Shared transport - Knowledge

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taxi and 33% would have used a form of public transit. Four percent entered a public transit station as their origin or destination, suggesting ridehailing may serve as a first-/last-mile trip to or from public transit in some cases. Another study of ridehailing users in Denver and Boulder, Colorado found that a third of respondents would have taken public transit, biked, or walked instead of using a ridehailing service. Another third would have driven in a personal vehicle, and 12% would not have made the trip. These city-specific differences suggest that travel behavior impacts due to these services could be dependent on location. Only New York City and San Francisco have studied the vehicle miles traveled (VMT) implications of ridehailing services. Both studies found that Uber and Lyft are increasing VMT, with the heaviest impacts seen in some of the busiest areas of each city. However, both of these studies do not take into consideration modal shift changes.

505:(also known as casual carpooling). Casual carpooling is an informal form of commuter ridesharing operating in Washington, D.C.; Houston, Texas; and San Francisco, California. Casual carpooling has been in existence for over 30 years, is entirely run informally by its users, and does not use a mobile application or information communication technology. In one study in the San Francisco Bay Area in 2014, researchers interviewed, observed, and surveyed participants at multiple casual carpooling locations. The study found that motivations for casual carpooling participation include: convenience, time savings, and monetary savings, while environmental and community-based motivations ranked low. Casual carpooling is an efficient transportation option for these commuters, while 390:, in San Francisco in Summer 2017. Studies have been conducted that analyze bikesharing impacts on modal shift. A 2014 UC Berkeley study suggests that in larger cities, bikesharing programs remove riders from crowded or high-use bus transit systems. In smaller cities, bikesharing improves access from bus lines, filling in gaps in the public transit system. In addition, those living in larger cities report decreased rail usage as a result of increased cost savings and reduced travel times. The study also found that half of the bikesharing members surveyed reduced their personal vehicle usage due to bikesharing. 38: 727:

networks capable of carrying greater bandwidth, congestion, and heightened awareness about the environment and climate change. Mobility consumers are increasingly using smartphone applications, dubbed “apps” for an array of transportation use cases. More people are starting their trips with smartphones to plan routes, seek departure information for the next bus or railcar, find a taxi via an e-Hail app, or source a private driver through services, such as Lyft or Uber. Some factors driving transportation app growth are time savings; financial savings; incentives; and gamification.

702: 472:(formerly RelayRides), and as of May 2015, there were eight active P2P operators in North America. One 2014 study found that the top three reasons for using P2P carsharing are convenience and availability, monetary savings, and expanded mobility options. Another study documented that personal vehicle sharing services can expand the geographic range of vehicle sharing services by renting underused autos and therefore lowering vehicle usage requirements. However, fear of sharing personal assets was cited as one of the primary barriers to the adoption of P2P sharing services. 425:. Carsharing programs also affect usage patterns of other travel modes. A 2011 study by UC Berkeley researchers found that roundtrip carsharing has a mixed impact on public transit and non-motorized modal use, with the same proportion of respondents increasing and decreasing usage of these modes. The impact on carpooling and non-motorized transportation, however, was found to be positive. The same study documented a 27% to 43% reduction in vehicle miles traveled and a 34% to 41% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions among households due to roundtrip carsharing. 259: 319: 610:, and iTaxi. In response to competition from ridesourcing companies, e-Hail taxi services have experienced rapid growth. As of October 2014, 80% of San Francisco taxis reported using Flywheel, an e-Hail app. As of February 2015, Flywheel was active in six cities, and Curb was active in about 60 U.S. cities. Since they use taxis, e-Hail services charge local taxi rates and do not use demand-based pricing during periods of higher ride demand, as ridesourcing services often do. 446:. As of January 2015, about 35% of North American carsharing fleets were one-way capable. A 2016 study of one-way carsharing operator, car2go, in five North American cities found that 2% to 5% of members sold a vehicle, and 7% to 10% postponed a vehicle purchase due to their carsharing membership. Moreover, estimated VMT impacts due to carsharing ranged from −6% to −16% per car2go household, and GHG emissions changed by −4% to −18%. 594:

ridesourcing services, since the riders are sharing one ride and splitting the associated costs. Yet, ridesplitting may lead to detour and inconvenience effects for the users. Ridesplitting services are generally only available as an option in cities with denser and more established ridesourcing markets. Ridesplitting is even less studied than ridesourcing, and therefore travel behavior impacts are not yet well understood.

224:, and Internet technologies have enabled shared mobility to develop and expand rapidly. By improving efficiency, providing cost savings, and monetizing underused resources, shared mobility services have become widely used in many cities around the world. Although the proliferation of tech-enabled shared mobility has occurred mostly within the last decade, shared mobility services are not a new phenomenon. The first 649:

marketing campaign, relatively high vehicle ownership rates in Kansas City, and low existing public transit mode share in the city were possible reasons for the low ridership of the pilot project. Public-private microtransit partnerships have the potential to improve service and increase public transit ridership, but steps must be taken to appropriately evaluate demand for the service before launching.

537: 501:, Carma Carpool, Scoop, and Waze Carpool. These services usually require participants to join either through a membership, website, or mobile application. Potential drivers and riders can then post driving routes or preferred travel routes and the ridesharing service will connect riders with passengers that share similar origin destination pairings. More informal ad hoc ridesharing programs include 771:

SAVs, with assumptions regarding their operations and vehicle types. Studies predict a modal shift away from private vehicle trips due to SAVs under certain sharing scenarios. The impact SAV services may have on VMT and congestion is uncertain as well, with some studies predicting that roadway capacity may be freed up due to more efficient operations and right-sizing of vehicles.

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or saving time. Driver earnings from ridesharing are regulated in the U.S. by the Internal Revenue Service, and as of January 2017, they were capped at 53.5 cents per mile for business travel by car. Both technology-enabled ridesharing organizations and more informal ridesharing programs exist. Examples of technology-enabled ridesharing companies are

464:, a subset of PVS, employs privately owned vehicles made available for shared usage by members of a P2P member base. P2P carsharing companies differ from other carsharing operators in that users provide the free-floating vehicle fleet using their personally owned vehicles. P2P carsharing operators in North America include 412:, which operates more than 12,000 vehicles in urban areas on college campuses and at airports across the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Spain, France, Belgium, Turkey and Taiwan. There have been numerous studies that document behavioral changes associated with roundtrip carsharing programs. A 2004 study on 627:, which started in San Francisco and now operates in Austin, New York, and Seattle, functions similarly to public transit and runs 15-seater vans along pre-determined routes. Chariot determines new routes by “crowdsourcing” potential customer demand and then launching a new route once enough demand is indicated. 114:. Shared mobility programs often yield a variety of environmental, social, and transportation system benefits. These are primarily related to personal vehicle usage and ownership, and vehicle miles or kilometers traveled (VMT/VKT). Shared mobility networks also retain the potential to expand the reach of 713:

Because of its growing popularity, some cities have also looked to ban certain scootersharing companies, taking on similar strategies to ridesharing bans. In San Francisco, the city created a Powered Scooter Share Permit Program that limits the number of companies that could operate scooters, and the

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Smartphones represent one of the most important transportation innovations of the 21st century. A variety of factors are changing the way people think about mobility including: demographic shifts, advancements in geo-spatial routing and computing power, the use of cloud technologies, faster wireless

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in that the driver typically decides trip origin, destination, and any deviations to accommodate one or more additional passengers. Drivers and riders have the same origin, destination, or potentially share multiple proximate destinations, with a common purpose of conserving resources, saving money,

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allow users to access and use a shared fleet of bicycles, typically located within a given spatial boundary. These systems are mostly concentrated in cities or other urban areas and bikes or stations are normally unattended and always accessible. This availability during most or all of the day makes

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and Grab partnered to offer a similar AV ridesourcing service in a business district called “One North.” These SAV services require an engineer to closely monitor the system at all times. There have also been several automated shuttle service pilots around the world, although all are in the initial

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Scootersharing is a recent application of the sharing economy within the transportation space. Scootersharing companies took inspiration from the fourth generation bikesharing strategy, but replaced bicycles with GPS-tracked electric scooters. These scooters are also “dockless”, and are dropped off

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Courier Network Services (CNS) provide delivery services of packages, food, and other items for compensation using their own transportation and are connected with shippers and customers through an online app or platform. In P2P delivery services, someone who signs up and is approved by the platform

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is an example of flexible route, on-demand microtransit and currently operates in New York City, Washington DC, and Chicago. In New York City, users request a ride using Via's app and a shared van will pick them up with other travelers heading in a similar direction. The service is dynamic, without

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These companies have faced criticism for adversely impacting traffic congestion, the environment, and public safety. A study of ridehailing users in San Francisco in 2014 evaluated modal shifts due to ridehailing and found that, if ridehailing were unavailable, 39% of respondents would have taken a

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of ridesharing has declined since the 1970s. In 1970, The U.S. Census found that about 20% of American workers commuted to work by carpool. The American Community Survey has found that the carpooling modal share has declined to around nine percent as of 2013, though it still remains the second most

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Carsharing refers to a model of vehicle sharing where users access cars on an as-needed basis, and often pay by time of reservation or miles driven. As of January 2015, there were 23 carsharing operators in the U.S. amounting to over 1.1 million members and over 16,000 vehicles. As of January 2017,

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services in recent years. This interest is likely due to the highly publicized AV development space, as well as the popularity of ridesourcing services and the realization that operating cost per mile of mobility services may substantially decrease compared to current prices, with automation. Many

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Compared to the other forms of shared mobility, scootersharing can be more hyper-localized and can hypothetically better address the last mile problem. Because scootersharing does not have much market adoption right now because it is a new form of transportation, there are no academic studies that

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The impact that SAV services may have on travel behavior, other transportation modes, the environment, and cities in general remains uncertain. As real-world deployment of SAVs has been extremely limited, most studies on the subject develop or modify existing models of travel behavior and include

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Roundtrip carsharing is one of the earliest carsharing models, granting members access to a shared vehicle fleet. As the name suggests, roundtrip carsharing requires users to return to the same location where they accessed the vehicle. One of the largest North American-based roundtrip carsharing

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by finding ways of getting more intensive use of vehicles on the road. Together with other emerging automotive technologies such as vehicle electrification, connected vehicles and autonomous driving, shared transports form a future mobility vision called Connected, Autonomous, Shared and Electric

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delivers groceries for a $ 4 to $ 10 fee, depending on how long the delivery takes to complete. The proliferation of these services, where couriers use their personally owned vehicles or bicycles, could reduce the need for delivery companies to maintain and own their own delivery fleet. Some CNS

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Ridesplitting involves splitting both a ride and fare in a vehicle with others traveling in the same general direction. These services allow dynamic matching and route variation in real time as passengers request pickups. The user cost of ridesplitting services is lower than the cost of regular

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in 2013, and it has been subsequently used by other U.S. states to refer to services like Lyft and Uber. These include point-to-point on-demand rides, typically hailed, coordinated, and paid for via smartphone and from drivers using their own personal vehicles. Transportation experts have called

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One-way carsharing varies from roundtrip carsharing in that it grants members more flexibility in pickup and dropoff location. In one-way carsharing—also known as point-to-point carsharing—members can access a vehicle at one location and end their trip in another location. As of September 2015,

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Microtransit is a technology-enabled private transit service that often uses shuttles or vans and is characterized by flexible scheduling, flexible routing, or both. Current microtransit operators include Chariot (acquired by Ford in September 2016) and Via. Defunct operators include Bridj and

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Three major types of bikesharing systems have emerged: public bikesharing (docked and dockless/free floating), closed campus bikesharing and peer-to-peer (P2P) bikesharing. Most bikesharing systems are public and allow anyone to access a bicycle for a fee, typically in daily, monthly or annual

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pilot project in Kansas City, Missouri, public-private partnerships have been formed to provide microtransit services. The RideKC: Bridj pilot ultimately ceased operations as it failed to attract enough riders, with only nine percent of riders taking more than 10 trips. The lack of a targeted

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Due to the lower speed of scooters and their electric assistance, it is easier for commuters to use them and for companies to invest in a fleet of them. Many scootersharing companies have been founded in the past few years. This includes Bird, Lime, Bolt, Skip, Scoot Networks, and Spin.

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amount of scooters. Cities that enforced similar regulations cite how scooters are more commonly ridden on sidewalks instead of bike lanes and could injure pedestrians. Other reasons would also be the lack of these companies enforcing riders to wear safety gear such as helmets.

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static routes, and shifts routes based on expected traffic and rider demand. Via charges a fare of $ 5 to $ 7 per ride in New York City, depending on the method of booking. Both Chariot and Via conform to the IRS “transit pass” standard, allowing them to qualify for pre-tax

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in San Francisco, CA found that nearly 30% of members reduced car ownership by one of more cars; two-thirds of members reported that they opted not to purchase an additional vehicle. This reduced car ownership typically translates into reduced driving, and thus lowered

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Microtransit services have also gained interest among some public transit operators, who see the technology as an opportunity to provide higher quality or more flexible public transit services to their users. In some instances, like the (now defunct)

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these services "ridesourcing" or "ridehailing" to distinguish these services from ridesharing and to clarify that drivers do not share a destination with their passengers. Ridehailing companies have spread around the world and include: Uber, Lyft,

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Ballus, Ingrid, Susan Shaheen, Kelly Clonts, and David Weinzimmer (2014). “Peer-to-Peer Carsharing: Exploring Public Perception and Market Characteristics in the San Francisco Bay Area, California,” Transportation Research Record, No. 2416, pp.

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either simultaneously as a group (e.g. ride-sharing) or over time (e.g. carsharing or bike sharing) as personal rental, and in the process share the cost of the journey, thus purportedly creating a hybrid between private vehicle use and mass or

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can effectively measure its impact. Overall, it provides urban mobility with fewer carbon emissions compared to automobiles. They take up less space than bikes, so they have potential to increase transit ridership to and from bus lines.

488:. Vanpooling involves a grouping of between seven and 15 people traveling in a van, and carpooling refers to groups of less than seven people traveling together in one vehicle. Ridesharing is distinct from ridesourcing (or TNCs), like 399:

there were 39 carsharing organizations in North America serving 1.9 million members with a collective fleet of 24,629 vehicles. (these numbers do not include P2P carsharing; they include roundtrip and one-way carsharing operations.).

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in 1965, under the name ‘White Bikes.’ The bicycles were left unlocked around the city to be used by anyone in need of transportation. Bikesharing systems have since exploded in popularity starting in the mid-2000s due to advances in

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models that have emerged also incorporate on-demand ride services (e.g., TNCs) that deliver packages. CNS deliveries are either made in separate trips or in multiple-purpose trips that may also serve passengers simultaneously.

346:(IT) that have improved bikesharing communications and tracking. As of April 2016, there were 99 U.S. cities with technology-enabled public bikesharing systems, with approximately 32,200 bikes and 3,400 stations. 738:, in conjunction with shared mobility, have the potential to greatly increase the viability and user base of shared transportation services in the future. There has been great interest in the idea of 1398:

Shaheen, Susan, Mark Mallery, and Karla Kingsley (2012). “Personal Vehicle Sharing Services in North America.” Research in Transportation Business & Management, DOI: 10.10.16/j.rtbm.2012.04.005.

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Martin, Elliot and Susan Shaheen (2014). “Evaluating Public Transit Modal Shift Dynamics in Response to Bikesharing: A Tale of Two Cities,” Journal of Transportation Geography, No. 41, pp. 315–324.

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by which taxis can be reserved via Internet or mobile phone applications maintained by either a third-party provider or the taxi company. Examples of e-Hail services include Curb, Flywheel, Arro,

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Shaheen, S. E. Martin, A. Cohen, M. Pogodzinski (2014). "Public Bikesharing in North America During a Period of Rapid Expansion: Understanding Business Models, Industry Trends and User Impacts."

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A few pilots have launched involving ridesourcing services and automated vehicles. Uber began testing an AV service open to frequent customers in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in September 2016.

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Shaheen, Susan, Nelson Chan, and Teresa Gaynor (2016). “Casual Carpooling in the San Francisco Bay Area: Understanding Characteristics, Behaviors, and Motivations,” Transport Policy.

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couriers make deliveries using their own bicycles, scooters, or cars. They charge a delivery fee plus a service charge of nine percent of the value of the goods being delivered.

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Shaheen, S. and Elliot Martin, "The Impact of Carsharing on Household Vehicle Ownership." University of California Transportation Center. ACCESS Magazine 38.. Spring 2011.

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benefits are a positive byproduct. Seventy-five percent of casual carpool users were previously public transit riders, and over 10% formerly drove alone. In the U.S., the

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On-demand ride services include ridehailing, ridesplitting, and E-hail for taxis. They are services that provide rides on-demand, usually in passenger cars, for a fee.

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Committee for Review of Innovative Urban Mobility Services; Policy Studies; Transportation Research Board; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

386:. E-bikesharing systems (or Pedlec) have also been growing in popularity, particularly in Europe. Social Bicycles began testing an e-bikesharing program, called 350:

membership fees. Public bikesharing programs can be station-based (docked), or dockless (also known as free floating). Dockless systems are deployed within a

633: 1375:"The Impacts of Car2go on Vehicle Ownership, Modal Shift, Vehicle Miles Traveled, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: An Analysis of Five North American Cities" 118:

by addressed gaps in existing public transportation systems. They can also provide economic benefits to users in the form of cost savings in some cases.

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Shaheen,S. and E. Martin. “Unraveling the Modal Impacts of Bikesharing.” University of California Transportation Center. ACCESS Magazine 39. Fall 2015.

1432: 750:(formerly Google's Self-Driving Car Project) has been testing an autonomous vehicle ride service in Arizona. Also during September 2016 in Singapore, 480:

Ridesharing services enable shared rides between drivers and passengers that have similar origins and destination pairings. Ridesharing includes both

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Taiebat; Brown; Safford; Qu; Xu (2018). "A Review on Energy, Environmental, and Sustainability Implications of Connected and Automated Vehicles".

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and urban areas. Some impacts of shared mobility include enhanced transportation accessibility as well as reduced driving and decreased

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program was established in 1948 in Zurich, Switzerland, and the first bikesharing program began in 1965 in Amsterdam, Netherlands.

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is a term that encompasses a wide variety of services, usually involving the online transactions of goods or services as part of a

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experts, companies, public agencies, and universities are at the initial stages of exploring the potential impacts of SAVs.

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Personal vehicle sharing (PVS) is a carsharing service model that allows short-term access to privately owned vehicles. P2P

1620:"Impacts of Ridesourcing – Lyft and Uber – on Transportation including VMT, Mode Replacement, Parking, and Travel Behavior" 1562: 1131: 1825: 1597: 658:

can use their own vehicle or bicycle to conduct a delivery. There are many business models within P2P delivery services.

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on an as-needed basis. Shared mobility is an umbrella term that encompasses a variety of transportation modes including

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This article is about hired vehicles or hired rides. For nonexclusive shared passenger journeys for the public, see

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Susan Shaheen (2017). “Carsharing Trends and Research Highlights.”presented at May 31, 2017 U.S. EPA.

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testing phase and operate in a low-speed setting. Low-speed SAV shuttle companies include:

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Planning Advisory Service (PAS) 583, American Planning Association, Washington, D.C.

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Auto rickshaws carry people and goods in many developing countries. Also known as a

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area. Dockless systems were first introduced in Germany in the early 2000s via the

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Shared transport is taking on increasing importance as a key strategy for reducing

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Each shared mobility service has unique attributes that have a range of impacts on

68: 31: 1735:“RideKC: Bridj Pilot Evaluation: Impact, Operational, and Institutional Analysis.” 929: 258: 1881: 1733:

Shaheen, Susan, Adam Stocker, Jessica Lazarus, and Abhinav Bhattacharyya (2016).

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Alonso-Mora, J., Samaranayake, S., Wallar, A., Frazzoli, E. & Rus, D. (2017)

285: 209: 205: 99: 581:, among others. As of August 2017, 2 million people drive for Uber every week. 318: 1847:"Uber rival Grab partners with Nutonomy to test self-driving cars in Singapore" 914:"Shared Mobility: Definitions, Industry Developments, and Early Understanding." 558: 371: 289: 177: 169: 59: 1702: 1461:

American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, Table B08006, American FactFinder.

544:"Transportation network company" is a regulatory classification coined by the 1905: 1892:

The first World Share/Transport Forum convened in Kaohsiung in September 2010

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Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board.

1258:“Public Bikesharing in North America: Early Operator and User Understanding.” 1158:"Smartphone Applications to Influence Travel Choices: Practices and Policies" 1097: 795: 756: 676: 628: 435: 413: 375: 277: 271: 111: 975: 238:

have increased the feasibility of shared transportation services, including

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Transportation Sustainability Research Center, Innovative Mobility Research

790: 760: 620: 213: 92: 1891: 1690:"On-demand high-capacity ride-sharing via dynamic trip-vehicle assignment" 1689: 280:, Samosa, tempo, tuk-tuk, trishaw, auto, rickshaw, autorick, bajaj, rick, 848: 815: 805: 510: 434:

companies that offered one-way functionality in the U.S. include car2go,

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Rayle, L., Dai, D., Chan, N., Cervero, R., & Shaheen, S. (2016).

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Transportation Sustainability Research Center (TSRC), UC Berkeley.

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Portland Bureau of Transportation. 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2017.

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system in China, the largest bicycle sharing system in the world

1886: 1420:“2017 Standard Mileage Rates for Business, Medical and Moving.“ 641: 570: 566: 409: 379: 41: 71:. It is a transportation strategy that allows users to access 1896: 747: 645: 607: 1677:"Shared Mobility: Current practices and guiding principles." 1132:"How this Amsterdam inventor gave bike-sharing to the world" 536: 1810: 1703:"Incentive-driven transition to high ride-sharing adoption" 1659:"Study: Lyft And Uber Rides Concentrated In SoMa, Downtown" 1516:"The Downside of Ride-Hailing: More New York City Gridlock" 730: 672: 562: 554: 514:

popular mode of travel in the U.S., next to driving alone.

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Internal Revenue Service. 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2017.

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Transportation Sustainability Research Center, June 2014.

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Federal Highway Administration. FHWA-HOP-16-022. 2016.

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and picked up from any location within an urban area.

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A somewhat different form of shared transport is the "

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from the transport sector in the face of the global

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Cohen (2012b). 1181:Shaheen, Susan; Guzman, Stacey (Fall 2011). 1155: 1120: 204:Shared mobility is a subgroup of the larger 1788: 1786: 1326: 1228: 1129: 652: 1598:"Is Uber Helping or Hurting Mass Transit?" 1367: 1171: 1156:Shaheen, Susan; Cohen, Adam (April 2016). 908: 906: 517: 334:bikesharing an on-demand mobility option. 300:, and a form of novelty transport in many 1792:Stocker, Adam and Susan Shaheen (2017). 1714: 1656: 1638:"Turns out, Uber is clogging the streets" 1342: 1314: 1297:"Innovative Mobility Carsharing Outlook." 1225:Russell Meddin. Retrieved 24 August 2017. 1004: 965: 904: 902: 900: 898: 896: 894: 892: 890: 888: 886: 774: 27:Demand-driven vehicle-sharing arrangement 1823: 1783: 1715:de Looper, Christian (August 24, 2015). 1635: 1611: 1575: 1358: 1305: 1234:Shaheen, S. and M. Christensen. (2014). 947: 945: 943: 941: 922: 731:Future of shared mobility and automation 700: 535: 337:The first bikesharing system debuted in 317: 257: 36: 1844: 1767: 1451: 1425: 1401: 1382: 1323:Zipcar. 2017. Retrieved 24 August 2017. 1289: 1241: 876: 402: 14: 1904: 1746: 1594: 1470: 1464: 1413: 1130:van der Zee, Renate (April 26, 2016). 1108: 954:Environmental Science & Technology 883: 546:California Public Utilities Commission 1824:Marshall, Aarian (November 7, 2017). 1727: 1636:SCHALLER, BRUCE (February 27, 2017). 1617: 1560: 1550:. Schaller Consulting. July 25, 2018. 1392: 1151: 1149: 1147: 1092: 1090: 1050: 1005:Eisenberg, Anne (December 21, 2008). 938: 428: 1717:"Uber Testing Bus-Like Smart Routes" 1675:U.S. Department of Transportation. 722:Enabling technology: smartphone apps 137:(aka ride-sharing or lift-sharing), 1845:Russell, Jon (September 22, 2016). 1747:Lawler, Ryan (September 26, 2012). 1657:Falstreau, Nathan (June 13, 2017). 125:(also called car clubs in the UK), 24: 1595:Badger, Emily (October 16, 2017). 1373:Martin, E. and S. Shaheen (2016). 1348:Martin, E. and S. Shaheen (2011). 1144: 1087: 597: 121:Shared transport systems include 25: 1933: 1863: 1435:Transport Reviews, 32(1), 93–112. 1295:Shaheen, S. and A. Cohen (2015). 686: 253: 1625:. University of Colorado Denver. 1431:Chan, N. and S. Shaheen (2012). 1332:Cervero, R. and Y. Tsai (2004). 1271:Mineta Transportation Institute 1115:“A brief history of carsharing.“ 1051:Hamid, Umar Zakir Abdul (2022). 1007:"Need a Ride? Check Your iPhone" 859: 588: 1838: 1817: 1799: 1761: 1740: 1708: 1695: 1682: 1669: 1650: 1629: 1588: 1554: 1537: 1506: 1485: 930:“Planning for Shared Mobility.” 928:Cohen, Adam and Susan Shaheen, 831: 613: 62:system where travelers share a 1768:Shaheen, Susan (Spring 2017). 1585:Transport Policy, 45, 168–178. 1471:MULLIN, Joe (23 August 2017). 1044: 1019: 998: 740:shared automated vehicle (SAV) 475: 307: 13: 1: 1561:Wolfe, Sean (July 27, 2018). 1223:“The Bike-sharing World Map.“ 675:have incorporated passenger, 393: 296:and for private use, in many 1206:Shared Use Mobility Center. 801:High-occupancy vehicle lanes 507:environmental sustainability 216:marketplace. Innovations in 7: 1870:World Share/Transport Forum 1457:U.S. Census Bureau (2013). 1211:Shared-Used Mobility Center 844:Demand responsive transport 360:Major bikesharing operators 165:and its numerous variants. 10: 1938: 1499:The San Francisco Examiner 1208:"What is Shared Mobility?" 690: 532:On-demand vehicle for hire 521: 453: 362:in North America include: 311: 269: 199: 112:personal vehicle ownership 29: 151:demand responsive transit 106:, and the development of 46:San Francisco, California 1194:University of California 653:Courier network services 423:greenhouse gas emissions 147:community buses and vans 1183:"Worldwide Bikesharing" 976:10.1021/acs.est.8b00127 518:On-demand ride services 456:Peer-to-peer carsharing 331:Bicycle-sharing systems 324:Hangzhou Public Bicycle 222:location-based services 81:Bicycle-sharing systems 73:transportation services 1196:Transportation Center. 1190:Access Magazine No. 39 1075:Cite journal requires 1029:. 2008. Archived from 866:Bicycle-sharing system 775:Shared transport modes 706: 693:Scooter-sharing system 604:mode of transportation 602:E-Hail services are a 541: 344:information technology 327: 314:Bicycle-sharing system 267: 48: 1813:. September 14, 2016. 1027:"EcoPlan.org article" 912:Shaheen, S., et al., 781:Real-time ridesharing 704: 539: 321: 261: 145:(casual carpooling), 139:real-time ridesharing 116:public transportation 85:ridesharing companies 40: 1705:Nat Commun 12, 3003. 1692:PNAS 114 (3) 462-467 877:Notes and references 403:Roundtrip carsharing 298:developing countries 44:Charging Station in 1643:New York Daily News 960:(20): 11449–11465. 786:Flexible carpooling 524:Ridesharing company 1880:2009-10-27 at the 1618:Henao, A. (2017). 1604:The New York Times 1522:The New York Times 1321:“Zipcar Overview.“ 1012:The New York Times 707: 542: 429:One-way carsharing 419:energy consumption 328: 268: 181:(CASE) Mobility. 161:projects and even 49: 1922:Private transport 736:Self-driving cars 634:commuter benefits 302:Eastern countries 294:vehicles for hire 262:Auto rickshaw in 234:applications and 218:social networking 178:climate emergency 16:(Redirected from 1929: 1917:Public transport 1912:Shared transport 1857: 1856: 1842: 1836: 1835: 1821: 1815: 1814: 1803: 1797: 1790: 1781: 1780: 1774: 1765: 1759: 1758: 1744: 1738: 1731: 1725: 1724: 1712: 1706: 1699: 1693: 1686: 1680: 1673: 1667: 1666: 1654: 1648: 1647: 1633: 1627: 1626: 1624: 1615: 1609: 1608: 1600: 1592: 1586: 1579: 1573: 1572: 1568:Business Insider 1558: 1552: 1551: 1549: 1541: 1535: 1534: 1518: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1489: 1483: 1482: 1468: 1462: 1455: 1449: 1442: 1436: 1429: 1423: 1417: 1411: 1405: 1399: 1396: 1390: 1386: 1380: 1371: 1365: 1362: 1356: 1346: 1340: 1330: 1324: 1318: 1312: 1309: 1303: 1293: 1287: 1280: 1274: 1267: 1261: 1254: 1248: 1245: 1239: 1232: 1226: 1220: 1214: 1204: 1198: 1197: 1187: 1178: 1169: 1168: 1162: 1153: 1142: 1141: 1127: 1118: 1112: 1106: 1105: 1094: 1085: 1084: 1078: 1073: 1071: 1063: 1061: 1059: 1048: 1042: 1041: 1039: 1038: 1023: 1017: 1016: 1002: 996: 995: 969: 949: 936: 926: 920: 910: 681:package delivery 248:vehicle for hire 69:public transport 52:Shared transport 32:public transport 21: 1937: 1936: 1932: 1931: 1930: 1928: 1927: 1926: 1902: 1901: 1882:Wayback Machine 1866: 1861: 1860: 1843: 1839: 1822: 1818: 1805: 1804: 1800: 1791: 1784: 1772: 1766: 1762: 1745: 1741: 1732: 1728: 1713: 1709: 1700: 1696: 1687: 1683: 1674: 1670: 1655: 1651: 1634: 1630: 1622: 1616: 1612: 1593: 1589: 1580: 1576: 1559: 1555: 1547: 1543: 1542: 1538: 1511: 1507: 1490: 1486: 1469: 1465: 1456: 1452: 1443: 1439: 1430: 1426: 1418: 1414: 1406: 1402: 1397: 1393: 1387: 1383: 1372: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1355:, 4, 2094–2114. 1347: 1343: 1331: 1327: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1294: 1290: 1281: 1277: 1273:, Report 12-29. 1268: 1264: 1255: 1251: 1246: 1242: 1233: 1229: 1221: 1217: 1205: 1201: 1185: 1179: 1172: 1160: 1154: 1145: 1128: 1121: 1113: 1109: 1096: 1095: 1088: 1076: 1074: 1065: 1064: 1057: 1055: 1049: 1045: 1036: 1034: 1025: 1024: 1020: 1003: 999: 950: 939: 927: 923: 911: 884: 879: 862: 834: 777: 733: 724: 695: 689: 655: 616: 600: 598:E-Hail services 591: 534: 526: 520: 478: 458: 452: 431: 405: 396: 368:Social Bicycles 316: 310: 286:pulled rickshaw 274: 256: 210:sharing economy 206:sharing economy 202: 127:bicycle sharing 104:the environment 100:travel behavior 56:shared mobility 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Shared mobility 15: 12: 11: 5: 1935: 1925: 1924: 1919: 1914: 1900: 1899: 1894: 1889: 1887:On the Commons 1884: 1872: 1865: 1864:External links 1862: 1859: 1858: 1837: 1816: 1798: 1782: 1760: 1739: 1726: 1707: 1694: 1681: 1668: 1649: 1628: 1610: 1587: 1574: 1553: 1536: 1505: 1484: 1463: 1450: 1437: 1424: 1412: 1400: 1391: 1381: 1366: 1357: 1341: 1339:1887, 117–127. 1325: 1313: 1304: 1288: 1275: 1262: 1249: 1240: 1227: 1215: 1199: 1170: 1143: 1119: 1107: 1086: 1077:|journal= 1043: 1018: 997: 937: 921: 881: 880: 878: 875: 874: 873: 868: 861: 858: 857: 856: 851: 846: 841: 840:(ride sharing) 833: 830: 829: 828: 823: 818: 813: 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 776: 773: 732: 729: 723: 720: 691:Main article: 688: 687:Scootersharing 685: 654: 651: 615: 612: 599: 596: 590: 587: 533: 530: 522:Main article: 519: 516: 477: 474: 451: 448: 442:, Zipcar, and 430: 427: 404: 401: 395: 392: 312:Main article: 309: 306: 290:cycle rickshaw 270:Main article: 255: 254:Auto rickshaws 252: 242:companies and 201: 198: 170:greenhouse gas 60:transportation 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 1934: 1923: 1920: 1918: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1909: 1907: 1898: 1895: 1893: 1890: 1888: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1867: 1854: 1853: 1848: 1841: 1833: 1832: 1827: 1820: 1812: 1808: 1802: 1795: 1789: 1787: 1778: 1771: 1764: 1756: 1755: 1750: 1743: 1736: 1730: 1722: 1718: 1711: 1704: 1698: 1691: 1685: 1678: 1672: 1664: 1660: 1653: 1645: 1644: 1639: 1632: 1621: 1614: 1606: 1605: 1599: 1591: 1584: 1578: 1570: 1569: 1564: 1557: 1546: 1540: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1523: 1517: 1509: 1501: 1500: 1495: 1488: 1480: 1479: 1474: 1467: 1460: 1454: 1447: 1441: 1434: 1428: 1421: 1416: 1409: 1404: 1395: 1385: 1379: 1376: 1370: 1361: 1354: 1351: 1345: 1338: 1335: 1329: 1322: 1317: 1308: 1301: 1298: 1292: 1285: 1279: 1272: 1266: 1259: 1253: 1244: 1237: 1231: 1224: 1219: 1212: 1209: 1203: 1195: 1191: 1184: 1177: 1175: 1166: 1159: 1152: 1150: 1148: 1139: 1138: 1133: 1126: 1124: 1116: 1111: 1103: 1099: 1093: 1091: 1082: 1069: 1054: 1047: 1033:on 2010-06-13 1032: 1028: 1022: 1014: 1013: 1008: 1001: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 968: 963: 959: 955: 948: 946: 944: 942: 934: 931: 925: 918: 915: 909: 907: 905: 903: 901: 899: 897: 895: 893: 891: 889: 887: 882: 872: 869: 867: 864: 863: 860:Rental travel 855: 852: 850: 847: 845: 842: 839: 836: 835: 827: 824: 822: 821:Truck sharing 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 802: 799: 797: 796:Hail and ride 794: 792: 789: 787: 784: 782: 779: 778: 772: 768: 766: 762: 758: 757:EasyMile EZ10 753: 749: 744: 741: 737: 728: 719: 715: 711: 705:Bird Scooters 703: 699: 694: 684: 682: 678: 677:food delivery 674: 670: 665: 661: 650: 647: 643: 637: 635: 630: 626: 622: 611: 609: 605: 595: 589:Ridesplitting 586: 582: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 547: 538: 529: 525: 515: 512: 508: 504: 500: 495: 491: 487: 483: 473: 471: 467: 463: 457: 447: 445: 441: 437: 426: 424: 420: 415: 414:City CarShare 411: 408:operators is 400: 391: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 353: 347: 345: 340: 335: 332: 325: 320: 315: 305: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 278:three-wheeler 273: 272:Auto rickshaw 265: 260: 251: 249: 245: 241: 237: 236:location data 233: 229: 227: 223: 219: 215: 211: 207: 197: 195: 191: 187: 182: 179: 175: 171: 166: 164: 160: 157:, a range of 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 119: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 96: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 65: 61: 57: 53: 47: 43: 39: 33: 19: 1850: 1840: 1829: 1819: 1801: 1776: 1763: 1752: 1742: 1729: 1720: 1710: 1697: 1684: 1671: 1662: 1652: 1641: 1631: 1613: 1602: 1590: 1577: 1566: 1556: 1539: 1520: 1508: 1497: 1487: 1478:Ars Technica 1476: 1466: 1453: 1440: 1427: 1415: 1403: 1394: 1384: 1377: 1369: 1360: 1352: 1344: 1336: 1328: 1316: 1307: 1302:Summer 2015. 1299: 1291: 1278: 1270: 1265: 1252: 1243: 1230: 1218: 1210: 1202: 1189: 1164: 1137:The Guardian 1135: 1110: 1101: 1068:cite journal 1056:. Retrieved 1046: 1035:. Retrieved 1031:the original 1021: 1010: 1000: 957: 953: 935:. July 2016. 932: 924: 919:. July 2015. 916: 832:Group travel 791:Green travel 769: 763:, Auro, and 761:Local Motors 745: 734: 725: 716: 712: 708: 696: 656: 638: 621:Leap Transit 617: 614:Microtransit 601: 592: 583: 543: 527: 479: 459: 432: 406: 397: 348: 336: 329: 275: 250:companies. 230: 214:peer-to-peer 203: 183: 167: 120: 97: 93:microtransit 55: 51: 50: 1058:11 November 849:Paratransit 816:The commons 806:Hitchhiking 511:modal share 476:Ridesharing 356:Call a Bike 308:Bikesharing 186:shared taxi 163:hitchhiking 155:paratransit 1906:Categories 1852:TechCrunch 1754:TechCrunch 1721:Tech Times 1037:2009-06-24 967:1901.10581 871:Carsharing 854:Share taxi 838:Carpooling 826:Vanpooling 683:services. 486:carpooling 482:vanpooling 462:carsharing 454:See also: 394:Carsharing 352:geo-fenced 244:mobile app 240:carsharing 232:Smartphone 226:carsharing 172:and other 123:carsharing 77:carsharing 1531:0362-4331 765:Navya SAS 664:Instacart 660:Postmates 575:Easy Taxi 540:Lyft logo 499:BlaBlaCar 466:Getaround 358:program. 339:Amsterdam 266:, Ecuador 264:Guayaquil 174:emissions 1878:Archived 1663:Hoodline 1353:Energies 992:52174043 984:30192527 811:Slugging 752:nuTonomy 551:Ola Cabs 503:slugging 444:BlueIndy 440:ReachNow 384:LimeBike 364:Motivate 282:tricycle 143:slugging 135:vanpools 131:carpools 89:carpools 1165:Dot/Fha 669:Sidecar 625:Chariot 246:-based 200:History 192:than a 153:(DRT), 64:vehicle 1529: 1389:27–36. 990: 982: 679:, and 642:RideKC 579:Fasten 577:, and 571:Careem 567:Cabify 410:Zipcar 382:, and 380:Mobike 208:. The 108:cities 91:, and 42:Zipcar 1897:Avego 1831:WIRED 1773:(PDF) 1623:(PDF) 1548:(PDF) 1213:2017. 1186:(PDF) 1167:: 90. 1161:(PDF) 988:S2CID 962:arXiv 748:Waymo 646:Bridj 608:Hailo 58:is a 1811:Uber 1527:ISSN 1081:help 1060:2022 980:PMID 673:Uber 671:and 563:Gett 559:Grab 555:DiDi 494:Lyft 492:and 490:Uber 484:and 470:Turo 468:and 421:and 388:Jump 372:Spin 322:The 194:taxi 159:taxi 133:and 972:doi 629:Via 436:GIG 376:ofo 288:or 190:bus 54:or 1908:: 1849:. 1828:. 1809:. 1785:^ 1775:. 1751:. 1719:. 1661:. 1640:. 1601:. 1565:. 1525:. 1519:. 1496:. 1475:. 1192:. 1188:. 1173:^ 1163:. 1146:^ 1134:. 1122:^ 1100:. 1089:^ 1072:: 1070:}} 1066:{{ 1009:. 986:. 978:. 970:. 958:52 956:. 940:^ 885:^ 767:. 759:, 644:: 636:. 573:, 569:, 565:, 561:, 557:, 553:, 438:, 378:, 374:, 370:, 366:, 304:. 220:, 196:. 149:, 141:, 102:, 95:. 87:, 83:, 79:, 1855:. 1834:. 1779:. 1757:. 1723:. 1665:. 1646:. 1607:. 1571:. 1533:. 1502:. 1481:. 1448:. 1286:. 1140:. 1083:) 1079:( 1062:. 1040:. 1015:. 994:. 974:: 964:: 34:. 20:)

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