City - Knowledge

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economic developments of the last c. 25 years (in China, especially the so-called socialism with Chinese characteristics that started under Deng Xiaoping in 1978/1979, in India essentially during the course of the economic reform policies of the so-called New Economic Policy as of 1991"; Cartier 2001; Nissel 1999). Especially in megacities, these reforms led to enormous influx of foreign direct investments, to intensive industrialization processes through international relocation of production locations and depending upon the location, partially to considerable expansion of the services sector with increasing demand for office space as well as to a reorientation of national support policies—with a not to be mistaken influence of transnationally acting conglomerates but also considerable transfer payments from overseas communities. In turn, these processes are flanked and intensified through, at times, massive migration movements of national and international migrants into the megacities (Baur et al. 2006).

8907:. "It is now clear that the deindustrialization thesis is part myth and part fact. Robert Z. Lawrence, for example, uses aggregate economic data to show that manufacturing employment in the United States did not decline but actually increased from 16.8 million in 1960, to 20.1 million in 1973, and 20.3 million in 1980. However, manufacturing employment was in relative decline. Barry Bluestone noted that manufacturing represented a decreasing proportion of the U.S. labour force, from 26.2 per cent in 1973 to 22.1 per cent in 1980. Studies in Canada have likewise shown that manufacturing employment was only in relative decline during these years. Yet mills and factories did close, and towns and cities lost their industries. John Cumbler submitted that 'depressions do not manifest themselves only at moments of national economic collapse' such as in the 1930s, but 'also recur in scattered sites across the nation in regions, in industries, and in communities. 5387: 5247:

up to 300 minutes of exposure. The benefits are applied to men and women of all ages, as well as across different ethnicities, socioeconomic statuses, and even those with long-term illnesses and disabilities. People who did not get at least two hours – even if they surpassed an hour per week – did not get the benefits. The study is the latest addition to a compelling body of evidence for the health benefits of nature. Many doctors already give nature prescriptions to their patients. The study did not count time spent in a person's own yard or garden as time in nature, but the majority of nature visits in the study took place within two miles of home. "Even visiting local urban green spaces seems to be a good thing," Dr. White said in a press release. "Two hours a week is hopefully a realistic target for many people, especially given that it can be spread over an entire week to get the benefit."

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government control into insurgent areas—either defensively to separate existing populations from insurgents or aggressively as a means of extending control over areas—as used by the British in South Africa (1899–1902) and Malaya (1950–3) and by the Americans in Cuba (1898) and Vietnam (1965–75). These were generally small settlements and intended as much for local security as offensive operations. / The planned settlement policy of the State of Israel, however, has been both more comprehensive and has longer-term objectives. These settlements provide a source of armed manpower, a defence in depth of a vulnerable frontier area and islands of cultural and political control in the midst of a potentially hostile population, thus continuing a tradition of the use of such settlements as part of similar policies in that area which is over 2,000 years old."

34: 2368: 5919: 103: 4707: 83: 1136: 65: 6081: 11075:, Long War Series, Occasion Paper 25; Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute Press, US Army Combined Arms Center; pp. 45–46. "Commanding officers will also see that orders are at once given and distributed to all the inhabitants within the jurisdiction of towns over which they exercise supervision, informing them of the danger of remaining outside of these limits and that unless they move by December 25th from outlying barrios and districts with all their movable food supplies, including rice, palay, chickens, live stock, etc., to within the limits of the zone established at their own or nearest town, their property (found outside of said zone at said date) will become liable to confiscation or destruction." 3121: 45: 12826:

tentatively, stepping out of the territorial canvas and hierarchical institutional hegemony of the state. Prominent and well-known cities, and those regions with a strong sense of identity and often a quest for more autonomy, have been the most enthusiastic, as they began to be represented beyond state borders by high-profile city mayors and some regional leaders with political courage and agency. This, then, became part of the much bigger political project of the European Union (EU), which has offered a particularly supportive environment for international engagement by—and among—subnational governments as part of its inherent integrationist agenda."

7336:, p. 18: "From the simplest forms of exchange, when peasant farmers literally brought their produce from the fields into the densest point of interaction—giving us market towns—the significance of central places to surrounding territories began to be asserted. As cities grew in complexity, the major civic institutions, from seats of government to religious buildings, would also come to dominate these points of convergence. Large central squares or open spaces reflected the importance of collective gatherings in city life, such as Tiananmen Square in Beijing, the Zócalo in Mexico City, the Piazza Navonae in Rome and Trafalgar Square in London." 4670: 8862:, "What Sort of a Legal Space is a City?" in Brighenti (2013), pp. 1–20. "Municipalities, within this frame, are understood as nested within the jurisdictional space of the provinces. Indeed, rather than freestanding legal sites, they are imagined as products (or 'creatures') of the provinces who may bring them into being or dissolve them as they choose. As with the provinces their powers are of a delegated form: they may only exercise jurisdiction over areas that have been expressly identified by enabling legislation. Municipal law may not conflict with provincial law, and may only be exercised within its defined territory. 2058: 10125:

right. Key terms in definitions of good governance include participation, accountability, transparency, equity, efficiency, effectiveness, responsiveness, and rule of law (e.g. Ginther and de Waart 1995; UNDP 1997; Woods 1999; Weiss 2000). At the urban level, this normative model has been articulated through the idea of good urban governance, promoted by agencies such as UN Habitat. The Colombian city of Bogotá has sometimes been presented as a model city, given its rapid improvements in fiscal responsibility, provision of public services and infrastructure, public behavior, honesty of the administration, and civic pride."

13988:; Britannica Book of the Year, 1968. Chapter V: Ecumenopolis, the Real City of Man. "Ecumenopolis, which mankind will have built 150 years from now, can be the real city of man because, for the first time in history, man will have one city rather than many cities belonging to different national, racial, religious, or local groups, each ready to protect its own members but also ready to fight those from other cities, large and small, interconnected into a system of cities. Ecumenopolis, the unique city of man, will form a continuous, differentiated, but also unified texture consisting of many cells, the human communities." 4916: 74: 6167: 2914: 8617:

in the midst of a golden age as the Tang dynasty gave way—after a short period of fragmentation—to the Song dynasty. This dynasty ruled two of the most impressive cities on the planet, Xian and Hangzhou. / In contrast, poor Western Europe had not recovered from the sacking of Rome and the collapse of the western half of the Roman Empire. For more than five centuries a steady process of deurbanization—whereby the population living in cities and the number of cities declined precipitously—had converted a prosperous landscape into a scary wilderness, overrun with bandits, warlords, and rude settlements."

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power, it must be justified by such considerations as the protection of public health and safety, the preservation of taxable property values, and the enhancement of community welfare. Municipal powers to implement and effectuate city plans are usually ample. Among these is the power of eminent domain, which has been used effectively in connection with slum clearance and the rehabilitation of blighted areas. Also available to cities in their implementation of planning objectives are municipal powers of zoning, subdivision control and the regulation of building, housing and sanitation principles."

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rational criteria for the delivery of services to citizens, even though compromises may have to be made in the establishment of these criteria. These production oriented criteria often give rise to "service deliver rules", regularized procedures for the delivery of services, which are attempts to codify the productivity goals of urban service bureaucracies. These rules have distinct, definable distributional consequences which often go unrecognized. That is, the decisions of governments to adopt rational service delivery rules can (and usually do) differentially benefit citizens."

4423: 3346: 5388: 1524:, has been dated to the third century BCE. According to Roderick and Susan McIntosh, Jenné-Jeno did not fit into traditional Western conceptions of urbanity as it lacked monumental architecture and a distinctive elite social class, but it should indeed be considered a city based on a functional redefinition of urban development. In particular, Jenné-Jeno featured settlement mounds arranged according to a horizontal, rather than vertical, power hierarchy, and served as a center of specialized production and exhibited functional interdependence with the surrounding hinterland. 5301: 670: 9669:, p. 146: "The figurehead of city leadership is, of course, the mayor. As 'first citizen', mayors are often associated with political parties, yet many of the most successful mayors are often those whoare able to speak 'for' their city. Rudy Giuliani, for example, while pursuing a neo-liberal political agenda, was often seen as being outside the mainstream of the national Republican party. Furthermore, mayors are often crucial in articulating the interests of their cities to external agents, be they national governments or major public and private investors." 94: 1590: 4688: 1000: 1578: 6148: 5708: 835: 6121: 5012: 2903: 5001: 1563: 11820:, p. 75: "By the 1960s, however, this 'integrated ideal' was being challenged, public infrastructure entering into crisis. There is now a new orthodoxy in many branches of urban planning: 'The logic is now for planners to fight for the best possible networked infrastructures for their specialized district, in partnership with (often privatised and internationalised network) operators, rather than seeking to orchestrate how networks roll out through the city as a whole" (Graham and Marvin, 2001: 113). 623: 6101: 8865:(Vaverde 2009: 150). While liberalism fears the encroachments of the state, it seems less worried about those of the municipality. Thus if a national government proposed a statute forbidding public gatherings or sporting events, a revolution would occur. Yet municipalities routinely enact sweeping by-laws directed at open ended (and ill-defined) offences such as loitering and obstruction, requiring permits for protests or requiring residents and homeowners to remove snow from the city's sidewalks." 9199:

architects knew the answer, which is as valid today as it was 2,000 years ago. Big cities were created as power images of a competitive society, conscious of its achievement potential. Those who came to live in them did so in order to participate and compete on any attainable level. Their aim was to share in public life, and they were willing to pay for this share with personal discomfort. 'Bread and games' was a cry for opportunity and entertainment still ranking foremost among urban objectives."

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homogenization of ideologies, production and consumption patterns and lifestyles (Pieterse 1994; Sassen 1998). Decentralization processes have increased city-level capacities of city authorities to develop and implement local social and developmental policies. Cities as homes of the rich, and of powerful businesses, banks, stock markets, UN agencies and NGOs, are the location from which global to local decision-making occurs (e.g. New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam, Hong Kong, São Paulo)."

558: 2756: 2484: 2593: 1606: 323: 16742: 4306: 10323:, p. 160–164: "Indeed, the design of the buildings often revolves around the consumable fantasy experience, seen most markedly in the likes of Universal CityWalk, Disneyland and Las Vegas. Architecture critic Ada Louise Huxtable (1997) names architectural structures built specifically as entertainment spaces as 'Architainment'. These places are, of course, places to make money, but they are also stages of performance for an interactive consumer." 4981: 4501: 7925:

fortifications, with walls, ramparts, towers, canals, ditches, that continued to characterize the chief historic cities, apart from certain special cases—as during the Pax Romana—down to the eighteenth century. War brought concentration of social leadership and political power in the hands of a weapons-bearing minority, abetted by a priesthood exercising sacred powers and possessing secret but valuable scientific and magical knowledge."

741: 4330: 4318: 13779:. "Irrespective of the economic outcome, the regime of structural adjustment being adopted in most developing countries today is likely to spur urbanization. If structural adjustment actually succeeds in turning around economic performance, the enhanced gross domestic product is bound to attract more migrants to the cities; if it fails, the deepening misery—especially in the rural areas—is certain to push more migrants to the city." 12074:

of fleet, accidents recorded, pollution caused, workers employed, or whatever else—show the dominance of buses among all transit modes, in this country as well as anywhere else around the world. At the global scale, there are probably 8000 to 10,000 communities and cities that provide organized bus transit. The larger places have other modes as well, but the bulk of these cities offers buses as their sole public means of mobility."

3295: 2066: 1105:, sometimes within a temple. A minority viewpoint considers that cities may have arisen without agriculture, due to alternative means of subsistence (fishing), to use as communal seasonal shelters, to their value as bases for defensive and offensive military organization, or to their inherent economic function. Cities played a crucial role in the establishment of political power over an area, and ancient leaders such as 16730: 15558: 6195: 953: 6985:

Values are embedded in these metaphors: historic continuity, stable equilibrium, productive efficiency, capable decision and management, maximum interaction, or the progress of political struggle. Certain actors become the decisive elements of transformation in each view: political leaders, families and ethnic groups, major investors, the technicians of transport, the decision elite, the revolutionary classes."

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markets every morning on the computer, negotiates with product brokers in distant cities, buys food at a supermarket, watches television every night, and takes vacations half a continent away is not exactly living a traditional rural life. In most respects such a farmer is an urbanite living in the countryside, albeit an urbanite who has many good reasons for perceiving himself or herself as a rural person."

981: 16764: 11880: 2407:; as well as the city's basic infrastructure. These are provided more or less routinely, in a more or less equal fashion. Responsibility for administration usually falls on the city government, but some services may be operated by a higher level of government, while others may be privately run. Armies may assume responsibility for policing cities in states of domestic turmoil such as America's 2170:"—but the difference continues to shrink because urbanization is happening faster in the latter group. Asia is home to by far the greatest absolute number of city-dwellers: over two billion and counting. The UN predicts an additional 2.5 billion city dwellers (and 300 million fewer country dwellers) worldwide by 2050, with 90% of urban population expansion occurring in Asia and Africa. 9679:

privacy and well-being of one resident and the potential encroachments thereon by his neighbors in the form of noise, air or water pollution, absence of sanitation, or whatever. In a congested urban situation, the individual is powerless to protect himself from the "free" (i.e., inconsiderate or invasionary) acts of others without himself being guilty of a form of encroachment."

3331:- small to medium size cities (500,000 to 1 million) are rapidly increasing in number and are some of the fastest growing urbanizing areas in the world further contributing to climate change impacts. Cities have a significant influence on construction and transportation—two of the key contributors to global warming emissions. Moreover, because of processes that create 11009:

capacity to be enjoyed as a mass cultural activity gives it many advantages from the marketing point of view (S.V. Ward, 1998, pp. 231–232). In a more subtle way it also becomes a metaphor for the notion of cities having to compete in a global marketplace, a way of reconciling citizens and local institutions to the wider economic realities of the world."

2844:, helping people and firms exchange information and generate new ideas. A thicker labor market allows for better skill matching between firms and individuals. Population density enables also sharing of common infrastructure and production facilities; however, in very dense cities, increased crowding and waiting times may lead to some negative effects. 8924:

roles. The leadership involved cooperation between public and private interests. The results were efforts at downtown revitalization; inner-city gentrification; the transformation of the CBD to advanced service employment; entertainment, museums, and cultural venues; the construction of sports stadiums and sport complexes; and waterfront development."

10300:. Like the traditional working classes, it has radical chains in the sense of having little vested interest in the reproduction of private property. But it is not a socialized collectivity of labor and it lacks significant power to disrupt or seize the means of production. It does possess, however, yet unmeasured powers of subverting urban order. 1539:. Their habitation of the site spanned the period from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE. Archaeological evidence from Jenné-Jeno, specifically the presence of non-West African glass beads dated from the third century BCE to the fourth century CE, indicates that pre-Arabic trade contacts probably existed between Jenné-Jeno and North Africa. 11006:. "All this media exposure, provided it is reasonably positive, influences many tourist decisions at the time of the Games. This tourism impact will focus on, but extend beyond, the city to the country and the wider global region. More importantly, there is also huge long term potential for both tourism and investment (Kasimati, 2003). 11146:

in consequence to defensive reactions on the part of those responsible for public security, and by individual citizens concerned for their personal safety. The authorities react with situational crime prevention as part of the armoury of urban defense, and individuals fashion their behavior according to an 'urban geography of fear'."

4794:), efficient human-powered machines for short- and medium-distance travel, enjoyed a period of popularity at the beginning of the twentieth century before the rise of automobiles. Soon after, they gained a more lasting foothold in Asian and African cities under European influence. In Western cities, industrializing, expanding, and 11808:

facilities, including electricity and telecommunications networks, gas and water pipelines, railroad terminals and networks, airports, and ports. Following these reforms, few countries embarked on a larger scale initiative than Australia to privatize delivery and management of public infrastructure at all levels of government."

9306:", Department of International Economic and Social Affairs, Population Studies No. 68; New York, United Nations, 1980; p. 15. "If the projections prove to be accurate, the next century will begin just after the world population achieves an urban majority; in 2000, the world is projected to be 51.3 per cent urban." 12233:

McQuillin (1937/1987), §1.74. "It cannot be too strongly emphasized that no city begins to be well-planned until it has solved its housing problem. The problems of living and working are of primary importance. These include sanitation, sufficient sewers, clean, well-lighted streets, rehabilitation of

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Kath Wellman & Frederik Pretorius, "Urban Infrastructure: Productivity, Project Evaluation, and Finance"; in Wellman & Spiller (2012), pp. 73–74. "The NCP established a legislative regime at Federal and State levels to facilitate third-party access to provision and operation of infrastructure

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Ashworth (1991), pp. 91–93. "However, some specific sorts of crime, together with those antisocial activities which may or may not be treated as crime (such as vandalism, graffiti daubing, littering and even noisy or boisterous behavior), do play various roles in the process of insurgency. This leads

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Levy (2017), p. 10. "Planning is a highly political activity. It is immersed in politics and inseparable from the law. Planning decisions often involve large sums of money, both public and private. Even when little public expenditure is involved, planning decisions can deliver large benefits to some

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Moholy-Nagy (1968), pp. 136–137. "Why do anonymous people—the poor, the underprivileged, the unconnected—frequently prefer life under miserable conditions in tenements to the healthy order and tranquility of small towns or the sanitary subdivisions of semirural developments? The imperial planners and

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Kaplan (2004), pp. 160–165. "Entrepreneurial leadership became manifest through growth coalitions made up of builders, realtors, developers, the media, government actors such as mayors, and dominant corporations. For example, in St. Louis, Anheuser-Busch, Monsanto, and Ralston Purina played prominent

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Yet we are danger missing the reach of municipal law: 'ven in highly constitutionalized regimes, it has remained possible for municipalities to micro-manage space, time, and activities through police regulations that infringe both on constitutional rights and private property in often extreme ways'

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Kevin A. Lynch, "What Is the Form of a City, and How is It Made?"; in Marzluff et al. (2008), p. 678. "The city may be looked on as a story, a pattern of relations between human groups, a production and distribution space, a field of physical force, a set of linked decisions, or an arena of conflict.

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Herrschel & Newman (2017), pp. 7–8. "Growing inequalities as a result of neo-liberal globalism, such as between the successful cities and the less successful, struggling, often peripheral, cities and regions, produce rising political discontent, such as we are now facing across Europe and in the

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Grava (2003), 301–305. "There are a great many places where are the only public service mode offered; to the best of the author's knowledge, no city that has transit operates without a bus component. Leaving aside private cars, all indicators—passengers carried, vehicle kilometers accumulated, size

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Ashworth (1991). "In more recent years, planned networks of defended settlements as part of military strategies can be found in the pacification programmes of what has become the conventional wisdom of anti-insurgency operations. Connected networks of protected settlements are inserted as islands of

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This outcast proletariat—perhaps 1.5 billion people today, 2.5 billion by 2030—is the fastest-growing and most novel social class on the planet. By and large, the urban informal working class is not a labor reserve army in the nineteenth-century sense: a backlog of strikebreakers during booms; to be

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Frauke Kraas & Günter Mertins, "Megacities and Global Change"; in Kraas et al. (2014), p. 2. "While seven megacities (with more than five million inhabitants) existed in 1950 and 24 in 1990, by 2010 there were 55 and by 2025 there will be—according to estimations—87 megacities (UN 2012; Fig. 1).

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Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 43. "Capitals like Córdoba and Cairo had populations of about 500,000; Baghdad probably had a population of more than 1 million. This urban heritage would continue despite the conquests of the Seljuk Turks and the later Crusades. China, the longest standing civilization, was

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institution of organized war, its completest expression. Thus both the physical form and the institutional life of the city, from the very beginning to the urban implosion, were shaped in no small measure by the irrational and magical purposes of war. From this source sprang the elaborate system of

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Carter (1995), p. 15. "In the underbound city the administratively defined area is smaller than the physical extent of settlement. In the overbound city the administrative area is greater than the physical extent. The 'truebound' city is one where the administrative bound is nearly coincidental with

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foretold the coming of a mostly urban world throughout the twentieth century. The United Nations has long anticipated a half-urban world, earlier predicting the year 2000 as the turning point and in 2007 writing that it would occur in 2008. Other researchers had also estimated that the halfway point

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conference of 2016 focused on implementing these goals under the banner of a "New Urban Agenda". The four mechanisms envisioned for effecting the New Urban Agenda are (1) national policies promoting integrated sustainable development, (2) stronger urban governance, (3) long-term integrated urban and

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in 2019 found that people who spent at least two hours per week in nature were 23 percent more likely to be satisfied with their life and were 59 percent more likely to be in good health than those who had zero exposure. The study used data from almost 20,000 people in the UK. Benefits increased for

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generally follows one or more basic patterns: geomorphic, radial, concentric, rectilinear, and curvilinear. The physical environment generally constrains the form in which a city is built. If located on a mountainside, urban structures may rely on terraces and winding roads. It may be adapted to its

396:, with a population of 1,841 as of 2011.) According to the "functional definition", a city is not distinguished by size alone, but also by the role it plays within a larger political context. Cities serve as administrative, commercial, religious, and cultural hubs for their larger surrounding areas. 12812:

Abrahamson (2004), pp. 2–4. "The linkages among cities cutting across nations became a global network. It is important to note here that the key nodes in the international system are (global) cities, not nations. Once the linkages among cities became a global network, nations became dependent upon

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Adams (1981), p. 132 "Physical destruction and ensuing decline of population were certain to be particularly severe in the case of cities that joined unsuccessful rebellions, or whose ruling dynasts were overcome by others in abbtle. The traditional lamentations provide eloquently stylized literary

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Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 15. "Global cities need to be distinguished from megacities, defined here as cities with more than 8 million people. Only New York and London qualified as megacities 50 years ago. By 1990, just over 10 years ago, 20 megacities existed, 15 of which were in less economically

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Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 26. "Early cities also reflected these preconditions in that they served as places where agricultural surpluses were stored and distributed. Cities functioned economically as centers of extraction and redistribution from countryside to granaries to the urban population. One

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High density and urban heat island effect are examples of weather changes that impact cities due to climate change. It also causes exacerbating existing problems such as air pollution, water scarcity, and heat illness in metropolitan areas. Moreover, because most cities have been built on rivers or

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Leach (1993), p. 345. "The German film director Fritz Lang was inspired to 'make a film' about 'the sensations' he felt when he first saw Times Square in 1923; a place 'lit as if in full daylight by neon lights and topping them oversized luminous advertisements moving, turning, flashing on and off

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Against those writers who, by emphasizing the importance of financial exchange systems, distinguish a few special cities as 'global cities'—commonly London, Paris, New York and Tokyo—we recognize the uneven global dimensions of all the cities that we study. Los Angeles, the home of Hollywood, is a

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Herrschel & Newman (2017), pp. 3–4. "Instead, the picture is becoming more detailed and differentiated, with a growing number of sub-national entities, cities, city-regions and regions, becoming more visible in their own right, either individually, or collectively as networks, by, more or less

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No other city marketing opportunity achieves this global exposure. At the same time, provided it is carefully managed at the local level, it also gives a tremendous opportunity to heighten and mobilize the commitment of citizens to their own city. The competitive nature of sport and its unrivalled

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Beneath state-to-state dealings, a flurry of activity occurs, with interpersonal networks forming policy communities involving embassies, think tanks, academic institutions, lobbying firms, politicians, congressional staff, research centers, NGOs, and intelligence agencies. This interaction at the

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Although studies of the so-called urban informal economy have shown myriad secret liaisons with outsourced multinational production systems, the larger fact is that hundreds of millions of new urbanites must further subdivide the peripheral economic niches of personal service, casual labor, street

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Southern Mesopotamia was a land of cities. It became one precociously, before the end of the fourth millennium B.C. Urban traditions remained strong and virtually continuous through the vicissitudes of conquest, internal upheaval accompanied by widespread economic breakdown, and massive linguistic

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Marshall (1989), p. 15. "The mutual interdependence of town and country has one consequence so obvious that it is easily overlooked: at the global scale, cities are generally confined to areas capable of supporting a permanent agricultural population. Moreover, within any area possessing a broadly

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Herrschel & Newman (2017), p. "In Europe, the EU provides incentives and institutional frameworks for multiple new forms of city and regional networking and lobbying, including at the international EU level. But a growing number of cities and regions also seek to 'go it alone' by establishing

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Herrschel & Newman (2017), pp. 9–10. "The merchants of the Hanseatic League, for instance, enjoyed substantial trading privileges as a result of inter-city diplomacy and collective agreements within the networks (Lloyd 2002), as well as with larger powers, such as states. That way, the League

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McQuillin (1937/1987), §§1.75–179. "Zoning, a relatively recent development in the administration of local governmental units, concerns itself with the control of the use of land and structures, the size of buildings, and the use-intensity of building sites. Zoning being an exercise of the police

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TIF is an increasingly popular local redevelopment policy that allows municipalities to designate a 'blighted' area for redevelopment and use the expected increase in property (and occasionally sales) taxes there to pay for initial and ongoing redevelopment expenditures, such as land acquisition,

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Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 53–54. "England was clearly at the center of these changes. London became the first truly global city by placing itself within the new global economy. English colonialism in North America, the Caribbean, South Asia, and later Africa and China helped to further fatten the

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Cities with world political status as meeting places for advocacy groups, non-governmental organizations, lobbyists, educational institutions, intelligence agencies, military contractors, information technology firms, and other groups with a stake in world policymaking. They are consequently also

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dates to some of the earliest known cities, especially in the Indus Valley and Mesoamerican civilizations, which built their cities on grids and apparently zoned different areas for different purposes. The effects of planning, ubiquitous in today's world, can be seen most clearly in the layout of

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Gupta, Verrest, and Jaffe, "Theorizing Governance", in Gupta et al. (2015), pp. 31–33. "The concept of good governance itself was developed in the 1980s, primarily to guide donors in development aid (Doonbos 2001:93). It has been used both as a condition for aid and a development goal in its own

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McQuillan (1937/1987), §1.03. "The ancients fostered the spread of urban culture; their efforts were constant to bring their people within the complete influence of municipal life. The desire to create cities was the most striking characteristic of the people of antiquity, and ancient rulers and

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of a notable size. The term "city" has different meanings around the world and in some places the settlement can be very small. Even where the term is limited to larger settlements, there is no universally agreed definition of the lower boundary for their size. In a narrower sense, a city can be

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These apparently rather different takes on London's 'global city' status are of course not so far removed from one another as they may first appear. Holding them together is the figure of the migrant worker. The reliance of London's financial institutions and business services industries on the

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And not withstanding some major world cities that do not have comparatively high levels of immigration, like Tokyo, it may in fact be the presence of such large-scale immigrant economic 'communities' (with their attendant global financial remittances and their ability to incubate small business

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In the context of development theory, these 'secessionary' infrastructures physically by-pass sectors of cities unable to afford the necessary cabling, pipe-laying, or streetscaping that underpins service provision. Cities such as Manila, Lagos or Mumbai are thus increasingly characterized by a

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Magnusson (2011), p. 21. "These statistics probably underestimate the degree to which the world has been urbanized, since they obscure the fact that rural areas have become so much more urban as a result of modern transportation and communication. A farmer in Europe or California who checks the

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A city's credit rating not only influences its ability to sell bonds, but has become a general signal of fiscal health. Detroit's partial recovery in the early 1990s, for example, was reversed when Moody's downgraded the rating of the city's general obligation bonds, precipitating new rounds of

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Frauke Kraas & Günter Mertins, "Megacities and Global Change"; in Kraas et al. (2014), pp. 2–3. "Above all, globalisation processes were and are the motors that drive these enormous changes and are also the driving forces, together with transformation and liberalisation policies, behind the

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Kaplan (2004), pp. 91–95. "The United States is also dominant in providing high-quality, global engineering-design services, accounting for approximately 50 percent of the world's total exports. The disproportionate presence of these U.S.-headquartered firms is attributable to the U.S. role in

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Bryan D. Jones, Saadia R. Greenbeg, Clifford Kaufman, & Joseph Drew, "Service Delivery Rules and the Distribution of Local Government Services: Three Detroit Bureaucracies"; in Hahn & Levine (1980). "Local government bureaucracies more or less explicitly accept the goal of implementing

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McQuillan (1937/1987), §1.63. "The problem of achieving equitable balance between the two freedoms is infinitely greater in urban, metropolitan and megalopolitan situations than in sparsely settled districts and rural areas. / In the latter, sheer intervening space acts as a buffer between the

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Large cities have a great divide between populations of both ends of the financial spectrum. Regulations on immigration promote the exploitation of low- and high-skilled immigrant workers from poor areas. During employment, migrant workers may be subject to unfair working conditions, including

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Gupta et al. (2015), 5–11. "Current globalization, characterized by hyper capitalism and technological revolutions, is understood as the growing intensity of economic, demographic, social, political, cultural and environmental interactions worldwide, leading to increasing interdependence and

10244:

But with the development of industry, the proletariat not only increases in number; it becomes concentrated in greater masses, its strength grows, and it feels that strength more. The various interests and conditions of life within the ranks of the proletariat are more and more equalised, in

10090:

Gupta et al. (2015), pp. 4, 29. "We thereby understand urban governance as the multiple ways through which city governments, businesses and residents interact in managing their urban space and life, nested within the context of other government levels and actors who are managing their space,

4461:

Infrastructure in general plays a vital role in a city's capacity for economic activity and expansion, underpinning the very survival of the city's inhabitants, as well as technological, commercial, industrial, and social activities. Structurally, many infrastructure systems take the form of

7345:

Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 34–35. "In the center of the city, an elite compound or temenos was situated. Study of the very earliest cities show this compound to be largely composed of a temple and supporting structures. The temple rose some 40 feet above the ground and would have presented a

607:

which play a vital role in long-distance trade, are cities disconnected from the countryside which feeds them. Thus, centrality within a productive region influences siting, as economic forces would, in theory, favor the creation of marketplaces in optimal mutually reachable locations.

12846:

could negotiate 'extra-territorial' legal spaces with special privileges, such as the 'German Steelyard' in the port of London (Schofield 2012). This special status was granted and guaranteed by the English king as part of an agreement between the state and a foreign city association."

2522:

in local governments worldwide, has led to a shift in perspective on urban governance, away from the "urban regime theory" in which a coalition of local interests functionally govern, toward a theory of outside economic control, widely associated in academics with the philosophy of

731:

are another component of public space that provides the benefit of mitigating the urban heat island effect, especially in cities that are in warmer climates. These spaces prevent carbon imbalances, extreme habitat losses, electricity and water consumption, and human health risks.

10757:

Mumford (1961), pp. 563–567. "Many of the original functions of the city, once natural monopolies, demanding the physical presence of all participants, have now been transposed into forms capable of swift transportation, mechanical manifolding, electronic transmission, worldwide

3011:, and digital media. These communication networks, though still using cities as hubs, penetrate extensively into all populated areas. In the age of rapid communication and transportation, commentators have described urban culture as nearly ubiquitous or as no longer meaningful. 13681:

Garnered by its interest in the urban poor the Bank, along with other international donors, became an active and influential participant in the Habitat deliberations, confirming both Habitat I and Habitat II's focus on 'development in cities' instead of the role of 'cities in

10678:

McQuillan (1937/1987), §§1.04–1.05. "Almost by definition, cities have always provided the setting for great events and have been the focal points for social change and human development. All great cultures have been city-born. World history is basically the history of city

12532:

Sharon L. Harlan, Anthony J. Brazel, G. Darrel Jenerette, Nancy S. Jones, Larissa Larsen, Lela Prashad, & William L. Stefanov, "In the Shade of Affluence: The Inequitable Distribution of the Urban Heat Island"; in Robert C. Wilkinson & William R. Freudenburg, eds.,

427:

of a chief.) The governments may be based on heredity, religion, military power, work systems such as canal-building, food distribution, land-ownership, agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, finance, or a combination of these. Societies that live in cities are often called

11271:

As noted above, nuclear weapons designed for countervalue or city-killing purposes tend to be of the strategic class, with known yields of deployed warheads averaging somewhere between two and three times and 1500 times the firepower of the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and

2641:

is used by the government to divest citizens of their property in cases where its use is required for a project. Planning often involves tradeoffs—decisions in which some stand to gain and some to lose—and thus is closely connected to the prevailing political situation.

1712:

became a privileged elite among towns having won self-governance from their local lord or having been granted self-governance by the emperor and being placed under his immediate protection. By 1480, these cities, as far as still part of the empire, became part of the

5237:: parks, gardens, lawns, and trees. These areas improve the health and well-being of the human, animal, and plant populations of the cities. Well-maintained urban trees can provide many social, ecological, and physical benefits to the residents of the city. 870:. Decentralization and dispersal of city functions (commercial, industrial, residential, cultural, political) has transformed the very meaning of the term and has challenged geographers seeking to classify territories according to an urban-rural binary. 13166:

continuing flow of highly skilled labour from overseas is now well known (Beaverstock and Smith 1996). Less well known is the extent to which London's economy as a whole is now dependent upon the labour power of low-paid workers from across the world.

12133:

Rydin, Y.; Bleahu, A.; Davies, M.; Dávila, J.D.; Friel, S.; De Grandis, G.; Groce, N.; Hallal, P.C.; Hamilton, I.; Howden-Chapman, P.; Lai, K.M.; Lim, C.J.; Martins, J.; Osrin, D.; Ridley, I.; Scott, I.; Taylor, M.; Wilkinson, P.; Wilson, J. (2012).

8933:

James Xiaohe Zhang, "Rapid urbanization in China and its impact on the world economy"; 16th Annual Conference on Global Economic Analysis, "New Challenges for Global Trade in a Rapidly Changing World", Shanhai Institute of Foreign Trade, 12–14 June

9557: 1852:

During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the old Roman city concept was extensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered territories and were bound to several laws regarding administration, finances, and urbanism.

12317:

S.T.A. Pickett, M.L. Cadenasso, J.M. Grove, C.H. Nilon, R.V. Pouyat, W.C. Zipperer, & R. Costanza, "Urban Ecological Systems: Linking Terrestrial Ecological, Physical, and Socioeconomic Components of Metropolitan Areas"; in Marzluff et al.

11156:

accounts of this, while in other cases the combinations of archaeological evidence with the testimony of a city's like Ur's victorious opponent as to its destruction grounds the world of metaphor in harsh reality (Brinkman 1969, pp. 311–312)."

5760:

Citing the Vancouver Declaration, the UN General Assembly in December 1977 authorized the United Nations Commission Human Settlements and the HABITAT Centre for Human Settlements, intended to coordinate UN activities related to housing and

4816:

for their layout, environment, and aesthetics. (This transformation occurred most dramatically in the US—where corporate and governmental policies favored automobile transport systems—and to a lesser extent in Europe.) The rise of personal

9627:

The diversity of water supply management systems worldwide—which operate along a continuum between fully public and fully private—bear witness to repeated shifts back and forth between private and public ownership and management of water

8875:

wallets of many of its merchants. These colonies would later provide many of the raw materials for industrial production. England's hinterland was no longer confined to a portion of the world; it effectively became a global hinterland."

10420:

level of 'technostructure'—heavily oriented toward information gathering and incremental policy modification—is too complex and voluminous to be monitored by top leadership, yet nevertheless often has important implications for policy.

372:– to classify populations as urban. Typical working definitions for small-city populations start at around 100,000 people. Common population definitions for an urban area (city or town) range between 1,500 and 50,000 people, with most 583:

Town siting has varied through history according to natural, technological, economic, and military contexts. Access to water has long been a major factor in city placement and growth, and despite exceptions enabled by the advent of

8412:

Kaplan et al. (2004), pp. 41–42. "Rome created an elaborate urban system. Roman colonies were organized as a means of securing Roman territory. The first thing that Romans did when they conquered new territories was to establish

7482:"The Grid and Modular Measures in The Town Planning of Mohenjodaro and Kathmandu Valley. A Study on Modular Measures in Block and Plot Divisions in the Planning of Mohenjodaro and Sirkap (Pakistan), and Thimi (Kathmandu Valley)" 2195:

Cities around the world have expanded physically as they grow in population, with increases in their surface extent, with the creation of high-rise buildings for residential and commercial use, and with development underground.

760:

means of subsistence (e.g. agriculture or fishing). And it may be set up for optimal defense given the surrounding landscape. Beyond these "geomorphic" features, cities can develop internal patterns, due to natural growth or to

13006:

Abrahamson (2004), p. 4. "The formerly major industrial cities that were most able quickly and thoroughly to transform themselves into the new postindustrial mode became the leading global cities—the centers of the new global

2447:(packaging city assets into tradeable financial public contracts and other related rights). This situation has become acute in deindustrialized cities and in cases where businesses and wealthier citizens have moved outside of 4852:

to move people through the city, alongside cars, on the roads. The economic function itself also became more decentralized as concentration became impractical and employers relocated to more car-friendly locations (including

2076:

is the process of migration from rural to urban areas, driven by various political, economic, and cultural factors. Until the 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the rural agricultural population and towns featuring

13060:

globalizing city, though perhaps more significantly in cultural than economic terms. And so is Dili globalizing, the small and 'insignificant' capital of Timor Leste—except this time it is predominantly in political terms...

11632: 3327:. The UN projects that 68% of the world population will live in urban areas by 2050. In the year 2016, 31 mega-cities reported having at least 10 million in their population, 8 of which surpassed 20 million people. However, 2176:, cities with populations in the multi-millions, have proliferated into the dozens, arising especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Economic globalization fuels the growth of these cities, as new torrents of foreign 439:

is a modern metric to help define what comprises a city: "a population of at least 50,000 inhabitants in contiguous dense grid cells (>1,500 inhabitants per square kilometer)". This metric was "devised over years by the

4958:, or lack of housing, is a challenge currently faced by millions of people in countries rich and poor. Because cities generally have higher population densities than rural areas, city dwellers are more likely to reside in 10499: 9969:

demolition, construction, and project financing. Because developers require cash up-front, cities transform promises of future tax revenues into securities that far-flung buyers and sellers exchange through local markets.

9299: 2097:, the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891. In 1900, 15% of the world's population lived in cities. The cultural appeal of cities also plays a role in attracting residents. 341:, which may be conferred by a central authority. The term can also refer either to the physical streets and buildings of the city or to the collection of people who dwell there and can be used in a general sense to mean 7263:

Carter (1995), pp. 5–7. " the two main themes of study introduced at the outset: the town as a distributed feature and the town as a feature with internal structure, or in other words, the town in area and the town as

4560:, with a tendency toward government water supply in the 20th century and a tendency toward private operation at the turn of the twenty-first. The market for private water services is dominated by two French companies, 6031:. Other early cinematic representations of cities in the twentieth century generally depicted them as technologically efficient spaces with smoothly functioning systems of automobile transport. By the 1960s, however, 2471:, in which a development project is financed by loans based on future tax revenues which it is expected to yield. Under these circumstances, creditors and consequently city governments place a high importance on city 4518:(literally, useful things with general availability) include basic and essential infrastructure networks, chiefly concerned with the supply of water, electricity, and telecommunications capability to the populace. 5354:

Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power and interchange. The term "global city" is heavily influenced by economic factors and, thus, may not account for places that are otherwise significant.

8592: 13260: 4488:

require large upfront investments and thus tend to require funding from the national government or the private sector. Privatization may also extend to all levels of infrastructure construction and maintenance.

9087: 7850:

of the main functions of this central authority was to extract, store, and redistribute the grain. It is no accident that granaries—storage areas for grain—were often found within the temples of early cities."

2359:. Technologies, techniques, and laws governing these areas—developed in cities—have become ubiquitous in many areas. Municipal officials may be appointed from a higher level of government or elected locally. 5287:

around the world, effectively eliminating the distance between cities for the purposes of the international markets and other high-level elements of the world economy, as well as personal communications and

10294:

expelled during busts; then reabsorbed again in the next expansion. On the contrary, this is a mass of humanity structurally and biologically redundant to the global accumulation and the corporate matrix.

9215: 11602: 5857:, has been a primary force in promoting the Habitat conferences, and since the first Habitat conference has used their declarations as a framework for issuing loans for urban infrastructure. The bank's 4381:

as having significantly more impact than production-based emissions within cities. The report estimates that 85% of the emissions associated with goods within a city is generated outside of that city.

14008: 2574:. The concepts of governance and good governance are especially invoked in emergent megacities, where international organizations consider existing governments inadequate for their large populations. 8850:

Curtis (2016), pp. 5–6. "In the modern international system, cities were subjugated and internalized by the state, and, with industrialization, became the great growth engines of national economies."

1170:

from the mid-fourth millennium BC (ancient Iraq) is considered by most archaeologists to be the first true city, innovating many characteristics for cities to follow, with its name attributed to the

1406:. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the 30th and 18th centuries BC. Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in several cultural regions, beginning with the 2972:, providing thousands of offices or homes within a small footprint, and visible from miles away, have become iconic urban features. Cultural elites tend to live in cities, bound together by shared 7920:

Mumford (1961), pp. 39–46. "As the physical means increased, this one-sided power mythology, sterile, indeed hostile to life, pushed its way into every corner of the urban scene and found, in the

7321:

uniform level of agricultural productivity, there is a rough but definite association between the density of the rural population and the average spacing of cities above any chosen minimum size."

3365: 1869:

and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. England led the way as

7346:

formidable profile to those far away. The temple contained the priestly class, scribes, and record keepers, as well as granaries, schools, crafts—almost all non-agricultural aspects of society."

5215:

by an average of 2–3 °C and at times 5–10 °C differences have been recorded. This effect varies nonlinearly with population changes (independently of the city's physical size). Aerial

11488:

Sancino, Alessandro; Stafford, Max; Braga, Alessandro; Budd, Leslie (3 July 2022). "What can city leaders do for climate change? Insights from the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group network".

5873:

distribution around the issue of urban poverty. (UN-Habitat plays an advisory role in evaluating the quality of a locality's governance.) The Bank's policies have tended to focus on bolstering

12555:

Zhao, Jiacheng; Zhao, Xiang; Wu, Donghai; Meili, Naika; Fatichi, Simone (2023). "Satellite-based evidence highlights a considerable increase of urban tree cooling benefits from 2000 to 2015".

5226:

when intersecting also with racial segregation). For example, within the urban microclimate, less-vegetated poor neighborhoods bear more of the heat (but have fewer means of coping with it).

13950:... something completely new and nearly fairly-tale-like for a European ... a luxurious cloth hung from a dark sky to dazzle, distract, and hypnotize.' The film Lang made turned out to be 13081:

overseas automobile production, the electronics and petroleum industries, and various kinds of construction, including work on the country's numerous overseas air and navy military bases."

8133: 6285:

was reached in 2007. Although the trend is undeniable, the precision of this statistic is dubious, due to reliance on national censuses and to the ambiguities of defining an area as urban.

4837:

for pedestrians. However, severe traffic jams still occur regularly in cities around the world, as private car ownership and urbanization continue to increase, overwhelming existing urban

13474: 9460: 4466:

with redundant links and multiple pathways, so that the system as a whole continue to operate even if parts of it fail. The particulars of a city's infrastructure systems have historical

9436: 11466: 8708: 637:

The vast majority of cities have a central area containing buildings with special economic, political, and religious significance. Archaeologists refer to this area by the Greek term

11624: 10079:

capital flight (Hackworth, 2007). The need to maintain a high credit rating constrains municipal actors by making it difficult to finance discretionary projects in traditional ways.

8947: 10496: 9296: 8813: 14180: 6849: 4865:

and other methods for prioritizing bus traffic over private cars. Many big American cities still operate conventional public transit by rail, as exemplified by the ever-popular

2431:

and other development projects, is a perennial problem, which cities address through appeals to higher governments, arrangements with the private sector, and techniques such as

13373: 10134:

Shipra Narang Suri & Günther Taube, "Governance in Megacities: Experiences, Challenges and Implications for International Cooperation"; in Kraas et al. (2014), pp. 197–198.

4438:

involves various physical networks and spaces necessary for transportation, water use, energy, recreation, and public functions. Infrastructure carries a high initial cost in

8324: 8058: 9510:

Shipra Narang Suri & Günther Taube, "Governance in Megacities: Experiences, Challenges and Implications for International Cooperation"; in Kraas et al. (2014), p. 196.

2678:

along ethnic, economic, and racial lines. People living relatively close together may live, work, and play in separate areas, and associate with different people, forming

9736: 6080: 18578: 13327: 8589: 7178: 306:

are often referred to as a crucial element in fighting climate change. However, this concentration can also have some significant negative consequences, such as forming

13257: 16802: 13137:

growth, rather than their complementarity to producer services employment) which partially distinguishes mega-cities from other more nationally oriented urban centres.

11316: 9080: 4389:

will be important in reducing the impacts of some of the largest contributors of greenhouse gas emissions: for example, increased density allows for redistribution of

1724:

By the 13th and 14th centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. In Italy,

14221:. Committee on National Urban Policy, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Washington: National Academy Press, 1984. 13816: 6120: 5888:. It has developed various city networks including the International Coalition of Cities against Racism and the Creative Cities Network. UNESCO's capacity to select 7152: 11358: 9982: 3187:, the US Army ordered local people to concentrate in cities and towns, in order to isolate committed insurgents and battle freely against them in the countryside. 2101: 12754:

White, Mathew P.; Alcock, Ian; Grellier, James; Wheeler, Benedict W.; Hartig, Terry; Warber, Sara L.; Bone, Angie; Depledge, Michael H.; Fleming, Lora E. (2019).

9415: 8433: 4492:

Urban infrastructure ideally serves all residents equally but in practice may prove uneven—with, in some cities, clear first-class and second-class alternatives.

3144:

Cities play a crucial strategic role in warfare due to their economic, demographic, symbolic, and political centrality. For the same reasons, they are targets in

399:

The presence of a literate elite is often associated with cities because of the cultural diversities present in a city. A typical city has professional

9395: 9212: 266:, all cities are to varying degrees also connected globally beyond these regions. This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on 5999:

Writers, painters, and filmmakers have produced innumerable works of art concerning the urban experience. Classical and medieval literature includes a genre of

18558: 15147: 9336: 14005: 7402: 6001: 195:

populated place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks. Cities generally have extensive systems for

11584: 7028: 2427:

within the city. Local government can also collect revenue for services, or by leasing land that it owns. However, financing municipal services, as well as

2320:

Legal conflicts and issues arise more frequently in cities than elsewhere due to the bare fact of their greater density. Modern city governments thoroughly

9481:

developed regions of the world. In 2000, the number of megacities had increased to 26, again all except 6 are located in the less developed world regions."

4735:, their inhabitants must have the ability to regularly travel between home, work, commerce, and entertainment. City dwellers travel by foot or by wheel on 4361: 549:

deals both with cities in their larger context and with their internal structure. Cities are estimated to cover about 3% of the land surface of the Earth.

9828: 3112:, which bring global attention and tourism. Paris, a city known for its cultural history, was the site of the most recent Olympics in the summer of 2024. 3580: 2100:

Urbanization rapidly spread across Europe and the Americas and since the 1950s has taken hold in Asia and Africa as well. The Population Division of the

767:

In a radial structure, main roads converge on a central point. This form could evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of

13288: 6147: 5551:

Cities increasingly participate in world political activities independently of their enclosing nation-states. Early examples of this phenomenon are the

5082:

dominant. On the whole, urban ecosystems are less complex and productive than others, due to the diminished absolute amount of biological interactions.

131: 5854: 5369:

make their headquarters in global cities and conduct much of their business within this context. American firms dominate the international markets for

2743:. The global urban proletariat of today, however, generally lacks the status of factory workers which in the nineteenth century provided access to the 2610:, the application of forethought to city design, involves optimizing land use, transportation, utilities, and other basic systems, in order to achieve 7123: 11696: 5034:, influenced as they are by the density of human buildings and activities, differ considerably from those of their rural surroundings. Anthropogenic 2976:, and themselves play some role in governance. By virtue of their status as centers of culture and literacy, cities can be described as the locus of 2637:

Government is legally the final authority on planning but in practice, the process involves both public and private elements. The legal principle of

11459:"68% of the world population projected to live in urban areas by 2050, says UN | UN DESA | United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs" 11413:

Liang, Longwu; Wang, Zhenbo; Li, Jiaxin (2019). "The effect of urbanization on environmental pollution in rapidly developing urban agglomerations".

8163: 7091: 1845:

in the seventeenth century. Western Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an

11067: 10233: 10147: 8506:

McIntosh, Roderic J., McIntosh, Susan Keech. "Early Urban Configurations on the Middle Niger: Clustered Cities and Landscapes of Power," Chapter 5.

8333:

and population replacement. The symbolic and material content of civilization obviously changed, but its cultural ambience remained tied to cities.

5835: 5219:

increase rainfall by 5–10%. Thus, urban areas experience unique climates, with earlier flowering and later leaf dropping than in nearby countries.

5140:, locally and at longer distances, due to concentrated populations and technological activities. From one perspective, cities are not ecologically 1442:

peoples drew on these earlier urban traditions. Many of their ancient cities continue to be inhabited, including major metropolitan cities such as

17166: 12732: 8670: 5662: 16574: 8125: 4378: 3765: 13471: 10634:"Toward a new concept of the 'cultural elite state': Cultural capital and the urban sculpture planning authority in elite coalition in Shanghai" 9457: 8833: 7280: 5980:

Cities can be perceived in terms of extremes or opposites: at once liberating and oppressive, wealthy and poor, organized and chaotic. The name

16795: 14404:

Marzluff, John M., Eric Schulenberger, Wilfried Endlicher, Marina Alberti, Gordon Bradley, Clre Ryan, Craig ZumBrunne, & Ute Simon (2008).

13347: 7003: 1670: 11786:

Kath Wellman & Frederik Pretorius, "Urban Infrastructure: Productivity, Project Evaluation, and Finance"; in Wellman & Spiller (2012).

9433: 7043: 17216: 16230: 8517: 6348: 5699:, a city in South Africa, had a rally where five thousand people took part in order to advocate for increasing wages to afford living costs. 4229: 1761: 11458: 11248: 8700: 6100: 5343:

or through inertia which has enabled them to maintain their dominance from the industrial era. This type of ranking exemplifies an emerging

13247:", presented at the Fifth Biennial International Conference of the European Community Studies Association, 29 May–1 June 1997, Seattle, US. 9858:

David Walker, "The New System of Intergovernmental Relations: Fiscal Relief and More Governmental Intrusions"; in Hahn & Levine (1980).

8944: 5394: 3590: 1067: 5741:

has been involved in a series of events and declarations dealing with the development of cities during this period of rapid urbanization.

5160:) that envelop them, posing a chronic threat to the health of their millions of inhabitants. Urban soil contains higher concentrations of 1897: 995:, which was rebuilt six or more times, using bricks of standard size, and adhering to the same grid layout—also in the third millennium BC 18573: 15369: 11846: 11169: 7572: 7561: 7418:"Optimizing urban greenspace spatial pattern to mitigate urban heat island effects: Extending understanding from local to the city scale" 6213: 5749:

conference in 1976 adopted the "Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements" which identifies urban management as a fundamental aspect of

3473: 1221: 11230: 11019: 8810: 8366: 3210:

and rapid urbanization, cities have become sites of long-term conflict waged both by foreign occupiers and by local governments against

2110:

is the most urban continent, with four-fifths of its population living in cities, including one-fifth of the population said to live in

16825: 13362: 11287: 9653: 9319: 7514: 5799: 3547: 13980: 9171: 8460:

Monroe, J. Cameron (2018). ""Elephants for Want of Towns": Archaeological Perspectives on West African Cities and Their Hinterlands".

6841: 5307:, characteristic features of the top global cities, are interconnected hubs for capital. Here, a delegation from Australia visits the 17947: 16788: 16521: 15362: 13500: 13370: 3448: 3252: 3125: 2367: 1236: 947: 234:

Historically, city dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid

11097:; School of Advanced Military Studies, United States Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas; January 2015. 3086:. Place brands (which include place satisfaction and place loyalty) have great economic value (comparable to the value of commodity 2790:

tends to analyze larger agglomerations, stretching beyond city limits, in order to reach a more complete understanding of the local

15802: 15594: 15017: 12419: 10471: 8794: 6384: 5984:

refers to various types of ideological opposition to cities, whether because of their culture or their political relationship with

4805:

enabled urban expansion as new residential neighborhoods sprung up along transit lines and workers rode to and from work downtown.

4390: 4354: 4279: 4057: 3522: 10342: 9719:

Robert L. Lineberry, "Mandating Urban Equality: The Distribution of Municipal Public Services"; in Hahn & Levine (1980). See:

15374: 13873: 11845:

Emanuele Lobina, David Hall, & Vladimir Popov, "List of water remunicipalisations in Asia and worldwide – As of April 2014";

7153:

http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/courts-and-cities/markian-prokopovych-rosemary-h-sweet-literary-and-artistic-metropolises

1339:, meaning "gathering place" or "assembly", was the center of the athletic, artistic, spiritual, and political life of the polis. 1259:

fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher classes.

12516: 10844: 10792:

Ashworth, Kavaratzis, & Warnaby, "The Need to Rethink Place Branding"; in Kavaratzis, Warnaby, & Ashworth (2015), p. 15.

8103: 5918: 3356:, is a large city that has experienced multiple droughts throughout the years, which has led to decreased economic productivity. 17853: 15379: 9733: 5133:

are scarce. However, in North America, large predators such as coyotes and other large animals like white-tailed deer persist.

4553: 4179: 3864: 3715: 3551: 3542: 3537: 3237:

Although capture is the more common objective, warfare has in some cases spelled complete destruction for a city. Mesopotamian

2188:

from near and far. A deep gulf divides the rich and poor in these cities, with usually contain a super-wealthy elite living in

14832:, 1967. Pan historical/geographical essays, many images. Starts with "Athens", ends with "The Coming World City-Ecumenopolis". 13925: 7174: 6166: 4706: 3238: 16621: 14805: 14786: 14751: 14732: 14713: 14694: 14675: 14628: 14601: 14492: 14469: 14438: 14413: 14398: 14383: 14343: 14327: 14312: 14260: 14237: 14202: 14188: 14176: 14157: 14143: 14114: 14078: 13760: 13158: 12602: 12542: 11656:"Conflict in abundance and peacebuilding in scarcity: Challenges and opportunities in addressing climate change and conflict" 11124: 11003: 10777: 9165: 8977: 8638: 8537: 8397: 8360: 8318: 8267: 7881: 7554: 5623: 5606:

by various means including membership in global networks which transmit norms and regulations. At the general, global level,

4037: 3071: 2245: 1209:, but others carried out urban activities in the realms of politics or religion without having large associated populations. 720: 231:, sometimes benefiting different parties in the process, such as improving the efficiency of goods and service distribution. 13792: 11308: 10865:

Adriana Campelo, "Rethinking Sense of Place: Sense of One and Sense of Many"; in Kavaratzis, Warnaby, & Ashworth (2015).

8644: 8305: 2654:, fully designed prior to construction, often with consideration for interlocking physical, economic, and cultural systems. 18067: 17105: 16554: 7904: 6821: 5516: 4047: 3505: 1885:

reduced transportation costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, fueling migration from rural to city areas.

1493:, presented characteristics suggestive of an incipient form of urbanism. The second place to show urban characteristics in 1348: 17796: 13548: 13277:

their own representations in Brussels, either individually or in shared accommodation, as the base for European lobbying."

13180:"Are world cities also world immigrant cities? An international, cross-city analysis of global centrality and immigration" 11391: 11089: 10245:

proportion as machinery obliterates all distinctions of labour, and nearly everywhere reduces wages to the same low level.

6798: 6058:. The prospect of expanding, communicating, and increasingly interdependent world cities has given rise to images such as 1135: 33: 18072: 17500: 17004: 15873: 15242: 11727: 11342: 7619: 7612: 7036: 6356: 5658: 5607: 4652: 4374: 4347: 4269: 4234: 4169: 4067: 3610: 3386: 2611: 2028: 337:

A city can be distinguished from other human settlements by its relatively great size, but also by its functions and its

13813: 10928: 10023: 9131: 5409:, the world's largest central business district, is shown with prominent buildings highlighted by number, February 2018. 1813:

in the Middle Ages multiplied the number of cities in the region, as well as making some of them very populous, notably

588:

in the nineteenth century, through the present most of the world's urban population lives near the coast or on a river.

18614: 17999: 16018: 14547: 14280: 13747: 13040: 12967: 12938: 11579:; Hourcade, Jean-Charles; Klaus, Ian; de Kleijne, Kiane; Lwasa, Shauib; Markgraf, Claire; Newman, Peter; Revi, Aromar; 10914: 10604: 9412: 9392: 8492:

MacDonald, Kevin (2015). "The Tichitt tradition in the West African Sahel". In Barker, Graeme; Barker, Candice (eds.).

8427: 8004: 7993: 6621: 5631: 5339:

through their economic and political influence. Global cities may have reached their status due to early transition to

5148:

arises from various forms of combustion, including fireplaces, wood or coal-burning stoves, other heating systems, and

2192:

and large masses of people living in substandard housing with inadequate infrastructure and otherwise poor conditions.

53: 12445: 8774: 8210:

Pandeyl, Jhimli Mukherjee (25 February 2016). "Varanasi is as old as Indus valley civilization, finds IIT-KGP study".

3026:

techniques used to inform development strategy; attract businesses, investors, residents, and tourists; and to create

18609: 17885: 17833: 17742: 14587: 14526: 14510: 14361: 14298: 14129: 14096: 14056: 14042: 13240: 12982: 12383:

Roberto Camagni, Roberta Capello, & Peter Nijkamp, "Managing Sustainable Urban Environments"; in Paddison (2001).

12040: 9061:"United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014). World Urbanization Prospects" 8904: 8748: 8605: 8194: 6585: 5453: 4677: 4398: 4152: 3720: 3468: 2700:, areas of urban development that surround the city proper. Meanwhile, across Europe and North America, the racially 2634:

involves identifying general objectives as well as collecting data to evaluate progress and inform future decisions.

2599:

in Argentina is based on a perfect square with 5196-meter sides, and was designed in the 1880s as the new capital of

1718: 1085:, have existed for thousands of years. In the conventional view, civilization and the city were both followed by the 381: 13345:

Cities (and regions) within a city: subnational representations and the creation of European imaginaries in Brussels

9577:

Eduardo F.J. de Mulder, Jacques Besner, & Brian Marker, "Underground Cities"; in Kraas et al. (2014), pp. 26–29.

9119: 6916:"Compact city planning and development: Emerging practices and strategies for achieving the goals of sustainability" 6298:

as they are in western countries; since the systems do not exist to begin with, private contracts also entail water

5062:, bringing about interactions between species that never previously encountered each other. They introduce frequent 18022: 17962: 17922: 17828: 17806: 17590: 17245: 17240: 16911: 15624: 14903: 14855: 9343: 7592: 6344: 6158: 5803: 5619: 4940:

of residents presents one of the major challenges every city must face. Adequate housing entails not only physical

4402: 4334: 4249: 4174: 4147: 3133: 943: 13551:"; Approved at Habitat: United Nations Conference on Human Settlements, Vancouver, Canada; 31 May to 11 June 1976. 10734: 7369: 7070: 3202:

them to an advancing enemy in order to avoid damage and bloodshed. Urban warfare proved decisive, however, in the

1960:, contrary to the global trend of massive urban expansion. Such cities have shifted with varying success into the 18087: 17848: 17012: 16767: 16631: 16399: 16270: 15825: 15493: 13972: 13149:

Willis, Jane; Datta, Kavita; Evans, Yara; Herbert, Joanna; May, John; McIlwane, Cathy (2010). Wills, Jane (ed.).

12339:"Mammal diversity and metacommunity dynamics in urban green spaces: implications for urban wildlife conservation" 11861:"How "Water for All!" policy became hegemonic: The power of the World Bank and its transnational policy networks" 7025: 5584: 4813: 4596: 4032: 3558: 3324: 2712:

and other forms of "privatopia" around the world, allow local elites to self-segregate into secure and exclusive

2618:

as ideals for how plans should be formed. Planning tools, beyond the original design of the city itself, include

2548: 2082: 1118: 287: 11575:

Bazaz, Amir; Bertoldi, Paolo; Buckeridge, Marcos; Cartwright, Anton; de Coninck, Heleen; Engelbrecht, Francois;

5255:

As the world becomes more closely linked through economics, politics, technology, and culture (a process called

282:. Because of these major influences on global issues, the international community has prioritized investment in 102: 18529: 18082: 17331: 17262: 16626: 16514: 15896: 15675: 15092: 12212: 9808: 5666: 5208: 4406: 3904: 3315:

are deeply connected. Cities are one of the greatest contributors and likely best opportunities for addressing

2852: 2544: 1225: 893: 13924:, 2nd ed., translated from Spanish to English by Jack Read; New York: Philosophical Library, 1971; pp. 48–49 ( 13407:"Inequality in new global governance arrangements: the North–South divide in transnational municipal networks" 13131: 13046: 11731: 8772:

A comprehensive archaeological map of the world's largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor, Cambodia

7868:. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA, and Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 29–62. 7655: 6627: 3120: 787:

are structured as a central square surrounded by concentric canals marking every expansion. In cities such as

18381: 17456: 16359: 14569:

The Earliest Cities. In Urban Life: Readings in Urban Anthropology, edited by George Gmelch and Walter Zenner

12397: 11415: 10877:

Greg Kerr & Jessica Oliver, "Rethinking Place Identities", in Kavaratzis, Warnaby, & Ashworth (2015).

9226:, 10 July 2014. Referring to: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division; 5792: 5787:

conference in 1996 called for cities to play a leading role in this program, which subsequently advanced the

5144:

due to their resource needs. From another, proper management may be able to ameliorate a city's ill effects.

4573: 3626: 2570:

places more emphasis on the state, with the purpose of assessing urban governments for their suitability for

2515: 2249: 2154:, are considered among the world's fastest-growing cities, with annual growth rates of 5–8%. In general, the 1459: 1399: 12466:

Peter Adey, "Coming up for Air: Comfort, Conflict and the Air of the Megacity"; in Brighenti (2013), p. 103.

82: 18199: 18006: 17818: 17356: 17233: 17072: 16509: 15975: 15868: 15830: 15587: 14567: 11132:. Springfield, VA: Abbott Associates, October 1989. Produced for U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratory at 7120: 6328: 5788: 5328: 4845: 3852: 3532: 688: 12022:

Iain Borden, "Automobile Interstices: Driving and the In-Between Spaces of the City"; in Brighenti (2013).

11758:, "The Evolution of the Urban Infrastructure in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries"; in Hanson (1984). 9371: 9231: 9060: 8307:

Heartland of cities: surveys of ancient settlement and land use on the central floodplain of the Euphrates

5642:

promoting sustainable development, and has organized various conferences and reports for its furtherance.

4458:, meaning that economic logic favors control of each network by a single organization, public or private. 1398:

cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the

752:

combines a utilitarian grid pattern with diagonal avenues and a symbolic focus on monumental architecture.

376:

states using a minimum between 1,500 and 5,000 inhabitants. Some jurisdictions set no such minima. In the

17942: 17687: 16590: 16569: 16544: 14875: 14070: 13442: 8555:"Initial Encounters: Seeking traces of ancient trade connections between West Africa and the wider world" 8155: 7646:

Paul James; Meg Holden; Mary Lewin; Lyndsay Neilson; Christine Oakley; Art Truter; David Wilmoth (2013).

7099: 5869:(based at the World Bank headquarters in Washington, D.C.) to guide policymaking, knowledge sharing, and 5463: 5331:, status, and cosmopolitanism, rather than to its size. Following this view of cities, it is possible to 5319:, also known as a world city, is a prominent centre of trade, banking, finance, innovation, and markets. 5212: 4963: 3967: 3302: 3180: 2540: 2492: 2241: 1965: 14867: 14423:, 3rd ed. 1987 revised volume by Charles R.P. Keating, Esq. Wilmette, Illinois: Callaghan & Company. 11064: 10239: 10144: 10050:"Tax increment financing, economic development professionals and the financialization of urban politics" 5865:

by creating incentives to move to cities. The World Bank and UN-Habitat in 1999 jointly established the

18057: 17568: 17156: 16595: 16564: 15995: 15878: 15853: 15619: 15237: 12974: 12728: 11583:; Schultz, Seth; Shindell, Drew; Singh, Chandni; Solecki, William; Steg, Linda; Waisman, Henri (2018). 9931: 8678: 8301: 6340: 6138: 5827: 5149: 4322: 4259: 4192: 4062: 3641: 3394: 3340: 3206:, where Soviet forces repulsed German occupiers, with extreme casualties and destruction. In an era of 3156:. Indeed, war may have served as the social rationale and economic basis for the very earliest cities. 2921: 2786:, in exchange for which they provide money, political administration, manufactured goods, and culture. 2615: 2271: 2200: 1637:

gained independence but soon lost population and importance. The locus of power in the West shifted to

921: 12327:

Ingo Kowarik, "On the Role of Alien Species in Urban Flora and Vegetation"; in Marzluff et al. (2008).

7617:

Locations, Population and Density per Sq. km., by metropolitan area and selected localities, 2015

7515:"New Insights into Harappan Town-Planning, Proportions and Units, with Special Reference to Dholavira" 7417: 3148:. Many cities throughout history were founded under military auspices, a great many have incorporated 18257: 18229: 18047: 17811: 17563: 17176: 16757: 15726: 15629: 15614: 15458: 15232: 15142: 14664:

Triumph of the City: How Our Best Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier

14289:

Kaplan, David H.; James O. Wheeler; Steven R. Holloway; & Thomas W. Hodler, cartographer (2004).

13495: 12918: 10633: 10049: 8830: 7274: 7151:

Prokopovych, M. (13 May 2015). Literary and artistic metropolises. EGO. Retrieved 5 March 2023, from

5839: 5627: 5594:, keeping one foot each (through telecommunications if not travel) in their old and their new homes. 5402: 5362: 4386: 4382: 4264: 4022: 3837: 3463: 3421: 3416: 3405: 3320: 3312: 3287: 3280: 3105: 2646: 2519: 2452: 1993: 1882: 1821:(50,000 inhabitants in 1400 AD, and may have reached up to 140,000 inhabitants in the 18th century), 1287: 988: 799: 658: 275: 16780: 10809:"City as Ideology: Reconciling the Explosion of the City Form with the Tenacity of the City Concept" 9081:

The Urbanization and Political Development of the World System:A comparative quantitative analysis.

2057: 1799:

in the world by area, covering over 1,000 km and possibly supporting up to one million people.

892:

characterized by a degree of economic and political independence. (In the US these are grouped into

18619: 18262: 18027: 17368: 17045: 16616: 16600: 16559: 16504: 16434: 16379: 16205: 15783: 15773: 15768: 14461: 13344: 10515: 7040: 6995: 6134: 5831: 4915: 4669: 4137: 3889: 3725: 3651: 3646: 3168: 2675: 2408: 2163: 1981: 1630: 1375: 224: 64: 14706:

How American Governments Work: A Handbook of City, County, Regional, State, and Federal Operations

13567: 12136:"Shaping cities for health: Complexity and the planning of urban environments in the 21st century" 11625:"With people crowding into urban areas, how can cities protect themselves against climate change?" 5259:), cities have come to play a leading role in transnational affairs, exceeding the limitations of 3163:

conflict have established fortified settlements as part of military strategies, as in the case of

2104:

reported in 2014 that for the first time, more than half of the world population lives in cities.

645:. These spaces historically reflect and amplify the city's centrality and importance to its wider 486:, originally meaning 'citizenship' or 'community member' and eventually coming to correspond with 17870: 17730: 17708: 17473: 17065: 16812: 16746: 16708: 16693: 16549: 16439: 16048: 15935: 15863: 15845: 15835: 15580: 15483: 15152: 14167: 13660: 11263: 11133: 9601:(December 2003). "Archipelagos and networks: urbanization and water privatization in the South". 8259: 6877: 6347:). Beyond the prominent institutions of U.S. government on the national mall, this area contains 6050:

Literature, film, and other forms of popular culture have supplied visions of future cities both

5777: 5340: 5260: 4892: 4887:) in American and Asian urban transportation planning, under the influence of such trends as the 4112: 4087: 3884: 3847: 3800: 3705: 3678: 3673: 3231: 2802: 2760: 2468: 2267: 1753: 1229: 1220:, existing from about 2600 BC, was one of the largest, with a population of 50,000 or more and a 592: 271: 18309: 14868:

Degree of urbanization (percentage of urban population in total population) by continent in 2016

5359:, for example argues that the term is "reductive and skewed" in its focus on financial systems. 3339:, city areas are expected to grow during the next several decades, stressing infrastructure and 18386: 18222: 18217: 17747: 17585: 17485: 17221: 17141: 16752: 16688: 16444: 16166: 16003: 15812: 15720: 15468: 15357: 15329: 15214: 7759: 6019: 5814:

territorial planning, and (4) effective financing frameworks. Just before this conference, the

5556: 5536: 5423: 5263:

conducted by national governments. This phenomenon, resurgent today, can be traced back to the

4097: 4072: 4017: 3924: 3919: 3894: 3827: 3458: 3207: 2965: 2732: 2631: 2571: 2090: 1929: 1796: 1757: 1674: 1642: 1239:

known physically by archaeologists are not extensive. They include (known by their Arab names)

158: 11191: 8895: 8022: 7569: 7558: 5222:

Poor and working-class people face disproportionate exposure to environmental risks (known as

2913: 1665:, was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population approaching 1 million. The 18482: 17718: 17402: 17386: 17346: 17336: 17171: 17035: 17017: 16863: 16663: 16474: 16280: 16220: 16115: 15508: 15299: 15289: 15274: 15132: 15074: 14840: 14266: 13026: 12756:"Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing" 12557: 12299:

Herbert Sukopp, "On the Early History of Urban Ecology in Europe"; in Marzluff et al. (2008).

11974: 11166: 11062:'s telegraphic circular to all station commanders, 8 December 1901, in Robert D. Ramsey III, 10994:

Stephen V. Ward, "Promoting the Olympic City"; in John R. Gold & Margaret M. Gold, eds.,

8529: 8346: 7963:(2012). "Extraordinary Cities: Early 'City-ness' and the Origins of Agriculture and States". 7396: 6826: 6739: 6607: 6111: 5926: 5901: 5858: 5738: 5635: 5611: 5468: 5356: 5308: 5075: 5063: 5015: 4989: 4310: 4254: 4125: 4102: 4092: 3960: 3946: 3760: 3688: 3336: 3219: 2957: 2671: 2600: 2556: 2257: 2086: 1989: 1862: 1435: 1274:, gave rise to numerous cities, governed by kings and fostered multiple languages written in 1256: 1094: 917: 400: 44: 20: 13359: 11284: 11065:

A Masterpiece of Counterguerrilla Warfare: BG J. Franklin Bell in the Philippines, 1901–1902

9316: 8227: 7529: 5798:

In January 2002 the UN Commission on Human Settlements became an umbrella agency called the

4869:

system. Rapid transit is widely used in Europe and has increased in Latin America and Asia.

4422: 3345: 2221: 1841:

In the West, nation-states became the dominant unit of political organization following the

18449: 17341: 16901: 16225: 16215: 16161: 15945: 15888: 15820: 15498: 15473: 14896: 13977: 13698: 13622: 13179: 12993:

John Friedmann and Goetz Wolff, "World City Formation: An Agenda for Research and Action",

12769: 12611: 12492: 12350: 12196: 11497: 11424: 10946: 10820: 10545: 10445: 9999: 9610: 9150: 7690: 7429: 6886: 6748: 6533: 6468: 6243: 5750: 5560: 5531: 5526: 5418: 5223: 5137: 5079: 5071: 4900: 4866: 4537: 4002: 3941: 3929: 3755: 3740: 3438: 3247: 3203: 3199: 3042:

on display physically transmit a historical context for urban places. Some cities, such as

2864: 1662: 1415: 1178: 1155: 1086: 692: 299: 135: 13504: 12537:(Research in Social Problems and Public Policy, Volume 15); Oxford: JAI Press (Elsevier); 10296:

It is ontologically both similar and dissimilar to the historical agency described in the

7862:"KLM to Corona: A Bird's Eye View of Cultural Ecology and Early Mesopotamian Urbanization" 5988:. Such opposition may result from identification of cities with oppression and the ruling 5722: 2894:, with the doubling of a city's size, salaries per capita will generally increase by 15%. 2739:

as their ranks swell with disenfranchised and disaffected people lacking all stake in the

8: 18457: 18294: 17952: 17880: 17575: 17533: 17421: 17351: 17326: 17113: 17060: 16873: 16868: 16245: 16182: 16156: 15965: 15950: 15538: 15157: 14448: 12243:

Ray Forrest & Peter Williams, "Housing in the Twentieth Century"; in Paddison (2001).

9870:"The efficiency and effectiveness of municipally owned corporations: a systematic review" 9641: 6368: 6130: 5889: 5885: 5336: 5276: 4504: 4012: 3914: 3621: 3453: 3027: 2841: 2744: 2372: 2348: 2203:, as formerly good sources of freshwater become overused and polluted, and the volume of 1925: 1893: 1842: 1810: 1729: 1589: 1427: 1283: 1182: 1106: 1012: 969: 933: 905: 561: 441: 14861: 14406:

Urban Ecology: An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Humans and Nature

13626: 12773: 12615: 12496: 12423: 12354: 12200: 11501: 11428: 10824: 10549: 10449: 10433: 10003: 9614: 8791: 7694: 7433: 7388: 6890: 6752: 6537: 6472: 4687: 2089:

revolutions urban population began its unprecedented growth, both through migration and

1542:

Additionally, other early urban centers in West Africa, dated to around 500 CE, include

669: 18568: 18289: 18277: 18212: 18207: 17927: 17713: 17597: 17480: 17363: 17296: 17188: 17146: 16986: 16464: 16146: 15685: 15437: 14642: 14106: 14064: 13898:

Gary Bridge and Sophie Watson, "City Imaginaries", in Bridge & Watson, eds. (2000).

13865: 13835:"Amartya Sen, the World Bank, and the Redress of Urban Poverty: A Brazilian Case Study" 13834: 13726: 13595: 13434: 13319: 13258:

The Role of Local Government in Shaping and Influencing International Policy Frameworks

13207: 12944: 12790: 12760: 12755: 12671: 12646: 12627: 12582: 12338: 12282: 12234:

slum areas, and health protection through provision for pure water and wholesome food."

12160: 12135: 12115: 12002: 11677: 11531: 11440: 11222: 10974: 10836: 10726: 10718: 10661: 10568: 10533: 10511: 10410: 10349: 9990: 9959: 9909: 9778: 9549: 8212: 8050: 7453: 7202: 7200:

Moore, Oliver (2 October 2021). "What makes a city a city? It's a little complicated".

6771: 6734: 6500: 6032: 5670: 5506: 5428: 5242: 5059: 4941: 4648: 4636: 4447: 4239: 4162: 3859: 3842: 3656: 3176: 3145: 3097: 3094:

process of people thinking about doing business in—"purchasing" (the brand of)—a city.

3079: 2992: 2464: 2460: 2384: 2293: 2119: 1977: 1949: 1733: 1685: 1594: 1090: 1074: 1063: 1008: 999: 823: 775:

marking older city boundaries. In more recent history, such forms were supplemented by

728: 700: 384:

and then remains permanent. (Historically, the qualifying factor was the presence of a

361: 115: 12477: 12208: 12151: 11585:

Summary for Urban Policymakers – What the IPCC Special Report on 1.5C Means for Cities

10892: 10112:

Gupta, Verrest, and Jaffe, "Theorizing Governance", in Gupta et al. (2015), pp. 30–31.

8351:. Chapter 2 – The Ideal of Citizenship since Classical Times (originally published in 7703: 7678: 5300: 5152:. Industrialized cities, and today third-world megacities, are notorious for veils of 1634: 1577: 1151: 1130: 1024: 174: 73: 18331: 18319: 17967: 17957: 17580: 17558: 17463: 17427: 17321: 17208: 17198: 17183: 17040: 16973: 16658: 16484: 16289: 16109: 15940: 15930: 15858: 15794: 15747: 15715: 15690: 15680: 15655: 15523: 15432: 15304: 15257: 15252: 15042: 14997: 14821: 14801: 14782: 14747: 14728: 14709: 14690: 14671: 14624: 14597: 14583: 14556: 14543: 14522: 14506: 14488: 14465: 14434: 14426: 14409: 14394: 14379: 14357: 14339: 14323: 14308: 14294: 14276: 14256: 14233: 14226:

Cities as International Actors: Urban and Regional Governance Beyond the Nation State

14198: 14184: 14172: 14153: 14139: 14125: 14110: 14092: 14074: 14052: 14038: 13857: 13756: 13730: 13718: 13699:"Locating planning in the New Urban Agenda of the urban sustainable development goal" 13638: 13599: 13587: 13438: 13426: 13358:

19(1), 2015. See also websites of individual city embassies cited therein, including

13323: 13311: 13211: 13199: 13178:

Sanderson, Matthew R; Derudder, Ben; Timberlake, Michael; Witlox, Frank (June 2015).

13154: 13123: 13036: 12978: 12948: 12934: 12795: 12676: 12631: 12586: 12574: 12538: 12508: 12366: 12274: 12165: 12107: 12036: 12006: 11994: 11860: 11681: 11535: 11523: 11444: 11350: 11226: 11214: 10999: 10978: 10966: 10840: 10808: 10773: 10730: 10710: 10665: 10653: 10600: 10573: 10414: 10402: 10281: 10069: 10015: 9963: 9951: 9947: 9913: 9901: 9720: 9622: 9553: 9541: 9521: 9413:

The State of Latin American and Caribbean Cities 2012: Towards a new urban transition

9269: 9161: 9042: 8973: 8900: 8744: 8634: 8601: 8533: 8393: 8356: 8314: 8263: 8190: 8095: 8054: 8042: 7980: 7976: 7877: 7861: 7741: 7720:"Socio-Material Archaeological Networks at Çatalhöyük a Community Detection Approach" 7550: 7457: 7445: 7234: 6776: 6735:"Dramatic uneven urbanization of large cities throughout the world in recent decades" 6715: 6673: 6654: 6617: 6551: 6492: 6484: 6459: 6126: 5819: 5674: 5603: 5496: 5448: 5284: 5234: 5005: 4858: 4699: 4588: 4451: 3636: 3426: 3306: 3215: 3153: 3035: 2880: 2779: 2683: 2651: 2623: 2313:. Whatever their true degree of political authority, the mayor typically acts as the 2297: 2285: 2177: 2155: 2036: 2012: 2008: 1737: 1681: 1598: 873: 724: 569: 307: 247: 93: 13869: 13102:"Immigration and the Global City Hypothesis: Towards an Alternative Research Agenda" 12394:"National Geographic Magazine; Special report 2008: Changing Climate: Village Green" 12119: 10261: 5707: 5332: 3372:; these effects are also connected with other urban environmental problems, such as 1654: 1379: 1359:), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society. 18376: 18174: 17737: 17643: 17396: 17280: 17151: 17131: 17095: 16968: 16939: 16878: 16683: 16369: 16080: 16033: 15980: 15731: 15543: 15488: 15442: 15412: 15349: 15319: 15099: 13849: 13710: 13676: 13672: 13630: 13579: 13418: 13303: 13191: 13113: 12930: 12926: 12897: 12887: 12785: 12777: 12707: 12666: 12658: 12619: 12566: 12500: 12358: 12266: 12204: 12155: 12147: 12097: 11986: 11876: 11872: 11672: 11667: 11655: 11592: 11513: 11505: 11432: 11206: 11059: 10958: 10828: 10702: 10645: 10596: 10563: 10553: 10461: 10453: 10394: 10273: 10229: 10061: 10007: 9943: 9891: 9881: 9820: 9770: 9618: 9533: 9261: 9032: 8859: 8562: 8525: 8469: 8034: 7972: 7869: 7731: 7698: 7493: 7437: 7384: 7226: 6937: 6927: 6894: 6766: 6756: 6705: 6696: 6663: 6541: 6524: 6476: 6372: 6336: 6332: 6324: 5893: 5716: 5646: 5413: 5272: 5192: 5011: 4756: 4664: 4616: 4525: 4455: 4244: 4214: 4199: 4082: 4007: 3909: 3899: 3869: 3775: 3750: 3695: 3631: 3573: 3443: 3377: 3332: 3260: 3227: 3023: 2973: 2902: 2818: 2810: 2444: 2233: 2216: 2020: 1957: 1749: 1725: 1714: 1613:

in the Netherlands, created around 1550, shows the city completely surrounded by a

1570: 1467: 1322: 749: 745: 673: 330: 291: 283: 239: 208: 187: 143: 123: 14334:

Latham, Alan; McCormack, Derek; McNamara, Kim; McNeill, Donald (14 January 2009).

14193:

Gupta, Joyetta, Karin Pfeffer, Hebe Verrest, & Mirjam Ros-Tonen, eds. (2015).

13238:

Sub-National Authorities and European Integration: Moving Beyond the Nation-State?

12892: 12875: 12645:

Fuller, R.A.; Irvine, K.N.; Devine-Wright, P.; Warren, P.H.; Gaston, K.J. (2007).

11890: 11509: 11436: 11121: 11030: 10880: 10649: 10206: 10094: 9886: 9869: 6504: 5992:. This and other political ideologies strongly influence narratives and themes in 1888:

Some industrialized cities were confronted with health challenges associated with

1532: 1343:

was the first city that surpassed one million inhabitants. Under the authority of

834: 262:

for employment, entertainment, and education. However, in a world of intensifying

18604: 18563: 18548:

Used by ten or more countries or having derived terms. Historical derivations in

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Kraas, Frauke, Surinder Aggarwal, Martin Coy, & Günter Mertins, eds. (2014).

14305:

Rethinking Place Branding: Comprehensive Brand Development for Cities and Regions

14229: 14012: 13984: 13820: 13796: 13789: 13751: 13526: 13478: 13422: 13377: 13366: 13351: 13264: 13244: 12971: 12729:"Two Hours a Week in Nature Can Boost Your Health and Well-Being, Research Finds" 12085: 11291: 11173: 11128: 11093: 11071: 10998:, 1896–2016; London & New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis), 2008/2011; 10932: 10918: 10503: 10383:"Global Political Cities as Actors in Twenty-First Century International Affairs" 10151: 10091:

resulting in a variety of urban governance configurations (Peyroux et al. 2014)."

9824: 9740: 9464: 9440: 9419: 9399: 9375: 9323: 9303: 9235: 9219: 9135: 9123: 9091: 8951: 8837: 8817: 8798: 8778: 8628: 8596: 8008: 7997: 7960: 7623: 7596: 7576: 7565: 7370:"The End of Public Space?People's Park, Definitions of the Public, and Democracy" 7349: 7284: 7230: 7127: 7074: 7047: 7032: 6668: 6649: 6388: 6208: 6154: 6006: 5966: 5866: 5682: 5639: 5501: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5438: 4947: 4880: 4795: 4728: 4714: 4467: 4289: 4157: 4052: 4042: 3972: 3770: 3710: 3614: 3568: 3527: 3480: 3369: 3267:" targeting: crippling an enemy by annihilating its valuable cities, rather than 3091: 2856: 2822: 2787: 2709: 2667: 2567: 2440: 2404: 2189: 2040: 2004: 1961: 1383: 1354: 1205:

of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or religion. Some had large,

756: 573: 546: 423:

accomplishing common goals through informal agreements between neighbors, or the

389: 346: 16344: 13383: 13218: 12084:

Levinson, Herbert; Zimmerman, Samuel; Clinger, Jennifer; Rutherford, G. (2002).

12055: 10613: 7217:

Jianping, Yi (2012). ""Civilization" and "State": An Etymological Perspective".

4848:, the world's most common form of public transport, uses a network of scheduled 1562: 1027:, is a non-linear development that demonstrates the varied experiences of early 17895: 17863: 17725: 17663: 17653: 17648: 17468: 17434: 17302: 17252: 17203: 16896: 16424: 16404: 16384: 16364: 16354: 16349: 16294: 16191: 16187: 16176: 16008: 15985: 15925: 15603: 15518: 15478: 15224: 15204: 15032: 14965: 14659: 14648: 14575: 13772: 13583: 12781: 12623: 11990: 11383: 11122:

Urban Counterinsurgency: Case Studies and Implications for U.S. Military Forces

11086: 10912:

The FIFA World Cup and Social Cohesion: Bread and Circuses or Bread and Butter?

10277: 8666: 7441: 6932: 6915: 6794: 6761: 6569: 6299: 6281: 6277: 5938: 5815: 5769: 5650: 5580: 5521: 5511: 5473: 5458: 5304: 4944:

but also the physical systems necessary to sustain life and economic activity.

4838: 4798: 4760: 4640: 4592: 4515: 4463: 4435: 4410: 4284: 4224: 4204: 4132: 3879: 3817: 3795: 3595: 3585: 3563: 3361: 3328: 3319:. Cities are also one of the most vulnerable parts of the human society to the 3316: 3031: 3019: 3015: 2679: 2638: 2619: 2607: 2583: 2511: 2488: 2456: 2436: 2281: 2253: 2078: 1969: 1874: 1846: 1666: 1658: 1638: 1614: 1506: 1318: 1147: 1082: 862:

The urban-type settlement extends far beyond the traditional boundaries of the

815: 761: 622: 585: 453: 412: 377: 369: 243: 154: 18356: 13931: 13853: 11550: 11343:"Climate change and cities: a prime source of problems, yet key to a solution" 9106:

William H. Frey & Zachary Zimmer, "Defining the City"; in Paddison (2001).

8701:"Free and Imperial Cities – Dictionary definition of Free and Imperial Cities" 8473: 7616: 6303: 5933:, symbolizing the ruin of a decadent civilization. The lightning striking the 5000: 1505:, from 800 BC. Both Dhar Tichitt and Dia were founded by the same people: the 1450:; while ancient continuously inhabited Pueblos are near modern urban areas in 1015:, and the processional avenue serving as the spine of the city's street system 18599: 18593: 18077: 17917: 17679: 17528: 17391: 17161: 17136: 16979: 16734: 16703: 16698: 16668: 16479: 16429: 16334: 16265: 16255: 16240: 16171: 16125: 16104: 16065: 16038: 15778: 15737: 15562: 15533: 15503: 15427: 15417: 15407: 15402: 15247: 15199: 14975: 14667: 14443: 14322:. United Nations "International Year of Planet Earth" book series. Springer. 14162: 13997: 13861: 13777:

Proceedings of the World Bank Annual Conference on Development Economics 1991

13722: 13714: 13642: 13634: 13591: 13430: 13315: 13203: 13195: 13127: 12512: 12278: 12111: 11998: 11789: 11576: 11527: 11354: 11218: 11210: 10970: 10962: 10925: 10714: 10657: 10529: 10492: 10406: 10285: 10073: 10019: 9955: 9905: 9868:

Voorn, Bart; van Genugten, Marieke L.; van Thiel, Sandra (3 September 2017).

9545: 9537: 9273: 9128: 9116: 9046: 8232: 8046: 7984: 7899: 7745: 7736: 7719: 7645: 7449: 7238: 7173:

Dijkstra, Lewis; Hamilton, Ellen; Lall, Somik; Wahba, Sameh (10 March 2020).

6899: 6872: 6488: 6200: 6176: 6037: 6028: 5981: 5913: 5870: 5591: 5398: 5320: 5256: 5230: 5145: 5122: 5050:, create physical and chemical environments which have no equivalents in the 4975: 4920: 4809: 4744: 4644: 4604: 4524:, necessary for good health in crowded conditions, requires water supply and 4443: 4439: 4394: 4219: 4077: 3807: 3668: 3517: 3360:

coastal areas, cities are frequently vulnerable to the subsequent effects of

3149: 3109: 3067: 2985: 2981: 2891: 2868: 2848: 2830: 2528: 2524: 2472: 2432: 2428: 2392: 2328: 2324: 2276: 2107: 1997: 1973: 1953: 1878: 1826: 1387: 1291: 1206: 939: 708: 557: 524: 408: 295: 279: 267: 263: 220: 216: 192: 13908:

United States as populist accusations of self-serving metropolitan elitism."

13744: 13118: 12963: 12102: 10911: 10558: 10011: 9265: 8781:, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the US, 23 August 2007. 8429:

La ciudad sagrada de Caral-Supe en los albores de la civilización en el Perú

8038: 8001: 7990: 6480: 5818:

concurrently approved an "Urban Agenda for the European Union" known as the

2755: 2539:

gain the status of governing actors—as indicated by the power they wield in

1517: 810:, and other cities on a grid pattern, using ancient principles described by 18477: 18469: 18464: 18429: 17937: 17932: 17843: 17313: 16963: 16925: 16858: 16653: 16414: 16409: 16299: 16285: 16250: 16201: 16097: 16056: 15970: 15960: 15742: 15513: 15397: 15294: 15279: 15172: 15114: 15087: 15064: 15022: 14858:, Website of the United Nations Population Division (archived 10 July 2017) 14303:

Kavaratzis, Mihalis, Gary Warnaby, & Gregory J. Ashworth, eds. (2015).

12799: 12680: 12662: 12578: 12370: 12337:

Gallo, Travis; Fidino, Mason; Lehrer, Elizabeth W.; Magle, Seth B. (2017).

12169: 11755: 11580: 10935:, May 2008 (Feature: Feature: "Mega Sport Events in Developing Countries"). 10577: 9598: 9564: 9037: 9020: 8771: 6780: 6719: 6677: 6555: 6496: 6352: 6253: 6248: 6218: 6172: 6063: 6024: 5945:

Cities figure prominently in traditional Western culture, appearing in the

5765: 5692: 5216: 5184: 5161: 5055: 4955: 4904: 4896: 4888: 4783: 4691: 4681: 4608: 4561: 4557: 4142: 4027: 3987: 3977: 3790: 3700: 3663: 3409: 3268: 3264: 3223: 3191: 3137: 3004: 2977: 2961: 2872: 2791: 2713: 2701: 2587: 2532: 2420: 2400: 2237: 2167: 2159: 2073: 2052: 2035:

to bear on cities and city dwellers. Some companies are building brand-new

2032: 1937: 1889: 1866: 1784: 1777: 1547: 1528: 1510: 1486: 1455: 1447: 1431: 1344: 1213: 1159: 1140: 1028: 984: 867: 803: 684: 470: 429: 303: 235: 18371: 13237: 11697:"Hunger stones, wrecks and bones: Europe's drought brings past to surface" 9932:"Selling City Futures: The Financialization of Urban Redevelopment Policy" 9809:"Cities on the Move Ten Years After | Biofuel | Economic Growth" 9642:"The Invention of the Municipal Corporation: A Case Study in Legal Change" 8567: 8554: 8496:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 409–513. 7873: 6577: 2483: 723:

provide residents with relief from the hardness and regularity of typical

481: 18097: 18042: 17905: 17900: 17890: 17625: 17620: 17518: 17490: 17055: 17050: 16917: 16469: 16394: 16275: 16260: 16235: 16085: 16075: 15339: 15324: 15209: 15177: 15162: 15137: 15082: 15059: 15012: 14992: 14985: 14980: 14960: 14933: 14829: 14217: 14195:

Geographies of Urban Governance: Advanced Theories, Methods and Practices

14001: 13917: 10065: 9156:. In Spence, Michael; Annez, Patricia Clarke; Buckley, Robert M. (eds.). 6942: 6376: 6320: 6273: 6062:(New York, London, Hong Kong) and visions of a single world-encompassing 6010: 5874: 5862: 5810: 5727: 5552: 5374: 5316: 5204: 5141: 5043: 4732: 4624: 4600: 4584: 4481: 4473: 4107: 3992: 3982: 3500: 3433: 3184: 3172: 3160: 3054:

have indelible religious status and for hundreds of years have attracted

2876: 2834: 2814: 2736: 2724: 2592: 2536: 2448: 2424: 1941: 1802: 1551: 1536: 1494: 1463: 1443: 1419: 1371: 1332: 1244: 1186: 1171: 1163: 1004: 913: 909: 863: 696: 650: 646: 617: 604: 596: 338: 259: 18284: 14449:

The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects

14354:

Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture

14066:

Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to the Present

12902: 11518: 11026:. SyndiGate Media Inc. 25 January 2023 – via Gale General OneFile. 10466: 10398: 9252:

Brenner, Neil; Schmid, Christian (2014). "The 'Urban Age' in Question".

7589: 4556:, either local governments or private companies have administered urban 1822: 1605: 322: 17984: 17523: 17378: 17077: 16389: 16070: 15645: 15528: 15463: 15314: 15264: 15104: 15037: 15002: 14928: 14687:

Managing America's Cities: A Handbook for Local Government Productivity

14505:. London; Thousand Oaks, California; and New Delhi: Sage Publications. 14171:. Translated by Dennis Pardee. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1970. 13527:"South Africans in nationwide strike in protest against cost of living" 12476:

Brazel, Anthony; Selover, Nancy; Vose, Russel; Heisler, Gordon (2000).

12286: 12254: 11772:

Wellman & Spiller, "Introduction", in Wellman & Spiller (2012).

11597: 10722: 10690: 10457: 9983:"Extracting Value from the City: Neoliberalism and Urban Redevelopment" 9896: 9407: 8423: 7498: 7481: 7067: 6360: 6238: 6223: 6014: 5985: 5934: 5850: 5843: 5784: 5712: 5615: 5289: 5051: 5019: 4985: 4822: 4791: 4775: 4752: 4717: 4549: 4521: 4209: 3832: 3812: 3785: 3780: 3745: 3683: 3373: 3211: 2969: 2945: 2884: 2783: 2775: 2740: 2691: 2507: 2352: 2321: 2314: 2181: 2173: 2111: 2016: 1806: 1693: 1543: 1490: 1479: 1451: 1314: 1126: 1020: 897: 712: 600: 577: 565: 508: 449: 424: 407:(food and other necessities or means to trade for them) to support the 357: 342: 251: 204: 14272:

Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability

13307: 13032:

Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability

12874:

Engel, Jerome S.; Berbegal-Mirabent, Jasmina; Piqué, Josep M. (2018).

12570: 11285:

Revealed Preference and the Minimum Requirements of Nuclear Deterrence

10382: 9782: 9758: 8355:

99, no. 1). Minneapolis, MN: The University of Minnesota. p. 31.

8093: 7092:"How NC Municipalities Work – North Carolina League of Municipalities" 6613:

Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability

5880:

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,

4980: 3108:

formation. Cities go to considerable lengths in competing to host the

707:

has considered physical public space as the substrate of the symbolic

456:... largely for the purpose of international statistical comparison". 18403: 18361: 18336: 18194: 18149: 18037: 17979: 17801: 17550: 16810: 16678: 16308: 16151: 15284: 15192: 15054: 15049: 14970: 14955: 14835: 14484: 14103:

Urban Interstices: The Aesthetics and the Politics of the In-between.

12504: 12362: 11249:"Nuclear Weapons versus International Law: A Contextual Reassessment" 10225: 8896:

Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America's Rust Belt, 1969–1984

7652:

Institutional and Social Innovation for Sustainable Urban Development

6573: 6457:

Glaeser, Edward (2011). "Cities, Productivity, and Quality of Life".

6228: 6059: 5993: 5970: 5954: 5773: 5746: 5654: 5576: 5572: 5406: 5344: 5268: 5264: 5031: 4959: 4884: 4862: 4854: 4849: 4802: 4695: 4500: 3936: 3495: 3195: 3129: 3083: 3063: 3043: 3008: 2937: 2840:

In general, the density of cities expedites commerce and facilitates

2388: 2336: 2262: 2185: 2131: 2127: 2069:

Map showing urban areas with at least one million inhabitants in 2006

1945: 1909: 1773: 1697: 1689: 1622: 1498: 1411: 1279: 1275: 1255:

and abandoned. These sites appear planned in a highly regimented and

1252: 901: 889: 885: 851: 798:, has been used for millennia in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. The 795: 780: 776: 768: 516: 393: 385: 311: 255: 200: 170: 166: 162: 18439: 18434: 13823:"; master's thesis accepted at the University of Ottawa, April 2012. 12712: 12695: 12270: 12184: 7679:"Urban agglomeration: An evolving concept of an emerging phenomenon" 6710: 6691: 6546: 6519: 5335:. Global cities form the capstone of the global hierarchy, exerting 3014:

Today, a city's promotion of its cultural activities dovetails with

1741: 1705: 1228:

were constructed according to sacred principles to act as celestial

779:

moving traffic around the outskirts of a town. Dutch cities such as

489: 18189: 18159: 17989: 17912: 17823: 17635: 17413: 17123: 16130: 16120: 16092: 16060: 16013: 15752: 15670: 15665: 15389: 15309: 15182: 15007: 14938: 14871: 14270: 13790:

Structural adjustment and the contemporary sub-Saharan African city

13101: 13030: 12446:"Newsminer.com; EPA to put Fairbanks on air pollution problem list" 11721: 10832: 10706: 9774: 8187:

Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places

7647: 7050:), the 1988 version of which is quoted in Carter (1995), pp. 10–12. 6611: 6380: 6364: 6233: 6087: 6055: 6043: 5696: 5370: 5280: 5196: 5188: 5130: 5035: 4821:

accompanied the expansion of urban economic areas into much larger

4779: 4764: 4721: 4673: 4620: 4612: 4541: 3997: 3822: 3735: 3730: 3510: 3294: 3256: 3164: 3101: 3039: 2941: 2806: 2727:, form a growing stratum of society in the age of urbanization. In 2696: 2690:. While in the US and elsewhere poverty became associated with the 2596: 2560: 2552: 2356: 2344: 1830: 1792: 1709: 1363: 1303: 1240: 1217: 1059: 992: 904:.) Some cities are now part of a continuous urban landscape called 847: 839: 822:

exemplifies a grid plan with specialized districts used across the

811: 654: 630: 404: 365: 326: 228: 212: 18499: 18393: 18244: 12647:"Psychological benefits of green-space increase with biodiversity" 12393: 12083: 9458:

Urban population boom poses massive challenges for Africa and Asia

8677:. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 130–131. Archived from 7866:

Settlement and Society: Essays Dedicated to Robert McCormick Adams

7786: 6996:"Population by region – Urban population by city size – OECD Data" 4950:

represents status and a modicum of economic security, compared to

4603:

systems used in communications, business, and government) and for

3323:, and likely one of the most important solutions for reducing the 2379:, Ireland, extinguishing a severe fire at a hardware store in 1970 1307: 794:

A system of rectilinear city streets and land plots, known as the

740: 18494: 18419: 18249: 18239: 18179: 18092: 18062: 17994: 17875: 17087: 16888: 16210: 15572: 14181:

Sans feu ni lieu : Signification biblique de la Grande Ville

13287:

Marks, Gary; Haesly, Richard; Mbaye, Heather A.D. (Autumn 2002).

13177: 12478:"The tale of two climates-Baltimore and Phoenix urban LTER sites" 11574: 10921:"; International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education 9759:"Privatization of Municipal Services in America's Largest Cities" 6107: 6005:

which treat of city features and history. Modern authors such as

5950: 5930: 5897: 5754: 5564: 5067: 4951: 4937: 4876: 4872: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4787: 4740: 4632: 4628: 4565: 4529: 4508: 4485: 4477: 4427: 3485: 3353: 3349: 3298: 3055: 2925: 2860: 2728: 2720: 2496: 2443:(formation of quasi-private municipally-owned corporations), and 2135: 2094: 2065: 1933: 1905: 1901: 1818: 1646: 1610: 1582: 1271: 1267: 1102: 1089:, which enabled the production of surplus food and thus a social 1047: 1035: 855: 807: 784: 772: 642: 638: 420: 196: 147: 13568:"Human Settlements and Urban Life: A United Nations Perspective" 11975:"Corporate Strategies and the Decline of Transit in U.S. Cities" 11378: 11376: 11336: 11334: 10508:

Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy

9757:

Dilger, Robert Jay; Moffett, Randolph R.; Struyk, Linda (1997).

9129:

Proceedings of the First International Conference on Urban Pests

6319:

One important global political city, described at one time as a

5884:

has increasingly focused on cities as key sites for influencing

5058:. They provide homes not only for immigrant humans but also for 4954:

which may consume much of the income of low-wage urban workers.

2451:

and therefore beyond the reach of taxation. Cities in search of

1944:

in formerly prosperous cities. America's "Steel Belt" became a "

1825:(70,000 to 105,000 inhabitants in the 14th and 15th centuries), 952: 18524: 18514: 18509: 18444: 18398: 18314: 18184: 18169: 18164: 18154: 17838: 17445: 17027: 16313: 16196: 15660: 15269: 15167: 14945: 13814:

Supporting Learning Cities: A Case Study of the Cities Alliance

13406: 13289:"What Do Subnational Offices Think They Are Doing in Brussels?" 12696:"The Benefits of Trees for Livable and Sustainable Communities" 12644: 12420:"Indoor Air Quality – American Lung Association of Alaska" 11020:"Olympics: Paris rushing to complete construction work by 2024" 9368: 9228: 9064: 6051: 5962: 5881: 5826:

UN-Habitat coordinates the U.N. urban agenda, working with the

5568: 5405:(CBDs) that serve as hubs for economic activity. A panorama of 5381:

working overtime, low wages, and lack of safety in workplaces.

5347:

in which cities, considered variations on the same ideal type,

5173: 5169: 5098: 5090: 5047: 5023: 4993: 4924: 4759:

rail. Cities also rely on long-distance transportation (truck,

4748: 4580: 4545: 4274: 3000: 2953: 2949: 2929: 2826: 2798: 2768: 2764: 2705: 2687: 2627: 2396: 2376: 2340: 2332: 2302: 2226: 2204: 2147: 2139: 2115: 1870: 1788: 1745: 1566: 1439: 1299: 1248: 1078: 1055: 1051: 1043: 1039: 980: 877: 843: 819: 788: 677: 626: 353: 150: 119: 18269: 14572:, pp. 3–19. 4th ed. Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL. 14333: 13937: 13389: 13224: 12923:

The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Urban and Regional Studies

12061: 11896: 11817: 11795: 11036: 10898: 10886: 10619: 10320: 10262:"The Urbanization of Empire: Megacities and the Laws of Chaos" 10212: 10100: 9666: 9522:"Getting off the ground: On the politics of urban verticality" 9019:

Shelton, Taylor; Zook, Matthew; Wiig, Alan (27 October 2014).

8313:. Chicago and London: University of Chicago press. p. 2. 8156:"What Science Has Learned about the Rise of Urban Mesopotamia" 8023:"Jane Jacobs' 'Cities First' Model and Archaeological Reality" 7355: 7333: 6914:

Bibri, Simon Elias; Krogstie, John; Kärrholm, Mattias (2020).

5996:

about cities. In turn, cities symbolize their home societies.

4767:) for economic connections with other cities and rural areas. 2527:. In the neoliberal model of governance, public utilities are 1877:

and cities across the country grew in locations strategic for

1780:, which enjoyed considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan. 1143:, the first city in the world to reach one million inhabitants 302:

per inhabitant than more sparsely populated areas. Therefore,

18519: 18504: 18489: 18366: 18351: 18341: 18326: 18304: 18299: 18234: 18032: 17974: 17858: 15955: 14950: 14269:; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). 14000:

was incorporated as a single municipality in 1976 and gained

13267:", PhD thesis accepted at De Montfort University, April 2014. 13029:; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). 12813:

their major cities for connections to the rest of the world."

12185:"Greenways: Multiplying and diversifying in the 21st century" 11568: 11451: 11373: 11331: 10534:"Growth, innovation, scaling, and the pace of life in cities" 10527: 6610:; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). 6091: 5989: 5946: 5731: 5678: 5443: 5433: 5126: 5102: 5086: 5039: 4771: 4710: 4569: 4533: 4470:

because new development must build from what exists already.

3874: 3490: 3242: 3087: 3075: 3047: 2917: 2906: 2310: 2151: 2143: 2123: 1985: 1769: 1765: 1701: 1650: 1423: 1407: 1391: 1367: 1336: 1327: 1295: 1263: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1122: 1098: 961: 881: 704: 533: 527: 519:

terminology, names of individual cities and towns are called

501: 475: 416: 242:

now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for

139: 127: 13954:, an unremittingly dark vision of a modern industrial city." 11106:

Ashworth (1991), p. 3. Citing L.C. Peltier and G.E. Pearcy,

10996:

Olympic Cities: City Agendas, Planning and the World's Games

9423:; Nairobi: United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2012. 8390:

International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe

7068:

Toward a New Conceptualization of Settlements for Demography

6822:"How megacities could lead the fight against climate change" 6013:

are famous for evocative descriptions of their home cities.

5377:

and maintain branches in the biggest foreign global cities.

3100:

among other forms of cultural appeal, attract and entertain

18346: 17612: 15187: 14431:

Matrix of Man: An Illustrated History of Urban Environment.

14265: 13411:

Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research

13025: 12873: 10528:

Bettencourt, L. M. A.; Lobo, J.; Helbing, D.; Kuhnert, C.;

8075:

statesmen vied with one another in satisfying that desire."

6606: 6294:

Water resources in rapidly urbanizing areas are not merely

5974: 5958: 5366: 5200: 5165: 5157: 5153: 5110: 4736: 3194:, national governments on occasion declared certain cities 3104:. Sports also play a major role in city branding and local 3059: 3051: 2996: 2500: 1913: 1752:

for collective defense and commerce. Their power was later

1618: 1554:, a center located on a trade route between Egypt and Gao. 1521: 1502: 1475: 1471: 1403: 1395: 1340: 1185:, complex civilizations flourished in the river valleys of 1167: 973: 957: 866:

in a form of development sometimes described critically as

716: 445: 373: 12753: 9867: 8455: 8453: 8451: 7273:

Bataille, L., "From passive to energy generating assets",

5645:

Networks have become especially prevalent in the arena of

5634:

play similar roles. UCLG took responsibility for creating

4808:

Since the mid-20th century, cities have relied heavily on

2236:

of cities takes different forms including prominently the

290:. Due to the efficiency of transportation and the smaller 18144: 14881: 14639:

Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census

14179:; French original (written earlier, published later as): 10947:"Assessing the sociology of sport: On sport and the city" 10224: 10175: 10173: 7172: 6306:. Also, there is a countervailing trend: 100 cities have 5753:

and establishes various principles for maintaining urban

5118: 5114: 5106: 5094: 4879:("non-motorized transport") enjoy increasing favor (more 4818: 2024: 1814: 1776:. Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of 1374:. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in the 13466: 13464: 12876:"The renaissance of the city as a cluster of innovation" 12475: 12255:"Urban Ecology and Special Features of Urban Ecosystems" 11782: 11780: 11778: 11487: 11341:

Zenghelis, Dimitri; Stern, Nicholas (19 November 2015).

11087:

Population Isolation in the Philippine War: A Case Study

9393:

Latin America struggles to cope with record urban growth

8487: 8485: 8483: 7648:"Managing Metropolises by Negotiating Mega-Urban Growth" 5772:

resulted in a set of international agreements including

5351:

compete with each other globally to achieve prosperity.

2614:. Urban planners and scholars have proposed overlapping 2102:

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs

506:—another common root appearing in English words such as 356:

use a variety of definitions – invoking factors such as

223:. Their density facilitates interaction between people, 13148: 12829: 12132: 11924:

Tom Hart, "Transport and the City"; in Paddison (2001).

10238:(in German). Translated by Samuel Moore. Archived from 9315:

Edouart Glissant (Editor-in-Chief), UNESCO "Courier" ("

8945:

China's Great Uprooting: Moving 250 Million Into Cities

8448: 8381: 8094:

Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art (October 2003).

8021:

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largely due to cement's outsized role in climate change

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According to a scientific model of cities by Professor

965: 329:

represents the city's symbolic role of devotion to the

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5695:

has one of the highest rate of protests in the world.

4576:), said to hold 70% of all water contracts worldwide. 2499:, is one of the oldest city governing corporations in 2061:

Graph showing urbanization from 1950 projected to 2050

411:. (This arrangement contrasts with the more typically 14725:

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14539:

An Alphabetical Guide to the Language of Name Studies

14253:

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Rome et la destruction de Carthage: un crime gratuit?

10376: 10374: 10372: 10370: 9247: 9245: 8480: 6913: 6873:"Why does everyone think cities can save the planet?" 6842:"Sustainable cities must be compact and high-density" 6795:"Cities: a 'cause of and solution to' climate change" 3034:

within the metropolitan area. Physical inscriptions,

2419:

The traditional basis for municipal finance is local

494:, meaning 'city' in a more physical sense. The Roman 246:. Present-day cities usually form the core of larger 13613:

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13106: