Sexual selection in humans

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stage over resources include self-promotion and competitor derogation. However, maternal competition remains understudied. Compared to male aggression, female aggression tends to be more indirect. Females tend to engage in more subtle and indirect aggression, such as gossip, as a competitive tool to harm same-sex rivals' social opportunities and partake in competitor derogation to prevent female rivals from getting male attention. Gossip, derogation, and social exclusion grant the aggressor the chance to go undetected and avoid retaliation. Derogation, for example, can eliminate same-sex rivals by reducing their ability to compete; it was found that girls' suicide attempts were associated with any amount of indirect peer victimization, whereas only frequent indirect peer victimization was associated with boys' suicide attempts. Furthermore, same-sex harassment in some nonhuman animals impacted females' ovulation capabilities, which suggests that human females' reproductive success could be influenced by the stress induced by indirect or direct peer victimization. Males pursue both sexually attractive and faithful long-term partners, which might be the source of female mating competition greatly revolving around denigrating same-sex rivals' attractiveness and reputation through accusations of promiscuity and infidelity. Competitive women are more likely to spread reputation-harming information about other women, suggesting that reputation manipulation is a form of female competition for romantic partners. Women are more likely to compete for desirable mates when maternal investment levels are high, and their social groups are largely composed of mothers, as more women living closer together are looking for similar resources that benefit their own survival and that of their children.

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as more likely to commit infidelity and more likely to participate in intra-sexual competition with other females. Greater overall body fat percentage in human females appears to be unique among primates and may function in storing resources needed to gestate and support large-brained offspring as well as in sexual selection. For example, higher female body mass index (BMI) is associated with increased fertility in young women, particularly those in subsistence societies. Lower WHR, lower BMI, and smaller waist sizes are also associated with lower birth weights and higher infant mortality. Such traits, particularly body fat distribution, may represent sexual ornamentation, which is important in mating throughout the animal kingdom, for example, in birds. Humans also use bodily decoration, including jewelry, tattoos, scarification, and makeup to enhance appearance and desirability to potential mates.

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are more likely to suffer from injury. Additionally, there are 23% more lefthanded males than females. Although left-handedness is heritable and associated with survival disadvantages, the rarity of left-handedness may have given ancestral males a fighting advantage in competitions keeping this trait in the gene pool via negative frequency-dependent selection. Many combat sports such as boxing have higher-than-chance frequencies of left-handed individuals among the top competitors. Human males are also able to tolerate pain longer than females, especially during competition. A higher pain tolerance allows for males to remain aggressive during contests along with an increased aerobic capacity. Males have an oxygen capacity rate that is 25–30% higher than females. This aerobic capacity increases during puberty when males are sexually maturing and preparing to mate.

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other women (e.g., via gossip), potentially influencing their sexual behavior and opportunities. Additionally, females compete with one another through male mate choice, e.g., by enhancing their own physical attractiveness. Some female anatomical traits are targets of male mate choice and possibly represent female sexual ornaments shaped by selection. Femininity in the female face and voice provide cues to female reproductive hormones and reproductive potential. Males tend to have lower pitched voices than females, likely due to male intrasexual competition, but some evidence suggests that high female voice pitch may also be favored by male mate choice and function in intrasexual competition among females.

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relative to females tends to evolve in polygynous anthropoid primates, where males compete more intensely for mates. Chimpanzees and humans have the greatest sexual dimorphism in fundamental frequency of all hominids. Males are also more likely to engage in physical risks in front of competitors, and males who take more physical risks are perceived as being stronger. Status badges such as facial hair are generally related to men being perceived as more dominant. Facial hair makes the jaw appear more prominent and shows emotions like anger clearly which makes a male appear more threatening. Dominance has been associated with increased male mating success.

571: 22: 1004: 143:, Darwin viewed many physical traits which vary around the world as being so trivial to survival that he concluded some input from sexual selection was required to account for their presence. He noted that variation in these features among the various peoples of the world meant human mate-choice criteria would also have to be quite different if the focus was similar, and he himself doubted that, citing reports indicating that ideals of beauty did not, in fact, vary in this way around the world. 10108: 8758: 7447: 7135: 10134: 10121: 8768: 7471: 7159: 694: 680: 51:. Most compete with others of the same sex for the best mate to contribute their genome for future generations. This has shaped human evolution for many years, but reasons why humans choose their mates are not fully understood. Sexual selection is quite different in non-human animals than humans as they feel more of the evolutionary pressures to reproduce and can easily reject a mate. The role of sexual selection in 7459: 7147: 117:

between the individuals of the same sex, generally the male sex, in order to drive away or kill their rivals, the females remaining passive; whilst in the other, the struggle is likewise between the individuals of the same sex, in order to excite or charm those of the opposite sex, generally the females, which no longer remain passive, but select the more agreeable partners."

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species, males are more muscular, allowing them to have more strength and power. Human males have 61% more overall muscle mass compared to females. This greater muscle mass allows males to gain greater acceleration, speed, and more powerful striking movements. Compared to females, human males exhibit more same-sex aggression, which peaks in young adulthood.

100:"When you notice a characteristic of an animal and ask what its Darwinian survival value is, you may be asking the wrong question. It could be that the characteristic you have picked out is not the one that matters. It may have "come along for the ride", dragged along in evolution by some other characteristic to which it is pleiotropically linked." 589:

appears that males do make greater use of lower-frequency (more unusual) words when in a romantic mindset compared to a non-romantic mindset, suggesting that vocabulary is likely to be used as a sexual display (Rosenberg & Tunney, 2008). All these qualities are considered courtship adaptations that have been favored through sexual selection.

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apes stand on their hind legs when fighting, which increases power behind blows. Hominin hands are adapted for gripping tools or hurling objects like stones. Bipedalism and utilizing handheld objects such as weapons may have aided early hominins in contest competition, reducing sexual selection pressures of maintaining large canine teeth.

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extended phenotype, for instance clothing that enhances sexually selected traits. During human evolution, on at least two occasions, hominid brain size increased rapidly over a short period of time followed by a period of stasis. The first period of brain expansion occurred 2.5 million years ago, when

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fertility-related increases, although some data challenge this interpretation. In general, ovulatory cycle changes are more subtle than in non-human primates, perhaps representing leakage of information on fertility and hormonal status rather than signals functioning to convey this information.

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It has also been suggested that women who are nearing ovulation were more likely to be judged as more attractive than their counterparts who were in different stages of their cycle. Facial and vocal attractiveness have been observed to change with estradiol and progesterone in pattens consistent with

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Deposition of fat on the hips, buttocks, and breasts in human females may also be an outcome of female sexual selection, signaling the ability to support gestation and lactation for offspring in environments where resources may be low. However, in the Western World, women with larger breasts are seen

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Over human evolution, the cost of aggressive and physical contests in females may have been high given that females were the primary caregivers and protectors of offspring, so a mother's death greatly impacts infant mortality. Some behaviors from mothers competing with other females at a similar life

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Male contest competition also often favors threat displays, which allow one competitor to submit without a costly fight. Low vocalization fundamental frequencies (perceived as vocal pitch) increase the perception of threat among human males. Controlling for body size, lower male fundamental frequency

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The effects on the human brain formation during puberty is directly linked to hormones changes. The mismatch timing between biological puberty and age of social maturity in western society has a psychological expectation on children. With puberty, men are generally hairier than women, and Darwin was

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than that which is required for survival, can nevertheless play a role. Miller (2000) has proposed that this apparent redundancy is due to individuals using vocabulary to demonstrate their intelligence, and consequently their "fitness", to potential mates. This has been tested experimentally, and it

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Like their female counterparts, males also use visual information about a potential mate, as well as voice, body shape, and an assortment of other factors in selecting a partner. Research shows that males tend to prefer feminine women's faces and voices as opposed to women with masculine features in

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Some of the factors that affect how females select their potential mates for reproduction include voice pitch, facial shape, muscular appearance, and height. Several studies suggest that there is a link between hormone levels and partner selection among humans. In a study measuring female attraction

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and penis size. The breasts of primates are flat, yet are able to produce sufficient milk for feeding their young. The breasts of non-lactating human females are filled with fatty tissue and not milk. Thus it has been suggested the rounded female breasts are signals of fertility. Richard Dawkins has

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Medland, Sarah E.; Duffy, David L.; Wright, Margaret J.; Geffen, Gina M.; Hay, David A.; Levy, Florence; van-Beijsterveldt, Catherina E.M.; Willemsen, Gonneke; Townsend, Grant C.; White, Vicki; Hewitt, Alex W.; Mackey, David A.; Bailey, J. Michael; Slutske, Wendy S.; Nyholt, Dale R. (January 2009).

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in 2004, Gallup and coauthor, Rebecca Burch, conjecture that, "A longer penis would not only have been an advantage for leaving semen in a less-accessible part of the vagina, but by filling and expanding the vagina, it also would aid and abet the displacement of semen left by other males as a means

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Competition for mates among human females may take multiple forms. Contests tend to be less frequent, aggressive, and injurious than male-male contests. This leads to a difference in the traits selected. The indirect aggression in which females engage can take the form of damaging the reputation of

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Several other traits in human males may have been selected for contest competition. Males exhibit a more robust face compared to females. This may have provided protection against blows to the face during contest competitions as the areas on the skull that have increased robusticity are parts that

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Often contest competition produces anatomical weapons such as antlers or large canine teeth; however, hominids lack canine weaponry typical of other primates. Reduced canine size may be due to bipedalism and adaptations of the hand. Bipedalism is not a common trait, yet many species like the great

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and reproductive process are understood. As one article states, sexual selection is in essence a process which favors sexual displays for attraction, aggressiveness, dominance, size, and strength, and the ability to exclude competitors by force if necessary, or by using resources to win. Both male

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as depending on "the advantage which certain individuals have over others of the same sex and species, solely in respect of reproduction". Darwin noted that sexual selection is of two kinds and concluded that both kinds had operated on humans: "The sexual struggle is of two kinds; in the one it is

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Traits that evolve during contest competition, such as large body size and physical aggression, are often costly to produce and maintain. These traits may therefore be indicators of male genetic quality and/or ability to provide resources and other direct benefits. Consequently, human females may

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Miller is critical of theories that imply that human culture arose as accidents or by-products of human evolution. He believes that human culture arose through sexual selection for creative traits. In that view, many human artifacts could be considered subject to sexual selection as part of the

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Contest competition is form of sexual selection in which mating is obtained by using force or the threat of force to exclude same-sex competitors from mates. Male contest competition favors large body size, which is seen in the sexual dimorphism of human males and females. In all living hominid

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compared to nearly all other mammals, were results of sexual selection. He reasoned that since the bodies of females are more nearly hairless, the loss of fur was due to sexual selection of females at a remote prehistoric time when males had overwhelming selective power, and that it nonetheless

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Some hypotheses about the evolution of the human brain argue that it is a sexually selected trait, as it would not confer enough fitness in itself relative to its high maintenance costs (a fifth to a quarter of the energy and oxygen consumed by a human). Current consensus about the evolutionary

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Females may also compete for leadership and reputation in social alliances and networks that can provide support, protection, and mating opportunities. Human females compete with other females, sometimes including co-wives, to obtain and retain investment from mates, while managing cooperative

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Human female mating competition is complex and multifaceted and varies across cultures, societies, and individuals. Females may compete for high-quality mates who possess traits that indicate underlying genetic quality, possibly including physical attractiveness and intelligence, or material

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Puts, David A.; Hill, Alexander K.; Bailey, Drew H.; Walker, Robert S.; Rendall, Drew; Wheatley, John R.; Welling, Lisa L. M.; Dawood, Khytam; Cárdenas, Rodrigo; Burriss, Robert P.; Jablonski, Nina G.; Shriver, Mark D.; Weiss, Daniel; Lameira, Adriano R.; Apicella, Coren L. (27 April 2016).

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affected males due to genetic correlation between the sexes. He also hypothesized that contrasts in sexual selection acting along with natural selection were significant factors in the geographical differentiation in human appearance of some isolated groups, as he did not believe that

584:, drawing on some of Darwin's largely neglected ideas about human behavior, has hypothesized that many human behaviors not clearly tied to survival benefits, such as humor, music, visual art, some forms of altruism, verbal creativity, or the fact that most humans have a far greater 5973:

page 24 of supplemental data document: "The frequency of these traits could have been shaped by migration or by selection, but is more complex than simplistic stories, e.g., of these traits arising due to sexual selection in boreal hunter-gatherers(75)... " (citation 75 is Frost's

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Human males engage in both within-group contest competition and coalitional aggression. The latter form competition may be supported by males tending to contribute more to a group task when competing against other groups and to discriminate more strongly against outgroup members.

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to females. Some traits of human males that function in contests, such as body size, strength, and weaponry usage, may also have been selected to aid in hunting. However, contest competition is observed in all great apes and thus likely preceded hunting as a selective pressure.

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and its effects on attraction to femininity, and the results concluded that throughout several studies, men have shown decreased preference for feminine female faces in the long-term context, when given exogenous testosterone, but this difference did not occur with

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Welling, Lisa L. M.; Jones, Benedict C.; DeBruine, Lisa M.; Smith, Finlay G.; Feinberg, David R.; Little, Anthony C.; Al-Dujaili, Emad A. S. (1 November 2008). "Men report stronger attraction to femininity in women's faces when their testosterone levels are high".

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than in the non-fertile phase. There is further evidence from the same study that in fertile stages of the menstrual cycle, women also had a preference for other masculine traits such as body size, facial shape, and dominant behavior, which are indicators of both

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and female use voice, face, and other physical characteristics to assess a potential mate's ability to reproduce, as well as their health. Together with visual and chemical signals, these crucial characteristics which are likely to enhance the ability to produce

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in the evolution of the darkest skin types. Manning asserts that skin color is more correlated with the occurrence of polygyny – because melanin has an antimicrobial function – than the latitudinal gradient in intensity of ultraviolet radiation.

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development of the human brain accepts sexual selection as a potential contributing factor but maintains that human intelligence and the ability to store and share cultural knowledge would have likely carried high survival value as well.

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Feinberg, D. R.; Jones, B. C.; Law Smith, M. J.; Moore, F. R.; DeBruine, L. M.; Cornwell, R. E.; Hillier, S. G.; Perrett, D. I. (1 February 2006). "Menstrual cycle, trait estrogen level, and masculinity preferences in the human voice".

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It is not implausible that, with natural selection refining their diagnostic skills, females could glean all sorts of clues about a male's health, and the robustness of his ability to cope with stress, from the tone and bearing of his

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The races of man differ from each other, and from their nearest allies, in certain characters which are of no service to them in their daily habits of life, and which it is extremely probable would have been modified through sexual

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traits from being selected, however, as feminine traits in men indicate a higher probability of long-term relationship commitment, and may be one of several evolutionary strategies. Further research also backs up the idea of using

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The role of sexual selection in human evolution has been considered controversial from the moment of publication of Darwin's book on sexual selection (1871). Among his vocal critics were some of Darwin's supporters, such as

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were highly dimorphic and that this tendency lessened over the course of human evolution, suggesting humans have become more monogamous. In contrast, gorillas living in harems exhibit a much stronger sexual dimorphism (see:

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brain, i.e. the structures responsible for social intelligence underwent positive selection as a sexual ornamentation to be used in courtship rather than for survival itself, and that it has developed in ways outlined by

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nature and therefore cannot be connected to natural selection, which only affects the animal nature. Darwin was accused of looking to the evolution of early human ancestors through the moral codes of the 19th century

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Juzeniene, Asta; Setlow, Richard; Porojnicu, Alina; Steindal, Arnfinn Hykkerud; Moan, Johan (2009). "Development of different human skin colors: A review highlighting photobiological and photobiophysical aspects".

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in women's faces when their testosterone levels are at their highest, and the level of attraction to femininity may fluctuate as hormone levels fluctuate. Studies on men have also been done to show the effects of

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Our analysis failed to support the prediction of a positive correlation between increasing distance from the equator and increased sexual dimorphism. We found no evidence in support of the sexual selection

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Sexual selection's role in human evolution cannot be definitively established, as features may result from an equilibrium among competing selective pressures, some involving sexual selection, others

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in humans, when it is present in other primates, may be due to sexual selection by females looking for a clear sign of good health in prospective mates. Since a human erection relies on a

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There are a variety of factors that drive sexual selection in humans. Current available research indicates that selection preferences are biologically driven, that is, by the display of

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Bird, Brian M.; Welling, Lisa L. M.; Ortiz, Triana L.; Moreau, Benjamin J. P.; Hansen, Steve; Emond, Michael; Goldfarb, Bernard; Bonin, Pierre L.; Carré, Justin M. (1 September 2016).

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evolve preferences for these traits, which then comprise an additional selection pressure. However, secondary sexual characteristics in human males do not always enhance overall

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did not discriminate between men with either high or low levels of cortisol. It was concluded that societal-level ecological factors impact the valuation of traits by combinations of

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Hill, Alexander K.; Hunt, John; Welling, Lisa L.M.; Cárdenas, Rodrigo A.; Rotella, Michelle A.; Wheatley, John R.; Dawood, Khytam; Shriver, Mark D.; Puts, David A. (September 2013).

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Fillingim, R. B., King, C. D., Ribeiro-Dasilva, M. C., Rahim-Williams, B., & Riley, J. L. (2009). Sex, gender, and pain: a review of recent clinical and experimental findings.

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Stephen, Ian D.; Salter, Darby L. H.; Tan, Kok Wei; Tan, Chrystalle B. Y.; Stevenson, Richard J. (3 July 2018). "Sexual dimorphism and attractiveness in Asian and White faces".

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Ellis, Lee; Hershberger, Scott; Field, Evelyn; Wersinger, Scott; Pellis, Sergio; Geary, David; Palmer, Craig; Hoyenga, Katherine; Hetsroni, Amir; Karadi, Kazmer (13 May 2013).

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help mitigate the susceptibility to disease in sub-Saharan Africa. According to this argument, the anti-infective qualities of melanin were more important than protection from

251:. However, penis size may have been subject to natural selection, rather than sexual selection, due to a larger penis' efficiency in displacing the sperm of rival males during 4568:

Reynolds, Tania; Baumeister, Roy F.; Maner, Jon K. (2018). "Competitive reputation manipulation: Women strategically transmit social information about romantic rivals".

306:, it was established that women had a general masculinity preference for men's voices, and that the preference for masculinity was greater in the fertile phase of the 5924: 358:

A 2020 study reported that women tend to find a man more attractive if the man's previous relationships ended mutually, and less attractive if the man was dumped.

8490: 5988:"Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, the same as ours": consistency and variability in the cross-cultural perception of female physical attractiveness" 139: 1462:

Grammer, Karl; Fink, Bernhard; Møller, Anders P.; Thornhill, Randy (1 August 2003). "Darwinian aesthetics: sexual selection and the biology of beauty".

520:. The analysis of indigenous populations from more than 50 countries has shown that the strongest correlation with light skin is upper latitude. Rogers 8979: 8836: 1759:

Moore, F. R.; Coetzee, V.; Contreras-Garduño, J.; Debruine, L. M.; Kleisner, K.; Krams, I.; Marcinkowska, U.; Nord, A.; Perrett, D. I. (23 June 2013).

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Mahoney, Sean M.; Reudink, Matthew W.; Contina, Andrea; Roberts, Kelly A.; Schabert, Veronica T.; Gunther, Emily G.; Covino, Kristen M. (March 2022).

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Puts, David A.; Bailey, Drew H.; Cárdenas, Rodrigo A.; Burriss, Robert P.; Welling, Lisa L. M.; Wheatley, John R.; Dawood, Khytam (1 January 2013).

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Edwards, A.W.F. (2000) Perspectives: Anecdotal, Historical and Critical Commentaries on Genetics. The Genetics Society of America (154) 1419:1426

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Anthropologist Peter Frost has proposed that sexual selection for women with unusual hair or eye color was responsible for the evolution of

59:

has been cited as being caused by human sexual selection. It has been suggested that sexual selection played a part in the evolution of the

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Rogers, Alan R.; Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen (2004). "Genetic Variation at the MC1R Locus and the Time since Loss of Human Body Hair".

2186:"Sex differences in whole body skeletal muscle mass measured by magnetic resonance imaging and its distribution in young Japanese adults" 168:; a leading one being that loss of body hair facilitated sweating. This idea closely relates to that of the suggested need for increased 6880: 5666: 4047: 4030: 9680: 6268: 6228: 844: 4492:

Benenson, Joyce F. (August 2009). "Dominating versus eliminating the competition: Sex differences in human intrasexual aggression".

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than darker skin, so it would have represented a health benefit in reduced sunlight, leading to natural selection for lighter skin.

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of the opinion that hairlessness was related to sexual selection; however, several other explanations have been advanced to explain

9968: 9570: 8743: 8198: 7120: 6964: 6278: 5152:"A tail of plumage colouration: disentangling geographic, seasonal and dietary effects on plumage colour in a migratory songbird" 339:

levels and female preference for male facial appearance. While women from the United Kingdom preferred the faces of men with low

1111: 371:, and apparent health, as a means by which they select a partner for reproductive purposes. Males are particularly attracted to 7549: 7197: 7022: 6273: 5519:

MacKintosh, J. (2001). "The antimicrobial properties of melanocytes, melanosomes and melanin and the evolution of black skin".

1128: 1094: 9540: 9460: 9435: 9314: 9194: 8797: 8506: 8266: 7027: 6905: 6283: 4733: 1435: 535:

due to the increased exposure to sunlight. When humans started to migrate away from the tropics, where there is less-intense

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All groups of judges made more positive ratings of the Asian and Hispanic targets compared with the Black and White targets.

5240:"Ultimate Answers to Proximate Questions: The Evolutionary Motivations behind Tattoos and Body Piercings in Popular Culture" 9660: 8868: 7863: 2430: 1145: 626:

conjectures how intelligence, musicality, artistic and social skills, and language might have evolved as an example of the

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Madrigal, Lorena; Kelly, William (2007). "Human skin-color sexual dimorphism: A test of the sexual selection hypothesis".

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Haselton, Martie G.; Mortezaie, Mina; Pillsworth, Elizabeth G.; Bleske-Rechek, April; Frederick, David A. (January 2007).

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Fisher, Maryanne L.; Krems, Jaimie Arona (26 January 2023). "An Evolutionary Review of Female Intrasexual Competition".

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Puts, D., Carrier, D., and Rogers, A.R. (in press). Contest competition for mates and the evolution of human males. In:

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Benenson, Joyce F.; Webb, Christine E.; Wrangham, Richard W. (2022). "Self-protection as an adaptive female strategy".

2362: 1650: 1406: 1351: 1176: 1077: 722: 9480: 6959: 4339: 8318: 2729:"Foundations of the Crazy Bastard Hypothesis: Nonviolent physical risk-taking enhances conceptualized formidability" 2018:

Puts, David A.; Jones, Benedict C.; DeBruine, Lisa M. (1 March 2012). "Sexual Selection on Human Faces and Voices".

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O'Connor, Jillian J. M.; Fraccaro, Paul J.; Pisanski, Katarzyna; Tigue, Cara C.; Feinberg, David R. (31 July 2013).

10191: 10113: 9720: 9505: 9297: 8790: 8323: 7921: 7151: 3738:

Billat, Véronique L.; Demarle, Alexandre; Slawinski, Jean; Paiva, Mario; Koralsztein, Jean-Pierre (December 2001).

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Fessler, Daniel M.T.; Tiokhin, Leonid B.; Holbrook, Colin; Gervais, Matthew M.; Snyder, Jeffrey K. (January 2014).

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Andersson, M. and Simmons, L.W. (2006) Sexual selection and mate choice. Trends, Ecology and Evolution (21) 296:302

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pumping system, erection failure is a sensitive early warning of certain kinds of physical and mental ill health.

9715: 9695: 9408: 9153: 8861: 8856: 8829: 8568: 8558: 8482: 7757: 7384: 7103: 6999: 4942:"Waist-hip ratio and cognitive ability: is gluteofemoral fat a privileged store of neurodevelopmental resources?" 1421:

Miller, G.F. (1998), "How mate choice shaped human nature: A review of sexual selection and human evolution" in

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The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology: Volume 3: Female Sexual Adaptations

2079: 8293: 3047:"Stresses Exerted in the Hindlimb Muscles of Common Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) during Bipedal Locomotion" 2139:"Sexual Dimorphism, the Operational Sex Ratio, and the Intensity of Male Competition in Polygynous Primates" 9893: 9665: 9485: 9108: 9076: 8984: 8701: 8203: 6969: 6846: 6732: 281:

of a potential mate. This process can be affected, however, by social factors, including in cultures where

193: 3683:

Riley, Joseph L; Robinson, Michael E; Wise, Emily A; Myers, Cynthia D; Fillingim, Roger B (January 1998).

1446: 10139: 9705: 8940: 8771: 8365: 7475: 7163: 7067: 6885: 6406: 6260: 1439: 685: 277:

that can be both consciously and unconsciously evaluated by the opposite sex to determine the health and

172:

and is part of the most-commonly-accepted scientific explanation for the evolution of pigmentary traits.

2776:"Sexual Selection, Agonistic Signaling, and the Effect of Beards on Recognition of Men's Anger Displays" 2582:"Manipulations of fundamental and formant frequencies influence the attractiveness of human male voices" 1973:"Effects of exogenous testosterone and mating context on men's preferences for female facial femininity" 558:, and multiple studies have shown that women with the facial features and pigmentary characteristics of 10176: 9600: 9470: 9450: 9229: 8467: 7641: 7392: 7190: 6925: 6392: 6385: 6378: 5192: 1761:"Cross-cultural variation in women's preferences for cues to sex- and stress-hormones in the male face" 1717: 550:

traits in European populations, however this theory has since been refuted by data-based evidence from

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Campbell, Anne (April 1999). "Staying alive: Evolution, culture, and women's intrasexual aggression".

748: 10181: 10171: 10020: 9991: 9878: 9792: 9700: 9675: 9500: 9465: 9241: 8261: 8058: 7868: 7636: 7529: 7108: 6900: 3389:

Papadatou-Pastou, Marietta; Martin, Maryanne; Munafò, Marcus R.; Jones, Gregory V. (September 2008).

2885:"The relative importance of intra- and intersexual selection on human male sexually dimorphic traits" 648: 377: 158: 60: 8390: 6890: 4220: 2032: 1818:"Female Mate Copying: Measuring the Effect of Mate-Relevant Information Provided by Former Partners" 1003: 897:

Gayon, J. (2010) Sexual selection: Another Darwinian process. Comptes Rendus Biologies (333) 134:144

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model. Fisher also stated that the development of sexual selection was "more favourable" in humans.

10186: 9913: 9797: 9670: 9490: 9423: 9285: 9258: 9113: 8888: 8851: 8684: 8548: 8520: 8495: 8452: 8355: 8288: 8163: 8036: 8004: 7977: 7967: 7343: 7307: 7139: 6442: 6214: 3907:"Uniting against a common enemy: Perceived outgroup threat elicits ingroup cohesion in chimpanzees" 3905:

Brooks, James; Onishi, Ena; Clark, Isabelle R.; Bohn, Manuel; Yamamoto, Shinya (24 February 2021).

501: 8168: 5859: 5028:"Evolutionary fitness as a function of pubertal age in 22 subsistence-based traditional societies" 1168: 826: 454:

resources that can enhance the survival and reproductive success of the female and her offspring.

10077: 9918: 9784: 9610: 9590: 9580: 9395: 9375: 9246: 9234: 9224: 9081: 8813: 8689: 8619: 8528: 8256: 8138: 7906: 7502: 7270: 7240: 7230: 7077: 7014: 6974: 6861: 6420: 6153: 5388: 5286: 4941: 4787: 4756: 2929:

Wolff, S. E., & Puts, D. A. (2010). "Vocal masculinity is a robust dominance signal in men".

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Price, Michael E.; Pound, Nicholas; Dunn, James; Hopkins, Sian; Kang, Jinsheng (2 January 2013).

707: 441: 403: 336: 47:, as it affects humans. Sexual selection is a biological way one sex chooses a mate for the best 570: 524:(2004) concluded that dark skin evolved as a result of the loss of body hair among the earliest 10035: 10030: 10005: 9953: 9948: 9788: 9780: 9771: 9766: 9735: 9627: 9413: 9350: 9103: 9022: 8728: 8377: 8246: 8208: 8109: 8080: 8053: 8048: 7646: 7072: 7047: 7042: 6935: 6851: 6413: 4980: 2027: 8234: 3101: 1377: 1339: 10062: 10025: 9923: 9832: 9827: 9802: 9530: 9510: 9360: 9280: 9253: 9184: 8952: 8669: 8543: 8462: 8457: 8442: 8427: 8417: 8333: 8308: 8143: 8099: 8063: 8031: 7972: 7950: 7931: 7794: 7747: 7698: 7693: 7651: 7451: 7245: 7183: 6456: 6189: 1067: 652: 268: 240: 4725: 4468: 3438: 2955:"The Advantage of Standing Up to Fight and the Evolution of Habitual Bipedalism in Hominins" 10015: 9822: 9807: 9775: 9762: 9623: 9535: 9403: 9370: 9345: 9199: 9163: 9057: 9027: 8846: 8643: 8538: 8472: 8273: 8188: 8104: 8016: 7999: 7926: 7916: 7626: 7534: 7518: 7225: 7220: 7037: 6940: 6841: 6802: 6747: 6652: 6356: 6349: 5801: 5745: 5642: 5528: 5334:"Women's attractiveness changes with estradiol and progesterone across the ovulatory cycle" 5204: 4953: 4799: 4713: 4162: 4127: 3918: 3617: 3609: 3454: 3300: 3160: 2966: 2896: 2883:

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Influence of female 2D:4D ratio on attractiveness of male vocal and facial masculinity

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