1137:(both of whom based their accounts on interviews with participants) state that the cannibalism happened during the siege and suggest that it was a public spectacle rather than a shameful, hidden episode. Ralph states that "a lack of food compelled them to make a meal of human flesh, that adults were put in the stewpot, and that were skewered on spits. Both were cooked and eaten." He asserts that he heard this "from the very perpetrators of this shame", that is, from some of the cannibals themselves. Albert writes "that the Christians, in the face of the scarcity about which you have heard, did not fear to eat ... the bodies, cooked in fire, not only of the Saracens or Turks they had killed, but also of the dogs that they had caught", thus cynically implying that eating dogs was worse than eating Muslims. Fulcher states that many crusaders "savagely filled their mouths" with cooked "pieces from the buttocks of the Saracens" which they had cut from the bodies of enemies while the siege was still ongoing.
1085:
1226:
argumentative sleight of hand", pointing out that it was
Christian rather than Arab chroniclers who recorded and documented the cannibalism – and that it was some of them, not Arabs, who specifically blamed the Tafurs. Carine Bourget agrees with Maalouf that the tendency of major 20th-century accounts of the crusades to downplay or altogether omit the cannibal episode is problematic, but she reproaches him for engaging in a "rewriting of history" of another kind, by not mentioning the single Arab source that mentions the cannibalism and explains it as due to hunger, to strengthen his "fanaticism" conjecture.
1178:– presumably, desperate starving people would not have cared much about the religion of those they consumed. He concludes that Ma'arra was probably only "the most memorable instance of what was likely a periodic response to famine", namely cannibalism, and that it went "beyond poor and hungry people eating from the dead" in secret. He rather supposes that "some of the soldiers must have recognized its potential utility and, hoping to drive the defenders into a quick surrender, made a spectacle of the eating, and made sure that Muslims were the only ones eaten."
185:
1122:, who seems to have been present at Ma'arra, likewise states that the cannibalism happened after the siege and "in the midst of famine", but adds that human flesh was consumed in public and "with gusto" rather than secretly and shamefully. He adds that these spectacles shocked the Muslims who were terrified by the resolution and cruelty of the crusaders – which is somewhat at odds with his account that these events happened after the fall of the city when all Muslims in the vicinity were either dead or enslaved.
1202:, however, the Tafurs reappear as fanatics who "roast Saracen bodies on spits just outside Antioch's walls", shocking the defenders. Rubenstein concludes that a desire of some chroniclers "to blame the poor for the cannibalism ... led them to create the Tafur mythology" and that this mythology flourished in later times because it helped isolate the unpleasant memories of the crusader cannibalism from the armed, heroic crusaders themselves, instead squarely blaming it on a group of poor, unarmed helpers.
1056:, launched an unsuccessful assault on Ma'arra. Bohemond joined them that afternoon and attempted a second unproductive attack. The citizens were initially unconcerned since Raymond Pilet's expedition had failed, and they taunted the Crusaders. The Crusaders could also not afford to conduct a lengthy siege, as winter was approaching and they had few supplies, but they were also unable to break through the city's defences, consisting of a deep ditch and strong walls.
192:
1198:, a group of crusaders who followed strict oaths of poverty. In recent times, several scholars have continued to identify the Tafurs as the chief perpetrators of cannibalism. Guibert of Nogent was the first to attribute cannibal acts specifically to the Tafurs, at the same time downplaying their significance and declaring that they happened – if at all – only in secret. In the later
39:
1222:
probably been less than ten thousand, it indicates an amount of violence that deeply shocked the Muslim world, while the "barely imaginable fate" of the bodies of victims – to serve as food for the conquerors – was an even more profound shock. After these events, the "Franj" frequently appear in Arab and
Turkish sources as brutal "beasts" and "anthropophagi".
1177:
notes that the chroniclers felt discomfort and tried to downplay what had happened, hence tending to give only part of the facts (but without agreeing on which part and interpretation to give). He also notes that the fact that only
Muslims were eaten is at odds with hunger as a sole or primary motive
1185:
states that, while the "cannibalism at Marrat is among the most infamous of all the atrocities perpetrated by the First
Crusaders", it nevertheless had "some positive effects on the crusaders' short-term prospects". Reports and rumours of their brutality in Ma'arra and Antioch convinced "many Muslim
1059:
The defenders of the city, mostly an urban militia and inexperienced citizens, managed to hold off the attacks for about two weeks. The
Crusaders repeatedly sent envoys offering terms of surrender that included security of the Arab population's lives and properties in return for the establishment of
1100:
After the city's fall, the
Crusaders stayed there for about a month before continuing their march to Jerusalem while their leaders debated how to divide the lands they had conquered. One group of chronicles suggests that the cannibalism occurred after the end of the siege and was entirely motivated
1092:
During or after the siege, some of the starving crusaders resorted to cannibalism, feeding on the bodies of
Muslims. This fact itself is not seriously in doubt, as it is acknowledged by nearly a dozen Christian chronicles written during the twenty years after the Crusade, all of which are based at
1067:
The
Crusaders used the siege tower to destroy a wall on December 11 and began pillaging. The fighting subsided for the night but resumed in a brutal plunder the following morning. Some Muslims negotiated a surrender to Bohemond; these men were killed, and the women and children were enslaved and
1221:
Maalouf also notes that the events at Ma'arra helped shape a negative image of the
Crusaders in Arab eyes. "For three days they put people to the sword, killing more than a hundred thousand people", one Arab chronicler wrote. While this was widely exaggerated, as the whole city's population had
1140:
While multiple sources concur on the fact of the cannibalism, both its timing and its motives are thus in doubt. Another issue is whether such acts were limited to Ma'arra or happened also elsewhere during the First
Crusade, as several accounts suggest. Some sources describe cannibalism several
1096:
There is conflicting evidence on when exactly and why the cannibalism happened. Some sources state that enemies were eaten during the siege, while others (a slight majority) state that it happened after the city had been conquered. Another source of tension exists regarding its motives – was it
1225:
Maalouf's argument has come under criticism by other scholars. Rubenstein agrees with him that "Arab historians do remember Ma'arra as the scene of a horrific massacre", but he criticizes Maalouf's claim that "oral tradition" preserved the cannibalistic horrors among the Arabs as "probably an
1170:, interpret it as a deliberate act of psychological warfare, "intended to strike fear in the enemy". This implies it must have happened during rather than after the siege, "while there were still Muslims alive to witness it and to feel the horror that was its intended by-product".
1186:
commanders and garrisons that the crusaders were bloodthirsty barbarians, invincible savages who could not be resisted". Accordingly, many of them decided to "accept costly and humiliating truces with the Franks rather than face them in battle".
1115:
include similar accounts, likewise stating that only Muslims or "Turks" were consumed. Only one of them says that "human flesh was being traded openly", while the others imply that it was only eaten discreetly, out of sight.
1043:
garrison in the town, and they were utterly routed with many casualties. For the rest of the summer, the Crusaders continued their march south, captured many other small towns, and arrived again at Ma'arra in November.
1217:, the Tafurs, roam through the country-side openly proclaiming that they would chew the flesh of the Saracens and gathering around their nocturnal camp-fires to devour their prey.
1093:
least to some degree on eyewitness accounts. The crusaders' cannibalism is also briefly mentioned in an Arab source, which explains it as due to hunger ("racked by dearth").
1068:
sold. Meanwhile, Bohemond seized most of the loot. However, Raymond's army had largely secured the city, resulting in the latter claiming the fortification for the
307:
1213:
The inhabitants of the Ma'arra region witnessed behaviour during that sinister winter that could not be accounted for by hunger. They saw, for example, fanatical
1064:, which allowed them to pour over the walls of the city, while at the same time, a group of knights scaled the undefended walls on the other side of the city.
235:
1153:, and describes it in a way similar to Ralph of Caen: "they cut in pieces some of the babies, impaled others on wooden spits, and roasted them over a fire".
1097:
practised secretly due to famine and lack of food, as some sources suggest, or publicly in front of the enemies to shock and frighten them, as others imply?
1813:
1913:
1111:'s chronicle gives a similar description, though adding that only Muslims were eaten. Several other works that are partially based on the
1107:, states that because of great deprivations after the siege, "Some cut the flesh of dead bodies into strips and cooked them for eating."
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1928:
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73:
184:
1908:
1776:
1365:
221:
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1012:
led 20,000 men to forage and plunder the surrounding countryside of food, opening Raymond IV to counterattack by
1903:
1884:
1701:
809:
1356:(2017). "Knowing the Enemy: Latin Relations with Islam at the Time of the First Crusade". In Housley, Norman (ed.).
1235:
1918:
1358:
Knighthoods of Christ: Essays on the History of the Crusades and the Knights Templar, Presented to Malcolm Barber
1028:
508:
459:
444:
780:
665:
724:
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1053:
729:
349:
1938:
917:
560:
449:
1923:
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605:
513:
282:
1851:
The History of the Crusades Volume I: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem
1024:
1060:
a Frankish governor of the city. These terms were rejected. The crusaders spent this time building a
873:
868:
839:
819:
814:
675:
312:
1072:. The armies remained stationary until January 13, 1099, when they resumed the march south to take
927:
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734:
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138:
213:
43:
Capture of the fortress of Ma'arra in the province of Antioch in 1098 by 19th-century painter
1933:
1194:
Some chroniclers, as well as various later sources, blamed the cannibalism at Ma'arra on the
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1009:
969:
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1803:
1173:
In concluding his discussion of the various accounts of the cannibalism, historian
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1005:
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364:
287:
126:
1787:
1845:
1756:
1353:
1182:
1161:
1129:(who was a participant of the Crusade though not personally present at Ma'arra),
1103:
937:
856:
739:
575:
384:
277:
1821:
1174:
1108:
912:
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44:
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88:
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30:
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952:
1061:
1017:
1734:
1156:
Several medieval interpretations of cannibalism during the Crusade, by
1032:
1868:
Empire of Magic: Medieval Romance and the Politics of Cultural Fantasy
1073:
1088:
Crusaders cutting up victims for consumption (13th-century painting)
1437:
1036:
245:
1668:
1261:
The Chanson D'Antioche: An Old French Account of the First Crusade
1020:. The crusaders were suffering widespread hunger by early 1098.
1278:
1214:
1195:
1040:
249:
243:
1398:
1632:
1620:
1569:
1557:
1545:
1497:
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1608:
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1509:
1449:
1425:
1415:
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1336:
1334:
1332:
38:
1710:
1209:
is probably the best known who upheld the Tafur thesis:
1410:
1329:
1293:
1101:
by hunger. The earliest text in this tradition, the
1052:
On the morning of November 28, 1098, Raymond IV and
1258:
1760:
1346:
1259:Edgington, Susan; Sweetenham, Carol, eds. (2011).
1895:
1289:. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). pp. 135–136.
1035:, an important city on the road south towards
980:. It is infamous for the claims of widespread
1796:Studies in 20th & 21st Century Literature
1008:in October 1097. That December, Bohemond and
229:
1788:"The Rewriting of History in Amin Maalouf's
191:
1149:ascribes it to an even earlier period, the
1820:
1728:
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1638:
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1455:
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1404:
236:
222:
37:
1807:
1844:
1755:
1614:
1392:
1380:
1352:
1340:
1323:
1311:
1299:
1190:Controversy about the role of the Tafurs
1083:
881:End of the Crusader states in the Levant
1877:Les Croisades, origines et consequences
1785:
1740:
1716:
1686:
1419:
1896:
1870:. New York: Columbia University Press.
1273:
1696:. London: Al Saqi Books. p. 39.
968:occurred in late 1098 in the city of
217:
1914:Battles involving the Seljuk Empire
1824:(2008). "Cannibals and Crusaders".
13:
1859:
1816:from the original on 19 July 2018.
14:
1950:
1929:11th century in the Seljuk Empire
1763:The First Crusade: A New History
1743:, pp. 268 and 282 (note 4).
1236:List of incidents of cannibalism
190:
183:
1749:
1680:
1039:. His troops met a much larger
1016:commander and Antioch governor
1790:The Crusades Through Arab Eyes
1693:The Crusades Through Arab Eyes
1267:
1252:
1079:
1:
1854:. Cambridge University Press.
1246:
987:
174:About 20,000 civilians killed
1909:Battles of the First Crusade
1360:. London: Routledge. Ch. 2.
1054:Robert II, Count of Flanders
1031:, led an expedition against
984:committed by the Crusaders.
7:
1229:
1141:months earlier, during the
16:Battle of the First Crusade
10:
1955:
1241:List of massacres in Syria
540:Period post-Second Crusade
164:Local militia and garrison
1879:. Éditions Ouest-France.
1838:10.1215/00161071-2008-005
1826:French Historical Studies
1802:(2, Article 3): 263–287.
1446:, pp. 533, 535, 541.
1263:. Routledge. p. 391.
1205:Among modern historians,
1145:. The Byzantine princess
1125:Three other accounts, by
751:Period post-Third Crusade
324:Period post-First Crusade
258:
178:
173:
168:
155:
132:
116:
89:35.6433306°N 36.6683306°E
50:
36:
28:
23:
1904:Incidents of cannibalism
1875:Lebedev, Claude (2006).
1866:Heng, Geraldine (2003).
1786:Bourget, Carine (2006).
1677:, pp. 540, 551–552.
1047:
972:, in what is modern-day
1769:Oxford University Press
1286:Encyclopædia Britannica
1919:Sieges of the Crusades
1809:10.4148/2334-4415.1633
1219:
1089:
1029:Raymond IV's army
998:Raymond IV of Toulouse
139:Raymond IV of Toulouse
133:Commanders and leaders
94:35.6433306; 36.6683306
58:November–December 1098
1211:
1087:
1010:Robert II of Flanders
928:Lord Edward's Crusade
204:Location within Syria
169:Casualties and losses
147:Robert II of Flanders
125:City in the realm of
1407:, pp. 526, 537.
1025:Raymond Pilet d'Alès
201:class=notpageimage|
1641:, pp. 539–540.
1629:, pp. 526–527.
1617:, pp. 274–275.
1578:, pp. 539–542.
1566:, pp. 538–539.
1554:, pp. 537–538.
1506:, pp. 534–536.
1494:, pp. 534–535.
1482:, pp. 532–533.
1470:, pp. 530–531.
1395:, pp. 260–261.
1383:, pp. 259–260.
1326:, pp. 248–249.
1314:, pp. 220–223.
1127:Fulcher of Chartres
1120:Raymond of Aguilers
1002:Bohemond of Taranto
918:Krak des Chevaliers
143:Bohemond of Taranto
85: /
1939:Massacres in Syria
1200:Chanson d'Antioche
1167:Chanson d'Antioche
1090:
786:3rd Constantinople
781:2nd Constantinople
686:2nd Belvoir Castle
646:1st Belvoir Castle
509:1st Constantinople
1924:Conflicts in 1098
1778:978-0-19-517823-4
1719:, pp. 38–39.
1367:978-1-351-92392-7
1158:Guibert of Nogent
961:
960:
248:: battles in the
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211:
112:
111:
1946:
1890:
1871:
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1846:Runciman, Steven
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1757:Asbridge, Thomas
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1354:Asbridge, Thomas
1350:
1344:
1338:
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1315:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1282:
1280:"Bohemund"
1271:
1265:
1264:
1256:
1151:People's Crusade
1143:siege of Antioch
1131:Albert of Aachen
1070:bishop of Albara
1006:siege of Antioch
966:siege of Ma'arra
253:
238:
231:
224:
215:
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194:
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127:Ridwan of Aleppo
108:Crusader victory
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83:
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52:
51:
41:
24:Siege of Ma'arra
21:
20:
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1953:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1894:
1893:
1887:
1874:
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1862:
1860:Further reading
1822:Rubenstein, Jay
1779:
1752:
1747:
1739:
1735:
1729:Rubenstein 2008
1727:
1723:
1715:
1711:
1704:
1685:
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1675:Rubenstein 2008
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1663:Rubenstein 2008
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1651:Rubenstein 2008
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1645:
1639:Rubenstein 2008
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1627:Rubenstein 2008
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1621:
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1603:Rubenstein 2008
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1591:Rubenstein 2008
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1576:Rubenstein 2008
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1564:Rubenstein 2008
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1552:Rubenstein 2008
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1540:Rubenstein 2008
1538:
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1528:Rubenstein 2008
1526:
1522:
1516:Rubenstein 2008
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1504:Rubenstein 2008
1502:
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1492:Rubenstein 2008
1490:
1486:
1480:Rubenstein 2008
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1468:Rubenstein 2008
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1456:Rubenstein 2008
1454:
1450:
1444:Rubenstein 2008
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1432:Rubenstein 2008
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1411:
1405:Rubenstein 2008
1403:
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1368:
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1318:
1310:
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1298:
1294:
1272:
1268:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1232:
1192:
1183:Thomas Asbridge
1162:William of Tyre
1113:Gesta Francorum
1104:Gesta Francorum
1082:
1050:
1004:, launched the
994:First Crusaders
990:
970:Ma'arrat Nu'man
962:
957:
857:Seventh Crusade
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68:Ma'arrat Nu'man
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5:
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1911:
1906:
1892:
1891:
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1861:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1842:
1832:(4): 525–552.
1818:
1783:
1777:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1733:
1731:, p. 527.
1721:
1709:
1702:
1679:
1667:
1665:, p. 530.
1655:
1653:, p. 541.
1643:
1631:
1619:
1607:
1605:, p. 529.
1595:
1593:, p. 550.
1580:
1568:
1556:
1544:
1542:, p. 534.
1532:
1530:, p. 535.
1520:
1518:, p. 536.
1508:
1496:
1484:
1472:
1460:
1458:, p. 526.
1448:
1436:
1434:, p. 537.
1424:
1422:, p. 269.
1409:
1397:
1385:
1373:
1366:
1345:
1343:, p. 259.
1328:
1316:
1304:
1302:, p. 248.
1292:
1275:Barker, Ernest
1266:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1238:
1231:
1228:
1191:
1188:
1175:Jay Rubenstein
1109:Peter Tudebode
1081:
1078:
1049:
1046:
1027:, a knight in
1023:In July 1098,
989:
986:
959:
958:
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913:Eighth Crusade
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769:Fourth Crusade
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524:Meander Valley
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502:Second Crusade
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447:
445:Marj al-Saffar
442:
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425:Jaffa and Tyre
422:
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415:Ager Sanguinis
412:
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48:
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45:Henri Decaisne
34:
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26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1951:
1940:
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1703:0-86356-113-6
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1688:Maalouf, Amin
1683:
1676:
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1615:Asbridge 2004
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1393:Runciman 1951
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1363:
1359:
1355:
1349:
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1341:Runciman 1951
1337:
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1324:Asbridge 2004
1320:
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1312:Runciman 1951
1308:
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1300:Asbridge 2004
1296:
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1014:Seljuk Empire
1011:
1007:
1003:
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985:
983:
979:
978:First Crusade
976:, during the
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840:3rd Jerusalem
838:
836:
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829:and aftermath
828:
827:Sixth Crusade
821:
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514:2nd Dorylaeum
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313:1st Jerusalem
311:
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283:1st Dorylaeum
281:
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262:First Crusade
257:
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98:
77:35°38′35.99″N
69:
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62:
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57:
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49:
46:
40:
35:
32:
31:First Crusade
27:
22:
19:
1934:1098 in Asia
1876:
1867:
1850:
1829:
1825:
1799:
1795:
1789:
1767:. New York:
1762:
1750:Bibliography
1741:Bourget 2006
1736:
1724:
1717:Maalouf 1984
1712:
1692:
1682:
1670:
1658:
1646:
1634:
1622:
1610:
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1547:
1535:
1523:
1511:
1499:
1487:
1475:
1463:
1451:
1439:
1427:
1420:Bourget 2006
1400:
1388:
1376:
1357:
1348:
1319:
1307:
1295:
1284:
1269:
1260:
1254:
1224:
1220:
1212:
1207:Amin Maalouf
1204:
1199:
1193:
1180:
1172:
1165:
1155:
1147:Anna Komnene
1139:
1124:
1118:
1112:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1066:
1058:
1051:
1022:
996:, including
991:
965:
963:
879:
878:
874:2nd Fariskur
869:2nd Mansurah
864:3rd Damietta
855:
854:
825:
824:
820:1st Mansurah
815:1st Fariskur
810:2nd Damietta
791:
790:
767:
766:
750:
749:
716:
715:
631:Jacob's Ford
596:1st Damietta
539:
538:
529:Mount Cadmus
500:
499:
350:2nd Heraclea
345:1st Heraclea
323:
322:
302:
260:
117:Belligerents
80:36°40′5.99″E
29:Part of the
18:
1080:Cannibalism
1062:siege tower
1018:Yaghi-Siyan
982:cannibalism
943:3rd Tripoli
923:2nd Tripoli
908:2nd Antioch
850:3rd Ascalon
800:Mount Tabor
730:Philomelion
591:2nd Bilbeis
581:1st Bilbeis
556:2nd Ascalon
490:Edessa 1146
485:Edessa 1144
480:2nd Shaizar
405:Al-Sannabra
400:1st Shaizar
365:1st Tripoli
318:1st Ascalon
298:2nd Antioch
288:1st Antioch
252:(1096–1303)
92: /
1898:Categories
1247:References
1181:Historian
988:Background
701:Al-Shughur
626:Marj Ayyun
611:Montgisard
606:Alexandria
561:Lake Huleh
475:2nd Aleppo
450:al-Atharib
435:1st Aleppo
268:Xerigordos
1074:Jerusalem
888:2nd Arsuf
805:Machghara
757:2nd Jaffa
745:1st Jaffa
740:1st Arsuf
666:2nd Kerak
656:1st Kerak
586:al-Babein
571:al-Buqaia
465:Qinnasrin
455:Rafaniyya
380:3rd Ramla
360:2nd Ramla
355:1st Ramla
122:Crusaders
1848:(1951).
1814:Archived
1759:(2004).
1690:(1984).
1277:(1911).
1230:See also
1037:Damascus
948:4th Acre
893:Caesarea
725:3rd Acre
691:Laodicea
681:3rd Tyre
636:2nd Acre
534:Damascus
370:1st Acre
340:Mersivan
335:Melitene
293:Samosata
246:Crusades
156:Strength
63:Location
1033:Ma'arra
735:Iconium
706:Bourzey
661:Cresson
651:Al-Fule
641:Red Sea
566:Butaiha
519:Ephesus
460:Antioch
303:Ma'arra
273:Civetot
161:Unknown
151:Unknown
1883:
1775:
1700:
1364:
1196:Tafurs
1041:Muslim
938:Margat
845:Forbie
696:Sahyun
671:Hattin
621:Banias
551:Aintab
470:Ba'rin
430:Yibneh
410:Sarmin
390:Beirut
375:Harran
278:Nicaea
250:Levant
105:Result
1215:Franj
1048:Siege
974:Syria
903:Safed
898:Haifa
762:Toron
711:Safed
576:Harim
495:Bosra
395:Sidon
385:Artah
330:Arsuf
1881:ISBN
1773:ISBN
1698:ISBN
1362:ISBN
1133:and
1000:and
992:The
964:The
953:Ruad
933:Homs
835:Gaza
776:Zara
616:Hama
601:Ayla
546:Inab
440:Azaz
308:Arqa
55:Date
1834:doi
1804:doi
420:Hab
1900::
1830:31
1828:.
1812:.
1800:30
1798:.
1794:.
1771:.
1583:^
1412:^
1331:^
1283:.
1160:,
1076:.
1889:.
1840:.
1836::
1806::
1792:"
1781:.
1706:.
1370:.
237:e
230:t
223:v
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