Gatherers Evolution and Organization of Prehistoric Communities on the Plateau of Northwestern North America,
288:, the Sinixt numbered about 3,000 in the early 19th century, divided into several bands of sizes suited to hunting and fishing. He distinguishes the "Upper Sin-Aikst" around the Arrow Lakes, "above
943:, stated that "The Arrow Lakes Band ceased to exist as a band for the purpose of the Indian Act... It does not, however, mean that the Sinixt ceased to exist as a tribal group." (August 9, 1995).
467:
near Rossland, B.C. to harvest huckleberries in August. These seasonal events figured prominently in their culture. They hunted in late autumn, but still often were short of food by late winter.
882:
work has suggested the traditional society was complex. This is in line with historic, ethnographic, and contemporary Sinixt accounts of a socially and economically advanced society.
1943:
459:, the farthest downriver that the Sinixt territory extended. The Sinixt caught only the salmon that were not strong enough to clear the falls, ensuring that the strongest went on to
593:. The Ktunaxa were considered the intruders, and the dispute was reportedly ended after the Sinixt mounted a large-scale raid into (Lower) Ktunaxa Territory at the south end of
2046:
1709:
Pryce p68, referencing Bouchard and Kennedy (1985- 158), referencing 1959 B.I.A. census in the U.S., which says there were 257 Lakes on the Colville res alone that year
1921:
of the National Congress of American Indians National Policy Work Group on Contract Support Costs (accessed online 11 March 2007) gives it as Deputy Director, as does
1107:
Indian rights activist and founder of several "urban Indian" organizations, was declared Washington state's "First Citizen of the Decade" in November 1997; his sister
790:
In 1900, Aropaghan, over James Bernard's objection, agreed to have the land divided into individual allotments rather than held in common; he also agreed to include "
1527:
First Nations’ Aboriginal Interests and Traditional Use in the Waneta Hydroelectric Expansion Project Area: A Summary and Analysis of Known and Available Information
686:
near the mouth of the Columbia River. Some saw the die-off as a failure of the powers of their traditional religion; Kin-Ka-Nawha was among the eventual converts to
1150:) in the late 19th to early 20th century. Quintasket (Humishuma) was one of the first Native American women to publish a novel. Mourning Dove herself identified as
1147:
1007:, of which the Colville Tribes is the American-side member, do not show Sinixt territory, instead showing the region as part of Okanagan traditional territory.
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in Washington, where they form part of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, which has governmental recognition as an American Indian Tribe.
759:—were formally established in 1872. They were forced to become wards of the government on the Colville Reservation. It was at this time that the name
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is currently negotiating a treaty with the Canadian federal government and the British Columbia government in the region, particularly regarding the lower
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who celebrated the Sinixt arrival at the falls during fishing season with a three-day dance. The tribes had a three-day dance at the end of their season.
329:
940:
1876:
531:(ilmi wm), but each smaller village of 50–200 had a local chief, whom they called a "thinker". These "thinkers" would come together to form a council.
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rivers resulted in the flooding of many graveyards and the majority of Sinixt village sites, preventing excavation and study of these historic areas.
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in Washington, where they form part of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, which is recognized by the United States government as an
1914:
1023:
1925:
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Kp'itl'els (Brilliant, BC), Sinixt village site on the confluence of the Kootenay and Columbia Rivers and historic home of the Alex Christian family
1120:
1033:
810:
802:
756:
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or historical foundation. Sinixt mitochondrial DNA can be found at the base of Native American Haplogroup B2. (See GENBANK Accession EF648602.)
1847:
1821:
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1950:
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Museum, and tribal legend documented by Nancy Perkins Wynecoop and Nettie Wynecoop Clark describe the Sinixt as the "Mother Tribe" of the
806:
661:
The Sinixt and their allies had a very close relationship with the Hudson's Bay Company. They wintered near the major trading post at
565:. The epidemic of 1781 was likely the biggest single outbreak, with accounts of that epidemic describing a mortality rate up to 80%.
1799:
1530:
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and incursions on their land, they found the salmon runs began to diminish because of the development of commercial fisheries at
1718:
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215:
and scattered amongst neighbouring tribes throughout BC, however the Canadian Government declared the Sinixt extinct in 1956.
211:. Many Sinixt continue to live in their traditional territory on the Northern Side of the 49th Parallel, particularly in the
208:
837:
on the banks of the Columbia, which had to be relocated, further disrupting even remnants of their traditional way of life.
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Sinixt religion was mainly "for harnessing power." The sun, the stars, the water, and the different animals (especially the
1083:
662:
1363:
919:
Presently, some Sinixt people live in their traditional territory on the "Canadian side" of the 49th parallel, mainly in
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frame covered by large slabs of pine bark, riding low in the water with downward-sloping tips to reduce wind resistance.
927:, or scattered throughout neighbouring lands in the area now known as British Columbia. They are not recognized by the
1119:(c.1931–2022) was a Seattle-based sculptor, designer, curator and author. Lawney, Luana and Bernie are descendants of
312:, and Kettle Falls area in Washington State." The latter constituted "at least eight large bands". Once they obtained
1877:
https://www.vicnews.com/news/supreme-court-of-canada-agrees-to-hear-b-c-s-appeal-in-kootenays-aboriginal-rights-case/
144:
2007:
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eyes. They were adept in making suspended bridges over the narrow, swift-flowing Columbia, and skillful at fishing.
813:
to negotiate the reservation boundaries, and finally in 1921 as chair of a delegation of the Confederated Tribes.
2094:
The Blood of Life Collective: A group of Sinixt and settler activists, collaborating to support Sinixt resurgence
715:
176:
People. The Sinixt are descended from Indigenous peoples who have lived primarily in what are today known as the
2033:
1732:
1070:
every fall in Vallican, B.C. The event features live music and performance, and it is set up to encourage local
845:
1822:
http://selkirk.ca/media/innovation/mircentreforpeace/peacecafe/Marilyn-James-Affidavit-2---January-2011.pdf
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leading scholar to state that the Sinixt's society was among the most complex of the entire region. Major
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1922:
1911:
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908:
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502:
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204:
597:. The Sinixt later renewed their historic peace with the Ktunaxa, and took common cause with them, the
920:
866:
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1888:
577:(Kutenai) people who neighboured the Sinixt to the east were driven further into the mountains by the
566:
131:
2068:
1550:
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lore and tanning, as well as how to care for young children, maintain dwellings, and prepare meals.
2113:
2020:
1004:
985:
952:
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Similar to the conflicting Ktunaxa land claims, territorial claims shown on maps published by the
555:
223:
1127:), a Sinixt village, for generations, until the Canadian Government sold their land to settlers.
711:
464:
297:
173:
2123:
1763:
1531:
http://a100.gov.bc.ca/appsdata/epic/documents/p220/d21891/_37e5d9f2c60a45eeb7cfeebcbb2356d8.pdf
1253:
Keeping the Lakes' way: reburial and the re-creation of a moral world among an invisible people
1131:
1112:
546:
There is historical evidence suggesting that the Sinixt were heavily depopulated by one or two
834:
687:
678:
301:
265:
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people, with newly married couples living with the wife's family rather than the husband's.
1749:
Keeping the Lakes' Way: Reburial and Re-creation of a Moral World among an Invisible People
1135:
483:
305:
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In Washington, one particular family of Sinixt have figured prominently among recent-day "
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like gum, and had a range of herbal medicines. Starting in June, mature salmon arrived at
8:
1343:
1104:
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1834:
1010:
On July 28, 2008, "directors of the Sinixt Nation Society have filed a lawsuit claiming
1111:(1933–2001) was, at the time of her death, deputy director of the U.S.'s 14,000-person
931:, and were officially declared "extinct" by Canada in 1956 under the provisions of the
562:
309:
185:
57:
1932:, May 7–8, 2001 (accessed online 11 March 2007) and other similar official documents.
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487:
385:
344:
197:
189:
119:
1561:
BC Archives - Colonial Correspondence between J.C. Haynes and Crown|date=August 1965
1160:
is a Sinixt/Okanagan sculptor, painter, photographer and mixed-media artist born in
501:), who had a very similar language. The territory of the latter was largely in the
1910:
Reyes 2002, p. 185–186, gives her title as "assistant director", but the July 1999
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333:
181:
95:
87:
51:
2108:
1929:
1918:
1767:
1176:
in year 1780 the Sinixt numbered at least 2,000 people and at least 20 villages.
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361:
Early white explorers reported the Sinixt to be of average height and size, with
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In prehistoric times, the Sinixt were a semi-sedentary people, living in warm,
249:
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111:
107:
20:
1367:
2102:
1736:
1485:
Papers of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, History of the Okanagan people"
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that people not take for their own gain but instead give back by following a
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regions. The majority of Sinixt continued to live in Washington State on the
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479:
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1199:"Sinixt First Nation wins recognition in Canada decades after 'extinction'"
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1334:"In the Stream: an Indian story" Self-Published, Spokane, Washington, 1985
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369:
253:
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932:
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535:
409:
397:
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381:
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1123:, whose family lived at Kp'itl'els (Brilliant, B.C., near present-day
2093:
1267:
Barkley, Lori. "Archeology and Pre-History of Brilliant, B.C.", from
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936:
883:
578:
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324:
1852:
989:
948:
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401:
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103:
71:
2089:
First Nations Land Rights and Environmentalism in British Columbia
188:
in the United States for at least 10,000 years. The Sinixt are of
1551:
http://www.wkartscouncil.com/articulate/ArticulateFall08Win09.pdf
1063:
988:, and all lands within the curve of the Columbia as far north as
969:
830:
646:
602:
574:
425:
273:
1138:, is described by anthropologist Paula Pryce as being of Sinixt-
276:. There is controversy over their historic claims to the area.
19:
This article is about the ethnic group. For their language, see
1281:
1071:
784:
521:
517:
444:; after the coming of the horse, they also ventured east after
429:
405:
373:
340:
1719:
Map of Ktunaxa traditional territory and current treaty claims
656:
1151:
1142:
descent, and Quintasket described her childhood and youth at
849:
Frog Mountain in the Slocan Valley is sacred to Sinixt People
826:
475:
445:
421:
313:
168:", or—less commonly in recent decades—simply as "
1698:
801:, on behalf of his people: first in 1890 as interpreter for
755:
On the U.S. side, the Colville Confederated Tribes—now the
449:
441:
413:
300:, and Slocan Valley area" from the "Lower Sin-Aikst in the
1047:
Sinixt in the group's northern territory host a bi-weekly
470:
The Upper Sin Aikst trained dogs to drive deer toward the
1889:"Supreme Court of Canada - SCC Case Information - Search"
505:
Valley and intersected Sinixt territory at Kettle Falls.
417:
637:. They were allied with the interior tribes led by the
1760:
541:
227:
Sinixt təmxʷúlaʔxʷ map with place names labeled in the
2083:
1685:
Nathan B. Goodale, William C. Prentiss and Ian Kuijt,
1018:
2003:. Slocan History Series. Chameleonfire Editions, 2022
1835:
http://www.sinixtnation.org/files/Affidavit_James.pdf
145:
1848:"Extinct' Canadian First Nation wins in court again"
698:
When the United States gained formal control of the
941:
Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development
771:, apparently at the behest of the U.S. government.
2053:White Grizzly Bear's Legacy: Learning to be Indian
135:Interior of a Sinixt pithouse in the Slocan Valley
16:Indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States
1654:
1652:
1461:
1459:
1271:2007, Mir Centre for Peace at Selkirk College, p6
953:Spallumcheen Indian Band (Splats'in First Nation)
493:Reyes says that they often intermarried with the
2100:
1235:
1233:
1223:
1221:
1077:
1269:Being on the Land: Histories at the Confluence,
951:region, some Sinixt descendants had joined the
757:Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation
750:
2055:, University of Washington Press, 2002. ISBN .
1649:
1456:
1192:
1190:
1188:
486:; about 15–17 feet (4.5–5 meters) long with a
184:in Canada and the adjacent regions of Eastern
2119:Native American history of Washington (state)
2072:. Nancy Perkins Wynecoop, Spokane, Wa.: 1987.
2016:. Maa Press Publishing and Distribution, 2017
1839:
1624:Reyes 2002, Chapter 4. Quotation is on p. 49.
1388:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/EF648602
1230:
1218:
914:
935:. When asked about this extinction in 1995,
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606:
1845:
1796:Extinct' First Nation files B.C. land claim
1185:
657:Fur trade, missionaries, and border dispute
2008:Sinixt in the Slocan: The Last 3,000 Years
2001:Sinixt in the Slocan: The Last 3,000 Years
1751:, University of Toronto Press, ISBN p172
1255:University of Toronto Press, 1999. ISBN .
1066:. The northern Sinixt also host an annual
316:, they ranged farther east to hunt on the
878:Publication in the early 21st century of
721:
2042:, University of Toronto Press, 1999 ISBN
1090:
1022:
962:
844:
235:
222:
130:
2064:. Grand Forks, B.C.: Boundary Museum, .
907:The Sinixt today live primarily on the
550:epidemics that preceded the arrival of
350:. In an interview with the journalist
272:and as shared use and occupancy by the
2101:
1985:Encyclopedia of North American Indians
1525:Bouchard, Randy and Kennedy, Dorothy.
1196:
1941:
1786:Wed. July 30, 2008, Vol20, no. 35, p1
1167:
482:. The Sin Aikst used the distinctive
1730:Ktunaxa Nation – Treaty Negotiations
1364:"PhyloTree.org | tree | R"
1084:Provincial Court of British Columbia
805:of the Colvilles, then in 1900 with
542:Late Precontact smallpox/instability
527:The whole tribe was led by one head
45:Regions with significant populations
2021:Not Extinct: Keeping the Sinixt Way
2014:Not Extinct: Keeping the Sinixt Way
1747:James/Watt. quoted in Paula Pryce,
1549:Fall/Winter 2008-09, p9. Accessed:
840:
816:
279:
13:
2084:Autonomous Sinixt website (Canada)
1993:
710:In the wake of the partition, the
677:missionaries arrived in the area.
14:
2135:
2077:
1390:? , National Institutes of Health
829:that had detachable tips, like a
797:Bernard journeyed three times to
203:Today they live primarily on the
1197:Kassam, Ashifa (30 March 2017).
996:. In a 1994 presentation to the
332:" (as opposed, for example, to "
124:Nez Perce of Chief Joseph's band
1977:
1968:
1935:
1904:
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1813:
1804:
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1673:"Our Work | Sinixt Nation"
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1627:
1618:
1609:
1600:
1591:
1582:
1573:
1564:
1555:
1535:
1519:
1510:
1501:
1489:
1477:
1468:
1447:
1438:
1429:
1420:
1411:
1402:
1393:
1381:
1356:
1337:
1328:
1319:
902:
716:Fort Shepherd, British Columbia
244:study of the Sinixt in Canada,
192:, and speak their own dialect (
2069:In the Stream: an Indian Story
1987:, Houghton Mifflin, ISBN, p401
1689:University of Utah Press, 2003
1310:
1301:
1292:
1274:
1261:
1245:
873:
585:between the present cities of
190:Salishan linguistic extraction
1:
1875:Victoria News, 24 Oct. 2019,
1179:
1078:Recognition of hunting rights
794:" equally in the allocation.
524:) each had different powers.
1949:. Mir Centre. Archived from
751:Colville Confederated Tribes
7:
2032:Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty.
2029:, Sono Nis Press, 2002 ISBN
2025:Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty.
1541:Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty.
972:traditional territory. The
957:Secwepemc (Shuswap) peoples
909:Colville Indian Reservation
865:. A bridge being built at
779:, and settlers such as the
591:Castlegar, British Columbia
205:Colville Indian Reservation
10:
2140:
1846:Bob Keating (2019-05-02).
1798:, Friday, August 1, 2008,
1570:Reyes 2002, p. 26, 39, 41.
915:Legal extinction in Canada
821:Until the construction of
412:, and various game meats (
218:
18:
1435:Reyes 2002, p. 11–12, 25.
1019:Sinixt as "Urban Indians"
694:One people, two countries
463:. Both bands traveled to
339:Sharon Montgomery of the
86:
81:
69:
64:
49:
44:
39:
34:
2062:Sinixt: The Lakes People
1901:Reyes 2002, p. 191, 192.
1761:Siylx (Okanagan) website
1005:Okanagan Nation Alliance
767:was dropped in favor of
631:Nicola (Hwistesmexteqen)
325:semi-subterranean houses
2034:The Geography of Memory
2027:The Geography of Memory
1543:Imagining Fort Shepherd
1130:Novelist and memoirist
1074:of goods and services.
368:Their staples included
1633:Reyes 2002, Chapter 5.
1597:Reyes 2002, p. 31, 34.
1148:Kelly Hill, Washington
1113:Indian Health Services
1082:On 27 March 2017, the
1028:
863:Vallican Heritage Site
850:
722:Gold and silver rushes
666:Nations who traded at
232:
136:
2047:Keeping the Lakes Way
2040:Keeping the Lakes Way
1660:Keeping the Lakes Way
1644:Keeping the Lakes Way
1516:Reyes 2002, p. 25–26.
1444:Reyes 2002, p. 11–12.
1408:Reyes 2002, p. 15–18.
1316:Reyes 2002, p. 8, 45.
1091:Notable Sinixt people
1026:
963:Land claims in Canada
855:Keeping the Lakes Way
848:
835:Inchelium, Washington
384:), but they also ate
246:Keeping the Lakes Way
236:Traditional territory
226:
209:American Indian Tribe
134:
82:Related ethnic groups
2006:Harris, Cole et al.
1999:Harris, Cole et al.
1983:Hoxie, Frederick E.
1944:"Closing the Circle"
1529:2004, p27 accessed:
1465:Pearkes 2002, p. 11.
1346:Back from Extinction
1136:Christine Quintasket
1115:; and their brother
741:Colville Reservation
712:Hudson's Bay Company
621:in 1838 against the
484:Sturgeon-nosed canoe
152:; also known as the
1547:Articulate Magazine
1426:Reyes 2002, p. 8–9.
929:Canadian Government
891:projects along the
783:, who arrived from
641:, who assembled at
619:punitive expedition
474:, where hunters in
31:
1942:Wilkinson, Myler.
1928:2007-06-09 at the
1917:2006-12-01 at the
1810:Pryce 1999, p. 130
1766:2013-07-11 at the
1615:Reyes 2002, p. 39.
1606:Reyes 2002, p. 38.
1588:Reyes 2002, p. 29.
1579:Reyes 2002, p. 28.
1507:Reyes 2002, p. 24.
1495:Hauka, Donald J.,
1453:Reyes 2002, p. 13.
1417:Reyes 2002, p. 18.
1399:Reyes 2002, p. 14.
1325:Reyes 2002, p. 15.
1307:Reyes 2002, p. 25.
1168:Population history
1029:
851:
679:St. Paul's Mission
563:North West Company
534:The Sinixt were a
330:complex collectors
233:
137:
29:
1784:Express Newspaper
1780:Sinixt claim land
1778:Shepherd, Chris.
1474:Reyes 2002, p. 8.
651:Fraser Canyon War
388:, other berries (
345:Pacific Northwest
198:Colville-Okanagan
129:
128:
120:Sinkiuse-Columbia
116:Southern Okanagan
2131:
2019:James, Marilyn.
2012:James, Marilyn.
1988:
1981:
1975:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1955:
1948:
1939:
1933:
1908:
1902:
1899:
1893:
1892:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1861:
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1843:
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1752:
1745:
1739:
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1710:
1707:
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1690:
1683:
1677:
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1647:
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1634:
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1613:
1607:
1604:
1598:
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1580:
1577:
1571:
1568:
1562:
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1553:
1539:
1533:
1523:
1517:
1514:
1508:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1481:
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1472:
1466:
1463:
1454:
1451:
1445:
1442:
1436:
1433:
1427:
1424:
1418:
1415:
1409:
1406:
1400:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1376:
1375:
1366:. Archived from
1360:
1354:
1341:
1335:
1332:
1326:
1323:
1317:
1314:
1308:
1305:
1299:
1298:Pryce 1999, p. 7
1296:
1290:
1289:
1286:sinixtnation.org
1278:
1272:
1265:
1259:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1228:
1227:"Sinixt Nation…"
1225:
1216:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1194:
1162:Omak, Washington
1134:, also known as
1101:Bernie Whitebear
1012:aboriginal title
841:Return to Canada
823:Grand Coulee Dam
817:Grand Coulee Dam
799:Washington, D.C.
737:Boundary Country
334:hunter-gatherers
280:Traditional life
182:British Columbia
166:Arrow Lakes Band
149:
52:British Columbia
35:Total population
32:
28:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2129:
2128:
2114:Interior Salish
2099:
2098:
2080:
2075:
2051:Reyes, Lawney.
1996:
1994:Further reading
1991:
1982:
1978:
1974:Pryce 1999, p28
1973:
1969:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1940:
1936:
1930:Wayback Machine
1919:Wayback Machine
1909:
1905:
1900:
1896:
1891:. January 2001.
1887:
1886:
1882:
1874:
1870:
1858:
1856:
1844:
1840:
1831:
1827:
1818:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1794:
1790:
1777:
1773:
1768:Wayback Machine
1759:
1755:
1746:
1742:
1728:
1724:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1704:
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1693:
1684:
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1250:
1246:
1238:
1231:
1226:
1219:
1209:
1207:
1195:
1186:
1182:
1170:
1103:(1937–2000), a
1093:
1080:
1060:Community Radio
1021:
992:and all of the
965:
917:
905:
876:
843:
819:
753:
724:
696:
684:Astoria, Oregon
659:
633:, chief of the
544:
478:shot them with
448:). They chewed
292:and around the
282:
270:Okanagan people
260:, and parts of
242:anthropological
238:
221:
147:
76:Interior Salish
56:United States (
55:
27:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2137:
2127:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2079:
2078:External links
2076:
2074:
2073:
2065:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2049:
2045:Pryce. Paula.
2043:
2038:Pryce, Paula.
2036:
2030:
2023:
2017:
2010:
2004:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1989:
1976:
1967:
1934:
1903:
1894:
1880:
1868:
1838:
1825:
1812:
1803:
1788:
1771:
1753:
1740:
1735:2012-08-03 at
1722:
1711:
1702:
1691:
1678:
1664:
1658:Pryce, Paula.
1648:
1642:Pryce, Paula.
1635:
1626:
1617:
1608:
1599:
1590:
1581:
1572:
1563:
1554:
1534:
1518:
1509:
1500:
1488:
1476:
1467:
1455:
1446:
1437:
1428:
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1336:
1327:
1318:
1309:
1300:
1291:
1273:
1260:
1244:
1229:
1217:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1169:
1166:
1121:Alex Christian
1092:
1089:
1079:
1076:
1038:egalitarianism
1034:cultural ethic
1020:
1017:
998:United Nations
980:valley around
978:Kootenay River
974:Ktunaxa Nation
964:
961:
916:
913:
904:
901:
880:archaeological
875:
872:
842:
839:
818:
815:
752:
749:
723:
720:
700:Oregon Country
695:
692:
658:
655:
583:Kootenay River
567:David Thompson
543:
540:
472:Columbia River
434:mountain sheep
281:
278:
250:Columbia River
237:
234:
220:
217:
127:
126:
84:
83:
79:
78:
67:
66:
62:
61:
47:
46:
42:
41:
37:
36:
25:
21:Sinixt dialect
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2136:
2125:
2124:West Kootenay
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
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2081:
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2031:
2028:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1997:
1986:
1980:
1971:
1956:on 2011-11-27
1952:
1945:
1938:
1931:
1927:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1907:
1898:
1890:
1884:
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1829:
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1801:
1797:
1792:
1785:
1781:
1775:
1769:
1765:
1762:
1757:
1750:
1744:
1738:
1737:archive.today
1734:
1731:
1726:
1720:
1715:
1706:
1700:
1695:
1688:
1682:
1674:
1668:
1661:
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1603:
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1567:
1558:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1528:
1522:
1513:
1504:
1498:
1497:McGowan's War
1492:
1486:
1480:
1471:
1462:
1460:
1450:
1441:
1432:
1423:
1414:
1405:
1396:
1389:
1384:
1370:on 2009-06-13
1369:
1365:
1359:
1353:
1352:June 30, 2008
1351:
1347:
1344:Weyler, Rex.
1340:
1331:
1322:
1313:
1304:
1295:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1270:
1264:
1258:
1254:
1251:Paula Pryce,
1248:
1242:
1236:
1234:
1224:
1222:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1184:
1177:
1175:
1172:According to
1165:
1163:
1159:
1158:Joe Feddersen
1155:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1132:Mourning Dove
1128:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1097:urban Indians
1088:
1085:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1049:radio program
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1025:
1016:
1013:
1008:
1006:
1001:
999:
995:
994:Slocan Valley
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
960:
958:
954:
950:
944:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
925:Slocan Valley
922:
912:
910:
900:
898:
894:
890:
889:hydroelectric
885:
881:
871:
868:
864:
858:
856:
853:In her book,
847:
838:
836:
832:
828:
824:
814:
812:
811:Chief Barnaby
808:
804:
803:Chief Smitkin
800:
795:
793:
788:
786:
782:
778:
772:
770:
766:
762:
758:
748:
744:
742:
738:
734:
733:West Kootenay
728:
719:
717:
713:
708:
705:
704:49th Parallel
702:south of the
701:
691:
689:
685:
680:
676:
671:
669:
664:
654:
652:
649:) during the
648:
644:
640:
636:
635:Nicola people
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
607:Coeur d'Alene
604:
600:
596:
595:Kootenay Lake
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
571:
568:
564:
560:
557:
553:
549:
539:
537:
532:
530:
525:
523:
519:
514:
510:
506:
504:
500:
496:
491:
489:
485:
481:
480:bow and arrow
477:
473:
468:
466:
462:
458:
454:
451:
447:
443:
439:
438:mountain goat
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
376:, and roots (
375:
371:
366:
364:
359:
357:
353:
349:
346:
342:
337:
335:
331:
326:
321:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
284:According to
277:
275:
271:
267:
266:Westbank Band
263:
262:Kootenay Lake
259:
258:Slocan Valley
255:
251:
247:
243:
230:
225:
216:
214:
213:Slocan Valley
210:
206:
201:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
178:West Kootenay
175:
174:First Nations
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
150:
142:
133:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
80:
77:
73:
68:
63:
59:
53:
48:
43:
40:250 in the US
38:
33:
22:
2067:
2061:
2052:
2039:
2026:
2013:
2000:
1984:
1979:
1970:
1958:. Retrieved
1951:the original
1937:
1912:Final Report
1906:
1897:
1883:
1871:
1863:
1857:. Retrieved
1851:
1841:
1828:
1815:
1806:
1795:
1791:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1756:
1748:
1743:
1725:
1714:
1705:
1694:
1686:
1681:
1667:
1659:
1643:
1638:
1629:
1620:
1611:
1602:
1593:
1584:
1575:
1566:
1557:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1526:
1521:
1512:
1503:
1496:
1491:
1484:
1483:James Teit,
1479:
1470:
1449:
1440:
1431:
1422:
1413:
1404:
1395:
1383:
1372:. Retrieved
1368:the original
1358:
1349:
1345:
1339:
1330:
1321:
1312:
1303:
1294:
1285:
1276:
1268:
1263:
1256:
1252:
1247:
1240:
1239:Reyes 2002,
1208:. Retrieved
1204:The Guardian
1202:
1171:
1156:
1143:
1129:
1117:Lawney Reyes
1094:
1081:
1057:Nelson, B.C.
1053:Sinixt Radio
1052:
1046:
1041:
1030:
1009:
1002:
966:
945:
918:
906:
903:Status today
877:
862:
859:
854:
852:
820:
796:
789:
777:homesteaders
773:
768:
764:
760:
754:
745:
729:
725:
709:
697:
672:
668:Fort Colvile
660:
572:
545:
533:
526:
515:
511:
507:
495:Swhy-ayl-puh
494:
492:
469:
465:Red Mountain
457:Kettle Falls
390:serviceberry
367:
360:
356:ethnographic
338:
322:
318:Great Plains
286:Lawney Reyes
283:
245:
239:
202:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
140:
138:
26:Ethnic group
1109:Luana Reyes
1068:Barter Fair
874:Archaeology
792:half breeds
688:Catholicism
639:Nlaka'pamux
559:fur-traders
370:huckleberry
254:Arrow Lakes
162:Senijextee"
2103:Categories
1859:2019-05-08
1699:Extinction
1646:, UTP, p69
1374:2009-05-20
1180:References
1174:James Teit
933:Indian Act
781:Doukhobors
627:Seton Lake
536:matrilocal
410:peppermint
398:foam berry
394:gooseberry
386:black moss
382:bitterroot
352:Rex Weyler
290:Revelstoke
200:language.
186:Washington
180:region of
122:, and the
58:Washington
1960:6 October
1662:, UTP, p6
1125:Castlegar
1072:Bartering
1042:wbuplak'n
982:Castlegar
937:Ron Irwin
884:Pithouses
807:Chief Lot
787:in 1912.
765:Sin Aikst
673:In 1837,
653:of 1858.
623:St'at'imc
615:Nez Perce
579:Blackfoot
402:hazelnuts
302:Northport
294:Castlegar
229:snsÉ™lxcĂn
196:) of the
194:snsÉ™lxcĂn
172:") are a
170:The Lakes
158:Sin Aikst
154:Sin-Aikst
70:English,
65:Languages
1926:Archived
1915:Archived
1853:CBC News
1800:CBC News
1764:Archived
1733:Archived
1350:The Tyee
1210:10 April
1152:Okanogan
1140:Skoyelpi
1062:station
990:Mica Dam
949:Okanagan
921:Vallican
897:Kootenay
893:Columbia
867:Vallican
714:created
663:Colville
603:Flathead
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675:Jesuit
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