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interfaces are ideal for self-assembly. Upon self-assembly, the structural and spatial arrangements can be determined via X-ray diffraction and optical reflectance. The number of nanoparticles involved in self-assembly can be controlled by manipulating the concentration of the electrolyte, which can be in the aqueous or the organic phase. Higher electrolyte concentrations correspond to decreased spacing between the nanoparticles. Pickering and
Ramsden worked with oil/water (O/W) interfaces to portray this idea. Pickering and Ramsden explained the idea of pickering emulsions when experimenting with paraffin-water emulsions with solid particles like iron oxide and silicon dioxide. They observed that the micron-sized colloids generated a resistant film at the interface between the two immiscible phases, inhibiting the coalescence of the emulsion drops. These Pickering emulsions are formed from the self-assembly of colloidal particles in two-part liquid systems, such as oil-water systems. The desorption energy, which is directly related to the stability of emulsions depends on the particle size, particles interacting with each other, and particles interacting with oil and water molecules.
1074:. As systems look to minimize their free energy, self-assembly is one option for the system to achieve its lowest free energy thermodynamically. Nanoparticles can be programmed to self-assemble by changing the functionality of their side groups, taking advantage of weak and specific intermolecular forces to spontaneously order the particles. These direct interparticle interactions can be typical intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding or Van der Waals forces, but can also be internal characteristics, such as hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity. For example, lipophilic nanoparticles have the tendency to self-assemble and form crystals as solvents are evaporated. While these aggregations are based on intermolecular forces, external factors such as temperature and pH also play a role in spontaneous self-assembly.
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microscopic particles is much larger than that of thermal energy, resulting in an effective confinement of large colloids to the interface. Nanoparticles are restricted to the interface by an energy reduction comparable to thermal energy. Thus, nanoparticles are easily displaced from the interface. A constant particle exchange then occurs at the interface at rates dependent on particle size. For the equilibrium state of assembly, the total gain in free energy is smaller for smaller particles. Thus, large nanoparticle assemblies are more stable. The size dependence allows nanoparticles to self-assemble at the interface to attain its equilibrium structure. Micrometer- size colloids, on the other hand, may be confined in a non-equilibrium state.
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In block copolymers, covalent bonds frustrate the natural tendency of each individual polymer to remain separate (in general, different polymers, do not like to mix), so the material assembles into a nano-pattern instead. These copolymers offer the ability to self-assemble into uniform, nanosized micelles and accumulate in tumors via the enhanced permeability and retention effect. Polymer composition can be chosen to control the micelle size and compatibility with the drug of choice. The challenges of this application are the difficulty of reproducing or controlling the size of self-assembly nano micelle, preparing predictable size-distribution, and the stability of the micelle with high drug load content.
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are embedded to selectively induce nanoparticle deposition. Such templates are objects onto which different particles can be arranged into a structure with a morphology similar to that of the template. Carbon nanotubes (microstructures), single molecules, or block copolymers are common templates. Nanoparticles are often shown to self-assemble within distances of nanometers and micrometers, but block copolymer templates can be used to form well-defined self-assemblies over macroscopic distances. By incorporating active sites to the surfaces of nanotubes and polymers, the functionalization of these templates can be transformed to favor self-assembly of specified nanoparticles.
1333:) and Auger and x-ray photoemission for surface analysis. 2D self-assembly monodisperse particle colloids has a strong potential in dense magnetic storage media. Each colloid particle has the ability to store information as known as binary number 0 and 1 after applying it to a strong magnetic field. In the meantime, it requires a nanoscale sensor or detector in order to selectively choose the colloid particle. The microphase separation of block copolymers shows a great deal of promise as a means of generating regular nanopatterns at surfaces. They may, therefore, find application as a means to novel nanomaterials and nanoelectronics device structures.
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pathway for nanoparticle organization by synthesizing efficient functional groups. For instance, DNA oligomers have been a key ligand for nanoparticle building blocks to be self-assembling via sequence-based specific organization. However, to deliver precise and scalable (programmable) assembly for a desired structure, a careful positioning of ligand molecules onto the nanoparticle counterpart should be required at the building block (precursor) level, such as direction, geometry, morphology, affinity, etc. The successful design of ligand-building block units can play an essential role in manufacturing a wide-range of new nano systems, such as
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947:. The activation energy represents the energy difference between the initial ideally arranges state and a transition state towards the defective structure. At low defect concentrations, defect formation is entropy driven until a critical concentration of defects allows the activation energy term to compensate for entropy. There is usually an equilibrium defect density indicated at the minimum free energy. The activation energy for defect formation increases this equilibrium defect density.
160:(nm). The small size of nanoparticles allows them to have unique characteristics which may not be possible on the macro-scale. Self-assembly is the spontaneous organization of smaller subunits to form larger, well-organized patterns. For nanoparticles, this spontaneous assembly is a consequence of interactions between the particles aimed at achieving a thermodynamic equilibrium and reducing the system’s free energy. The thermodynamics definition of self-assembly was introduced by Professor
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defects is focused on controlling defect density. In most cases, the thermodynamic driving force for self-assembly is provided by weak intermolecular interactions and is usually of the same order of magnitude as the entropy term. In order for a self-assembling system to reach the minimum free energy configuration, there has to be enough thermal energy to allow the mass transport of the self-assembling molecules. For defect formation, the free energy of single defect formation is given by:
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for one another. A dynamic system is forced to not reach equilibrium by supplying the system with a continuous, external source of energy to balance attractive and repulsive forces. Magnetic fields, electric fields, ultrasound fields, light fields, etc. have all been used as external energy sources to program robot swarms at small scales. Static self-assembly is significantly slower compared to dynamic self-assembly as it depends on the random chemical interactions between particles.
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self-assembly can be guided by templates to generate similar structures to those currently fabricated by top-down approaches. This so-called bridging will enable fabrication of materials with the fine resolution of bottom-up methods and the larger range and arbitrary structure of top-down processes. Furthermore, in some cases components are too small for top-down synthesis, so self-assembly principles are required to realize these novel structures.
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observe optically. But with advances in science and technology, there are now many instruments for observing nanostructures. Imaging methods span electron, optical and scanning probe microscopy, including combined electron-scanning probe and near-field opticalscanning probe instruments. Nanostructure characterization tools include advanced optical spectro-microscopy (linear, non-linear, tipenhanced and
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the development of miniaturized information storage because light has many advantages for storage and transmission over electronic methods. Quantum dots - most commonly CdSe nanoparticles having diameters of tens of nm, and with protective surface coatings - are notable for their ability to fluoresce over a broad range of the visible spectrum, with the controlling parameter being size.
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processes are van der Waals, hydrogen bonds, and weak polar forces, just to name a few. In self-assembly, regular structural arrangements are frequently observed, therefore there must be a balance of attractive and repulsive between molecules otherwise an equilibrium distance will not exist between the particles. The repulsive forces can be electron cloud-electron cloud overlap or
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external stimuli or direct manipulation. Changing the parameters of the external stimuli, such as light and electric fields, has a direct effect on assembled nanostructures. Likewise, direct manipulation takes advantage of photolithography techniques, along with scanning probe microscopy (SPM), and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), just to name a few.
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kinetic mechanisms of self-assembly are poorly understood - the basic principles of atomistic and macroscale processes can be significantly different than those for nanostructures. Concepts related to thermal motion and capillary action influence equilibrium timescales and kinetic rates that are not well defined in self-assembling systems.
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nonequilibrium, flow fields are useful in that they help the system relax towards ordered equilibrium. Flow fields are also useful when dealing with complex matrices that themselves have rheological behavior. Flow can induce anisotropic viseoelastic stresses, which helps to overcome the matrix and cause self-assembly.
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conductors, semiconductors, and insulators, thus one of the main opportunities in nanomaterials science is to use organic synthesis and molecular design to make electronically useful structures. Structural motifs in these systems include colloids, small crystals, and aggregates on the order of 1-100 nm.
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As nanoparticle interactions take place on a nanoscale, the particle interactions must be scaled similarly. Hamaker interactions take into account the polarization characteristics of a large number of nearby particles and the effects they have on each other. Hamaker interactions sum all of the forces
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Most soft nanoparticles have core–shell structures. The semiflexible surface ligands soften the interaction of the cores and create a more spherical shape than the underlying core from uniform coverage. The surface ligands can be chosen from surfactants, polymers, DNA, ions, etc. Tuning the structure
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Self-assembly of nanoparticles is driven by either maximization of packing density or minimization of the contact area between particles according to hard or soft nanoparticles. Examples of hard nanoparticles are: silica, fullerenes; soft nanoparticles are often organic nanoparticles, block copolymer
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Nanostructured materials can also be classed according to their functions, for example nanoelectronics and information technology (IT). Lateral dimensions used in information storage are shrinking from the micro- to the nanoscale as fabrication technologies improve. Optical materials are important in
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There exist several outstanding challenges in self-assembly, due to a variety of competing factors. Currently self-assembly is difficult to control on large scales, and to be widely applied we will need to ensure high degrees of reproducibility at these scales. The fundamental thermodynamic and
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Self-assembly is defined as a process in which individual units of material associate with themselves spontaneously into a defined and organized structure or larger units with minimal external direction. Self-assembly is recognized as a highly useful technique to achieve outstanding qualities in both
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Magnetic nanochains are a class of new magnetoresponsive and superparamagnetic nanostructures with highly anisotropic shapes (chain-like) which can be manipulated using magnetic field and magnetic field gradient. The magnetic nanochains possess attractive properties which are significant added value
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Macroscopic viscous flow fields can direct self-assembly of a random solution of particles into ordered crystals. However, the assembled particles tend to disassemble when the flow is stopped or removed. Shear flows are useful for jammed suspensions or random close packing. As these systems begin in
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Self-assembly is an equilibrium process, i.e. the individual and assembled components exist in equilibrium. In addition, the flexibility and the lower free energy conformation is usually a result of a weaker intermolecular force between self-assembled moieties and is essentially enthalpic in nature.
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is currently considered broadly for nano-structuring and nano-fabrication because of its simplicity, versatility and spontaneity. Exploiting the properties of the nano assembly holds promise as a low-cost and high-yield technique for a wide range of scientific and technological applications and is a
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Nanoparticles have good biological labeling and sensing because of brightness and photostability; thus, certain self-assembled nanoparticles can be used as imaging contrast in various systems. Combined with polymer cross-linkers, the fluorescence intensity can also be enhanced. Surface modification
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Block copolymers are a well-studied and versatile class of self-assembling materials characterized by chemically distinct polymer blocks that are covalently bonded. This molecular architecture of the covalent bond enhancement is what causes block copolymers to spontaneously form nanoscale patterns.
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Intermolecular forces govern the particle interaction in self-assembled systems. The forces tend to be intermolecular in type rather than ionic or covalent because ionic or covalent bonds will “lock” the assembly into non-equilibrium structures. The types intermolecular forces seen in self-assembly
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The self-assembly is governed by the normal processes of nucleation and growth. Small assemblies are formed because of their increased lifetime as the attractive interactions between the components lower the Gibbs free energy. As the assembly grows, the Gibbs free energy continues to decrease until
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to the
American Physical Society. He imagined a world in which “we could arrange atoms one by one, just as we want them.” This idea set the stage for the bottom-up synthesis approach in which constituent components interact to form higher-ordered structures in a controllable manner. The study
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This process occurs at all size scales, in the form of either static or dynamic self-assembly. Static self-assembly utilizes interactions amongst the nano-particles to achieve a free-energy minimum. In solutions, it is an outcome of random motion of molecules and the affinity of their binding sites
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Self-assembly of nanoscale structures from functional nanoparticles has provided a powerful path to developing small and powerful electronic components. Nanoscale objects have always been difficult to manipulate because they cannot be characterized by molecular techniques and they are too small to
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Understanding the behavior of nanoparticles at liquid interfaces is essential for integrating them into electronics, optics, sensing, and catalysis devices. Molecular arrangements at liquid/liquid interfaces are uniform. Often, they also provide a defect-correcting platform and thus, liquid/liquid
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Nano-particles can self-assemble on solid surfaces after external forces (like magnetic and electric) are applied. Templates made of microstructures, like carbon nanotubes or block polymers, can also be used to assist in self-assembly. They cause directed self-assembly (DSA), in which active sites
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Different particle shapes / polyhedra create diverse complex packing structures in order to minimize the entropy of the system. By computer simulations, four structure categories are classified for faceted polyhedra nanoparticles according to their long-range order and short-range order, which are
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Amphiphile self-assembly is an essential bottom-up approach of fabricating advanced functional materials. Self-assembled materials with desired structures are often obtained through thermodynamic control. Here, we demonstrate that the selection of kinetic pathways can lead to drastically different
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is assembling sub-systems into larger system. A bottom-up approach for nano-assembly is a primary research target for nano-fabrication because top down synthesis is expensive (requiring external work) and is not selective on very small length scales, but is currently the primary mode of industrial
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To commemorate the 125th anniversary of
Science magazine, 25 urgent questions were asked for scientists to solve, and the only one that relates to chemistry is“How Far Can We Push Chemical Self-Assembly?” Because self-assembly is the only approach for building a wide variety of nanostructures, the
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Applications of nanotechnology often depend on the lateral assembly and spatial arrangement of nanoparticles at interfaces. Chemical reactions can be induced at solid/liquid interfaces by manipulating the location and orientation of functional groups of nanoparticles. This can be achieved through
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does not necessarily reflect the intermolecular forces between the molecules, it is the energy cost associated with disrupting the pattern and may be thought of as a region where optimum arrangement does not occur and the reduction of enthalpy associated with ideal self-assembly did not occur. An
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There are two kinds of defects: Equilibrium defects, and Non-Equilibrium defects. Self-assembled structures contain defects. Dislocations caused during the assembling of nanomaterials can majorly affect the final structure and in general defects are never completely avoidable. Current research on
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The ultimate driving force in self-assembly is energy minimization and the corresponding evolution towards equilibrium, but kinetic effects can also play a very strong role. These kinetic effects, such as trapping in metastable states, slow coarsening kinetics, and pathway-dependent assembly, are
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strongly influenced by these surface structures. Fracture strength and character, ductility, and various mechanical moduli all depend on the substructure of the materials over a range of scales. The opportunity to redevelop a science of materials that are nanostructured by design is largely open.
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The processes by which nanoparticles self-assemble are widespread and important. Understanding why and how self-assembly occurs is key in reproducing and optimizing results. Typically, nanoparticles will self-assemble for one or both of two reasons: molecular interactions and external direction.
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Self assembly can be directed in two ways. The first is by manipulating the intrinsic properties which includes changing the directionality of interactions or changing particle shapes. The second is through external manipulation by applying and combining the effects of several kinds of fields to
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A decrease in total free energy was observed to be a result of the assembly of nanoparticles at an oil/water interface. When moving to the interface, particles reduce the unfavorable contact between the immiscible fluids and decrease the interfacial energy. The decrease in total free energy for
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Nanoparticles have the ability to assemble chemically through covalent or noncovalent interactions with their capping ligand. The terminal functional group(s) on the particle are known as capping ligands. As these ligands tend to be complex and sophisticated, self-assembly can provide a simpler
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are useful in understanding the structure of ionic compounds in the early days, and the later entropy maximization principle shows favor of dense packing in the system. Therefore, finding the densest packing for a given shape is a starting point for predicting the structure of hard nanoparticle
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the maximum resolution of the top-down products is much coarser than those of bottom-up; therefore, an accessible strategy to bridge "bottom-up" and "top-down", is realizable by the principles of self-assembly. By controlling local intermolecular forces to find the lowest-energy configuration,
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According to George M. Whitesides, "Self-assembly is the autonomous organization of components into patterns or structures without human intervention." Another definition by Serge
Palacin & Renaud Demadrill is "Self-assembly is a spontaneous and reversible process that brings together in a
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The most effective self-assembly director is a combination of external force fields. If the fields and conditions are optimized, self-assembly can be permanent and complete. When a field combination is used with nanoparticles that are tailored to be intrinsically responsive, the most complete
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Certain structural classes are especially relevant to nanoscience. As the dimensions of structures become smaller, their surface area-to-volume ratio increases. Much like molecules, nanostructures at small enough scales are essentially "all surface". The mechanical properties of materials are
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The natural ability of nanoparticles to self-assemble can be replicated in systems that do not intrinsically self-assemble. Directed self-assembly (DSA) attempts to mimic the chemical properties of self-assembling systems, while simultaneously controlling the thermodynamic system to maximize
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Among the more sophisticated and structurally complex nanostructures currently available are organic macromolecules, wherein their assembly relies on the placement of atoms into molecular or extended structures with atomic-level precision. It is now known that organic compounds can be
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assembly is observed. Combinations of fields allow the benefits of self-assembly, such as scalability and simplicity, to be maintained while being able to control orientation and structure formation. Field combinations possess the greatest potential for future directed self-assembly work.
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associated with the formation of the ordered arrangement. In general, the organization is accompanied by a decrease in entropy and in order for the assembly to be spontaneous the enthalpy term must be negative and in excess of the entropy term. This equation shows that as the value of
164:. He describes self-assembly as a process where components of the system acquire non-random spatial distribution with respect to each other and the boundaries of the system. This definition allows one to account for mass and energy fluxes taking place in the self-assembly processes.
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of self-assembly of nanoparticles began with recognition that some properties of atoms and molecules enable them to arrange themselves into patterns. A variety of applications where the self-assembly of nanoparticles might be useful. For example, building sensors or computer chips.
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the assembly becomes stable enough to last for a long period of time. The necessity of the self-assembly to be an equilibrium process is defined by the organization of the structure which requires non-ideal arrangements to be formed before the lowest energy configuration is found.
1229:, particles join to form chains and then assemble. At more modest field strengths, ordered crystal structures are established due to the induced dipole interactions. Electric and magnetic field direction requires a constant balance between thermal energy and interaction energies.
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manipulate the building blocks into doing what is intended. To do so correctly, an extremely high level of direction and control is required and developing a simple, efficient method to organize molecules and molecular clusters into precise, predetermined structures is crucial.
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Model of multidimensional array of nano-particles. A particle could have two spins, spin up or down. Based on the spin directions, nano-particles will be able to store 0 and 1. Therefore, nanostructural material has a great potential for future use in electronic
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generally describes a macroscopic system, the vast number of nanoparticles in a self-assembling system allows the term to be applicable. Hamaker constants for nanoparticles are calculated using
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of superlattices can be achieved by varying the amount of surface ligands. Their “soft” behavior results in different self-assembly rules from hard particles, where
Pauling’s rules expired.
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Xiong, De’an; Li, Zhe; Zou, Lu; He, Zhenping; Liu, Yang; An, Yingli; Ma, Rujiang; Shi, Linqi (2010). "Modulating the catalytic activity of Au/micelles by tunable hydrophilic channels".
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To tailor the superlattice structure of soft nanoparticles, six design rules of spherical nanoparticle superlattice are established based on the study of metal–DNA nanoparticles:
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Xiong, De'an; He, ZP (13 May 2008). "Temperature-responsive multilayered micelles formed from the complexation of PNIPAM-b-P4VP block-copolymer and PS-b-PAA core-shell micelles".
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Shinn, Eric; HĂĽbler, Alfred; Lyon, Dave; Perdekamp, Matthias Grosse; Bezryadin, Alexey; Belkin, Andrey (2013). "Nuclear energy conversion with stacks of graphene nanocapacitors".
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Tang, Fu; He, Fang; Cheng, Huicong; Li, Lidong (2010-07-20). "Self-Assembly of
Conjugated Polymer-Ag@SiO 2 Hybrid Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Application to Cellular Imaging".
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External fields are the most common directors of self-assembly. Electric and magnetic fields allow induced interactions to align the particles. The fields take advantage of the
152:(center) or multilayers (right). Each dot in the left image is a traditional "atomic" crystal shown in the image above. Scale bars: 100 nm (left), 25 ÎĽm (center), 50 nm (right).
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Abid, Namra; Khan, Aqib
Muhammad; Shujait, Sara; Chaudhary, Kainat; Ikram, Muhammad; Imran, Muhammad; Haider, Junaid; Khan, Maaz; Khan, Qasim; Maqbool, Muhammad (2022-02-01).
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with functional groups, can also lead to selective biological labeling. Self-assembled nanoparticles are also more biocompatible compared to standard drug delivery systems.
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Kim, Jeong-Hwan (2010). "Simultaneously
Controlled Directionality and Valency on a Water-Soluble Gold Nanoparticle Precursor for Aqueous-Phase Anisotropic Self-Assembly".
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Kim, Jeong-Hwan (2008). "Sequential Solid-Phase
Fabrication of Bifunctional Anchors on Gold Nanoparticles for Controllable and Scalable Nanoscale Structure Assembly".
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need for increasing complexity is growing. To learn from nature and build the nanoworld with noncovalent bonds, more research is needed in this area. Self assembly of
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Radosz, Maciej; Zachary L. Tyrrell; Youqing Shen (Sep 2010). "Fabrication of micellar nanoparticles for drug delivery through the self-assembly of block copolymer".
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Choo, Youngwoo; Majewski, Paweł W.; Fukuto, Masafumi; Osuji, Chinedum O.; Yager, Kevin G. (2018). "Pathway-engineering for highly-aligned block copolymer arrays".
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Wetterskog, Erik; Agthe, Michael; Mayence, Arnaud; Grins, Jekabs; Wang, Dong; Rana, Subhasis; Ahniyaz, Anwar; Salazar-Alvarez, German; Bergström, Lennart (2014).
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Zheng, Xiaoyan; Zhu, Lizhe; Zeng, Xiangze; Meng, Luming; Zhang, Lu; Wang, Dong; Huang, Xuhui (2017). "Kinetics-Controlled
Amphiphile Self-Assembly Processes".
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Natural processes that drive self-assembly tend to be highly reproducible. The existence of life is strongly dependent on the reproducibility of self-assembly.
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Kim, Jin-Woo; Kim, Jeong-Hwan; Deaton, Russell (2012). "Programmable Construction of Nanostructures: Assembly of Nanostructures with Various Nanocomponents".
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Rogers, W. Benjamin; Shih, William M.; Manoharan, Vinothan N. (2016). "Using DNA to program the self-assembly of colloidal nanoparticles and microparticles".
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key research effort in nanotechnology, molecular robotics, and molecular computation. A summary of benefits of self-assembly in fabrication is listed below:
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Kralj, Slavko; Makovec, Darko (27 October 2015). "Magnetic Assembly of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticle Clusters into Nanochains and Nanobundles".
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Nanostructures can be organized into groups based on their size, function, and structure; this organization is useful to define the potential of the field.
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and above a critical temperature, the self-assembly process will become progressively less likely to occur and spontaneous self-assembly will not happen.
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for many potential uses including magneto-mechanical actuation-associated nanomedicines in low and super-low frequency alternating magnetic field and
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Wang, Chun; Tang, Fu; Wang, Xiaoyu; Li, Lidong (2015-06-24). "Self-Assembly of Fluorescent Hybrid Core–Shell Nanoparticles and Their Application".
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The assembly and packing behavior is determined by the overall hydrodynamic radius of a nanoparticle rather than the size of the core or the shell.
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Kim, Jeong-Hwan; Kim, Jin-Woo (2010). "Controlled chemical functionalization of water-soluble nanoprobes for site-specific biomedical diagnosis".
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The hydrodynamic radius ratio or the size ratio of two nanoparticles in a binary system indicates the thermodynamically favored crystal structure.
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Velleman, Leonora; Sikdar, Debabrata; Turek, Vladimir A.; Kucernak, Anthony R.; Roser, Steve J.; Kornyshev, Alexei A.; Edel, Joshua B. (2016).
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The kinetic product of two similarly stable lattices can be produced by slowing the individual DNA linker dehybridize and rehybridize rate.
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2023:"Synthesis of nanomaterials using various top-down and bottom-up approaches, influencing factors, advantages, and disadvantages: A review"
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Roach, Lucien; Hereu, Adrian; Lalanne, Phillipe; Duguet, Etienne; Tréguer-Delapierre, Mona; Vynck, Kevin; Drisko, Glenna L. (2022).
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change of the process and is largely determined by the potential energy/intermolecular forces between the assembling entities.
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Grzelczak, Marek; Vermant, Jan; Furst, Eric M.; Liz-Marzán, Luis M. (2010-07-27). "Directed Self-Assembly of Nanoparticles".
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Is relatively inexpensive compared to the top-down assembly approach, which often consumes large amounts of finite resources.
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The most stable crystal structure is the maximization of the all possible DNA sequence-specific hybridization interactions.
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Macfarlane, Robert J.; Lee, Byeongdu; Jones, Matthew R.; Harris, Nadine; Schatz, George C.; Mirkin, Chad A. (2011-10-14).
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example of this can be seen in a system of hexagonally packed cylinders where defect regions of lamellar structure exist.
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Marongui; Miglio; Innocenzi (Dec 2010). “Top-down and bottom-up approach to self assemble multifunctional porous films.”
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Grzelczak, Marek; Vermant, Jan; Furst, Eric M.; Liz-Marzán, Luis M. (2010). "Directed Self-Assembly of Nanoparticles".
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The thermodynamic product of equal radius nanoparticle has the maximum nearest neighbors that DNA connections can form.
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Faure, Bertrand; German Salazar-Alvarez; Lennart Bergstrom (2011). "Hamaker Constants of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles".
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Self-assembly is a scalable and parallel process which can involve large numbers of components in a short timeframe.
1417:"Precise control over shape and size of iron oxide nanocrystals suitable for assembly into ordered particle arrays"
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2078:"Microstructural development and mechanical properties of nanostructured copper reinforced with SiC nanoparticles"
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is negative, there will be a finite number of defects in the system and the concentration will be given by:
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Subbaraman, Ram (2008). "Estimation of the Hamaker Coefficient for a Fuel-Cell Supported Catalyst System".
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The thermodynamics of the self-assembly process can be represented by a simple Gibbs free energy equation:
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Nanostructure, nanosystems, and nano-structured materials : theories, production, and development
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Akbarpour, M. R.; Salahi, E.; Hesari, F. Alikhani; Yoon, E. Y.; Kim, H. S.; Simchi, A. (2013-04-15).
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of the nanoparticle and its functional groups. When these field-induced interactions overcome random
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Choo, Youngwoo; Majewski, Paweł W.; Fukuto, Masafumi; Osuji, Chinedum O.; Yager, Kevin G. (2018).
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often viewed as complications to be overcome in, for example, the formation of block copolymers.
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Nanoparticles are classified as having at least one of its dimensions in the range of 1-100
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A system with the same size ratio and DNA linker ratio will give the same thermodynamic product.
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self-assembled structures, underlining the significance of kinetic control in self-assembly.
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Can result in structural dimensions across orders of magnitude, from nanoscale to macroscale.
2206:"Self-Assembly of Colloidal Nanocrystals: From Intricate Structures to Functional Materials"
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micelles, DNA nanoparticles. The ordered self-assembly structure of nanoparticles is called
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Kotov, Nicholas A. (14 December 2017). "Self-assembly of inorganic nanoparticles: Ab ovo".
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148:). Upon its evaporation, they may self-assemble (left and right panels) into micron-sized
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Pinchuck, Anatoliy (2012). "Size-Dependent Hamaker Constants for Silver Nanoparticles".
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Kim, Jin-Woo (2012). "DNA-Linked Nanoparticle Building Blocks for Programmable Matter".
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2139:
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2003:
1985:
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1934:
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1772:
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1732:
1689:
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1529:
1521:
1454:
1378:
991:
161:
2723:
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1568:
201:
defined geometry randomly moving distinct bodies through selective bonding forces."
3331:
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1993:
1975:
1887:
1821:
1724:
1681:
1630:
1564:
1511:
1444:
1436:
3187:
2981:"Tuneable 2D self-assembly of plasmonic nanoparticles at liquid|liquid interfaces"
1473:
2705:
1226:
2222:
2205:
2175:
1826:
1809:
1516:
1499:
3222:
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2698:
2010 IEEE International Conference on Nano/Molecular Medicine and Engineering
2390:
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1989:
1948:
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1388:
1059:
211:
2865:
2743:
2382:
2319:
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1728:
1237:
Common ways of incorporating nanoparticle self-assembly with a flow include
3351:
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3023:
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2499:
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2183:
2054:
2007:
1907:
1843:
1736:
1650:
1533:
1458:
1246:
1055:
129:
1242:
831:{\displaystyle {N \over N_{0}}=\exp({-\Delta E_{\text{act}} \over RT})\,}
149:
998:
liquid crystals, plastic crystals, crystals, and disordered structures.
3136:
3120:
2999:
1980:
1891:
1685:
1083:
between all particles and the solvent(s) involved in the system. While
1051:
157:
3335:
3152:
3040:
Böker, Alexander; He, Jinbo; Emrick, Todd; Russell, Thomas P. (2007).
2948:
2931:
2900:
2825:
2795:
2757:
2596:
2561:
2444:
2294:
Damasceno, Pablo F.; Engel, Michael; Glotzer, Sharon C. (2012-07-27).
1899:
1634:
121:
3065:
2491:
1590:
Wang, Ben; Zhang, Yabin; Guo, Zhiguang; Zhang, Li (24 October 2017).
1383:
876:
is the activation energy of defect formation. The activation energy,
3251:
2431:
Grzelczak, Marek (2010). "Directed Self-Assembly of Nanoparticles".
2204:
Boles, Michael A.; Engel, Michael; Talapin, Dmitri V. (2016-09-28).
24:
1861:
https://boa.unimib.it/bitstream/10281/19116/3/Phd_unimib_716509.pdf
463:
256:
approach is breaking down of a system into small components, while
2135:
986:
superlattices. For spherical particles, the densest packings are
501:
145:
144:
Iron oxide nanoparticles can be dispersed in an organic solvent (
1297:
3121:"Pathway-engineering for highly-aligned block copolymer arrays"
2886:
2296:"Predictive self-assembly of polyhedra into complex structures"
1707:
Whitesides, G. M. (2002-03-29). "Self-Assembly at All Scales".
1620:
963:
1301:
Self-assembly of solid nanoparticles at oil-water interface.
673:{\displaystyle \Delta G_{DF}=\Delta H_{DF}-T\Delta S_{DF}\,}
384:{\displaystyle \Delta G_{SA}=\Delta H_{SA}-T\Delta S_{SA}\,}
2978:
2128:
Thermodynamics - Systems in Equilibrium and Non-Equilibrium
1472:
Dobson, Peter; King, Stephen; Jarvie, Helen (14 May 2019).
1414:
2932:"Self-Assembly at the Liquid/Solid Interface: STM Reveals"
1044:
2075:
2923:
2356:
2020:
1663:
3118:
1961:
1877:
180:
In 1959, physicist Richard Feynman gave a talk titled “
1616:
1614:
1612:
2293:
1131:
1070:
Nanoparticles can self-assemble as a result of their
919:
882:
851:
764:
727:
689:
611:
548:
511:
472:
434:
428:
is negative, self-assembly is a spontaneous process.
400:
322:
3039:
2929:
1207:
2512:
1609:
2972:
1137:
939:
905:
868:
830:
747:
709:
672:
568:
534:
492:
454:
420:
383:
2930:De Feyter, Steven; De Schryver, Frans C. (2005).
2203:
1589:
3362:
2359:"Nanoparticle Superlattice Engineering with DNA"
2161:
1928:
1471:
1761:. Sivakumar, P. M. Toronto. 25 September 2013.
1216:
1093:
3278:
3042:"Self-assembly of nanoparticles at interfaces"
3035:
3033:
2468:"Self Assembly of Nanoparticles at Interfaces"
2255:"Historical Overview of the Kepler Conjecture"
2126:Moreno Pirajn, Juan Carlos, ed. (2011-10-10).
1657:
988:face-centered cubic and hexagonal close-packed
3321:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2125:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2111:
1810:"How Far Can We Push Chemical Self-Assembly?"
1500:"How Far Can We Push Chemical Self-Assembly?"
1095:Hamaker constants for nanoparticles in water
3200:
3096:"Imaging and Manipulation of Nanostructures"
2851:
2660:
1421:Science and Technology of Advanced Materials
3194:
3173:
3030:
2426:
2424:
2422:
2420:
2418:
2416:
1252:
964:Design nanoparticle self-assembly structure
841:N is the number of defects in a matrix of N
2840:
2811:
2108:
1789:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1706:
1491:
1336:
1270:
2947:
2777:
2775:
2430:
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2221:
2164:The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters
2027:Advances in Colloid and Interface Science
1997:
1979:
1825:
1515:
1448:
1350:
936:
902:
865:
845:self-assembled particles or features and
827:
744:
706:
669:
565:
531:
489:
451:
417:
380:
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
3203:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
2781:
2413:
1931:Encyclopedia of supramolecular chemistry
1318:
1296:
1261:
1091:, and can often be found in literature.
1065:
139:
120:
2807:
2805:
2739:
2737:
2735:
2733:
2628:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1807:
1497:
1045:Self-assembly by molecular interactions
950:
869:{\displaystyle \Delta E_{\text{act}}\,}
3363:
3281:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
2772:
2695:
2157:
2155:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1855:
1853:
1077:
197:organic and inorganic nanostructures.
45:Please improve this article by adding
2465:
2259:Discrete & Computational Geometry
2252:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2193:
1546:
1001:
976:
2802:
2730:
2082:Materials Science and Engineering: A
1410:
1408:
1288:
183:There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom
18:
2936:The Journal of Physical Chemistry B
2625:
2582:
2547:
2152:
1866:
1850:
1279:
1062:, and many more uncharted systems.
13:
3266:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2010.06.003
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920:
883:
852:
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728:
690:
653:
631:
612:
549:
515:
473:
435:
401:
364:
342:
323:
14:
3387:
1405:
1208:Externally directed self-assembly
304:
1592:"Self-assembly of nanoparticles"
1341:
906:{\displaystyle \Delta E_{act}\,}
535:{\displaystyle T\Delta S_{SA}\,}
126:Transmission electron microscopy
58:"Self-assembly of nanoparticles"
23:
3315:
3272:
3245:
3167:
3112:
3088:
2880:
2689:
2654:
2619:
2576:
2541:
2506:
2459:
2350:
2287:
2253:Hales, Thomas C. (2006-07-01).
2246:
2069:
2014:
1955:
1922:
1801:
1309:
940:{\displaystyle \Delta H_{DF}\,}
748:{\displaystyle \Delta G_{DF}\,}
710:{\displaystyle \Delta H_{DF}\,}
569:{\displaystyle \Delta H_{SA}\,}
493:{\displaystyle \Delta S_{SA}\,}
455:{\displaystyle \Delta H_{SA}\,}
421:{\displaystyle \Delta G_{SA}\,}
242:Top-down vs bottom-up synthesis
1751:
1700:
1583:
1540:
1465:
1314:
1232:
913:, should not be confused with
824:
791:
1:
3188:10.1016/j.polymer.2008.03.052
2784:Journal of Physical Chemistry
1808:Service, R. F. (2005-07-01).
1441:10.1088/1468-6996/15/5/055010
1399:
1035:
248:Template-guided self-assembly
47:secondary or tertiary sources
2706:10.1109/NANOMED.2010.5749842
2663:IEEE Nanotechnology Magazine
1217:Electric and magnetic fields
7:
3254:Progress in Polymer Science
2223:10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00196
2176:10.1021/acs.jpclett.7b00160
1827:10.1126/science.309.5731.95
1569:10.1209/0295-5075/119/66008
1517:10.1126/science.309.5731.95
1372:
10:
3392:
3223:10.1016/j.jcis.2009.09.045
2675:10.1109/MNANO.2011.2181736
2094:10.1016/j.msea.2013.01.010
1195:All values reported in zJ
596:
245:
175:
136:pattern. Scale bar: 10 nm.
2535:10.1038/natrevmats.2016.8
2466:Boker, Alexander (2007).
2272:10.1007/s00454-005-1210-2
2039:10.1016/j.cis.2021.102597
1929:Atwood, Jerry L. (2004).
1193:
2515:Nature Reviews Materials
1253:Macroscopic viscous flow
542:approaches the value of
2866:10.1021/acsnano.5b02328
2383:10.1126/science.1210493
2320:10.1126/science.1220869
1729:10.1126/science.1070821
1498:Service, R. F. (2005).
1394:Nanoparticle deposition
1337:Biological applications
1271:Nanomaterial Interfaces
1138:{\displaystyle \gamma }
958:electrostatic repulsion
128:image of an iron oxide
3293:10.1021/acsami.5b03440
2640:10.1002/anie.201102342
1358:magnetic drug delivery
1351:Magnetic drug delivery
1325:
1302:
1139:
941:
907:
870:
832:
749:
711:
674:
570:
536:
494:
456:
422:
385:
261:fabrication. Generally
153:
137:
34:relies excessively on
1793:) CS1 maint: others (
1322:
1300:
1262:Combination of fields
1140:
1072:intermolecular forces
1066:Intermolecular forces
942:
908:
871:
833:
750:
712:
675:
571:
537:
495:
457:
423:
386:
143:
124:
2700:. pp. 235–238.
1129:
992:Kepler–Hales theorem
981:For hard particles,
951:Particle Interaction
917:
880:
849:
762:
725:
687:
609:
546:
509:
470:
432:
398:
320:
134:electron diffraction
3330:(14): 11774–11778.
3287:(24): 13653–13658.
3215:2010JCIS..341..273X
3058:2007SMat....3.1231B
2994:(46): 19229–19241.
2790:(37): 20099–20102.
2591:(24): 18634–18638.
2527:2016NatRM...116008R
2484:2007SMat....3.1231B
2375:2011Sci...334..204M
2312:2012Sci...337..453D
2216:(18): 11220–11289.
1721:2002Sci...295.2418W
1715:(5564): 2418–2421.
1678:2013Cmplx..18c..24S
1561:2017EL....11966008K
1549:Europhysics Letters
1433:2014STAdM..15e5010W
1245:, flow coating and
1096:
1078:Hamaker interaction
683:The enthalpy term,
16:Physical phenomenon
3137:10.1039/C7NR06069F
3000:10.1039/C6NR05081F
1981:10.1039/D1NR07814C
1892:10.1039/C7NR06069F
1686:10.1002/cplx.21427
1326:
1303:
1135:
1094:
1002:Soft nanoparticles
977:Hard nanoparticles
937:
903:
866:
828:
745:
707:
670:
566:
532:
490:
452:
418:
381:
154:
138:
3376:Self-organization
3336:10.1021/la101714q
3182:(10): 2548–2552.
3052:(10): 1231–1248.
2949:10.1021/jp045298k
2942:(10): 4290–4302.
2901:10.1021/nn100869j
2860:(10): 9700–9707.
2826:10.1021/la800064a
2820:(15): 8245–8253.
2796:10.1021/jp3061784
2758:10.1021/la201387d
2752:(14): 8659–8664.
2715:978-1-61284-152-6
2634:(39): 9185–9190.
2597:10.1021/la104114f
2562:10.1021/la800506g
2556:(11): 5667–5671.
2478:(10): 1231–1248.
2445:10.1021/nn100869j
2369:(6053): 204–208.
2306:(6093): 453–457.
2145:978-953-307-283-8
1768:978-1-4822-0355-4
1635:10.1021/nn100869j
1379:Icosahedral twins
1289:Liquid interfaces
1239:Langmuir-Blodgett
1202:
1201:
862:
822:
810:
780:
500:is the change in
162:Nicholas A. Kotov
119:
118:
111:
93:
3383:
3356:
3355:
3319:
3313:
3312:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3260:(9): 1128–1143.
3249:
3243:
3242:
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3192:
3191:
3171:
3165:
3164:
3116:
3110:
3109:
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3066:10.1039/b706609k
3037:
3028:
3027:
2985:
2976:
2970:
2969:
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2927:
2921:
2920:
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2878:
2877:
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2837:
2809:
2800:
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2492:10.1039/b706609k
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2457:
2456:
2439:(7): 3591–3605.
2428:
2411:
2410:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2291:
2285:
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2250:
2244:
2243:
2225:
2210:Chemical Reviews
2201:
2188:
2187:
2170:(8): 1798–1803.
2159:
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2149:
2123:
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2105:
2073:
2067:
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2018:
2012:
2011:
2001:
1983:
1974:(9): 3324–3345.
1959:
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1780:
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1749:
1748:
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1607:
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1604:
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1581:
1580:
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1280:Solid interfaces
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3246:
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3117:
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3102:
3100:foundry.lbl.gov
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1264:
1255:
1235:
1227:Brownian motion
1219:
1213:self-assembly.
1210:
1170:
1166:
1152:
1148:
1130:
1127:
1126:
1118:
1114:
1106:
1089:Lifshitz theory
1080:
1068:
1047:
1038:
1033:
1004:
983:Pauling's rules
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52:
50:
44:
40:primary sources
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3389:
3379:
3378:
3373:
3358:
3357:
3314:
3271:
3244:
3209:(2): 273–279.
3193:
3166:
3131:(1): 416–427.
3111:
3087:
3029:
2971:
2922:
2879:
2839:
2801:
2771:
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2688:
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1954:
1939:
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1886:(1): 416–427.
1865:
1849:
1800:
1767:
1750:
1699:
1656:
1608:
1596:materialstoday
1582:
1539:
1490:
1474:"Nanoparticle"
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1254:
1251:
1234:
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1223:polarizability
1218:
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1209:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1191:
1190:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1179:
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1101:
1085:Hamaker theory
1079:
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1067:
1064:
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1037:
1034:
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305:Thermodynamics
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270:Classification
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31:
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3333:
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3009:
3008:10044/1/41456
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2079:
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2064:
2060:
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2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2017:
2009:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1940:0-8247-4723-2
1936:
1932:
1925:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
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1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
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1796:
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1615:
1613:
1597:
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1479:
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1438:
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1430:
1427:(5): 055010.
1426:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1409:
1404:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1389:Nanoparticles
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1376:
1370:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1359:
1348:
1342:Drug delivery
1334:
1332:
1321:
1307:
1299:
1295:
1286:
1277:
1268:
1259:
1250:
1248:
1244:
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1192:
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1124:
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1110:
1109:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1075:
1073:
1063:
1061:
1060:nanocomputers
1057:
1053:
1042:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1013:
1011:
1008:
999:
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894:
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804:
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756:
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736:
732:
719:
701:
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694:
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661:
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647:
642:
639:
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605:
604:
603:
594:
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586:
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581:
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560:
557:
553:
526:
523:
519:
512:
503:
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465:
446:
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409:
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372:
368:
361:
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99:November 2013
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
42:
41:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
3327:
3323:
3317:
3284:
3280:
3274:
3257:
3253:
3247:
3206:
3202:
3196:
3179:
3175:
3169:
3128:
3124:
3114:
3103:. Retrieved
3099:
3090:
3049:
3045:
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2939:
2935:
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2888:
2882:
2857:
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2813:
2787:
2783:
2749:
2745:
2697:
2691:
2666:
2662:
2656:
2631:
2627:
2621:
2588:
2584:
2578:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2521:(3): 16008.
2518:
2514:
2508:
2475:
2471:
2461:
2436:
2432:
2366:
2362:
2352:
2303:
2299:
2289:
2262:
2258:
2248:
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2209:
2167:
2163:
2136:10.5772/1435
2127:
2085:
2081:
2071:
2030:
2026:
2016:
1971:
1967:
1957:
1930:
1924:
1883:
1879:
1820:(5731): 95.
1817:
1813:
1803:
1758:
1753:
1712:
1708:
1702:
1672:(3): 24–27.
1669:
1665:
1659:
1626:
1622:
1599:. Retrieved
1595:
1585:
1555:(6): 66008.
1552:
1548:
1542:
1510:(5731): 95.
1507:
1503:
1493:
1481:. Retrieved
1477:
1467:
1424:
1420:
1367:
1364:Cell imaging
1363:
1362:
1354:
1345:
1327:
1310:Applications
1304:
1292:
1283:
1274:
1265:
1256:
1247:spin coating
1236:
1220:
1211:
1203:
1197:
1194:
1160:
1081:
1069:
1056:nanomachines
1048:
1039:
1009:
1005:
996:
980:
971:superlattice
970:
967:
954:
840:
720:
682:
600:
591:
587:
583:
582:
578:
393:
312:
308:
299:
296:By structure
295:
294:
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286:
285:
281:
277:
276:
273:
269:
268:
262:
251:
241:
240:
236:
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208:
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199:
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191:
190:
181:
179:
170:
166:
155:
150:mesocrystals
130:nanoparticle
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
33:
3046:Soft Matter
2472:Soft Matter
2265:(1): 5–20.
1315:Electronics
1243:dip coating
1233:Flow fields
1058:/nanobots,
287:By function
3365:Categories
3105:2020-05-07
2033:: 102597.
1933:. Dekker.
1666:Complexity
1478:Britannica
1400:References
1331:pump-probe
1052:nanosensor
1036:Processing
233:Challenges
205:Importance
192:Definition
158:nanometers
69:newspapers
36:references
3344:0743-7463
3301:1944-8244
3231:0021-9797
3145:2040-3364
3125:Nanoscale
3074:1744-683X
3016:2040-3364
2988:Nanoscale
2958:1520-6106
2909:1936-0851
2669:: 19–23.
2391:0036-8075
2328:1095-9203
2281:1432-0444
2232:0009-2665
2102:0921-5093
2088:: 33–39.
2063:245590883
2047:0001-8686
1990:2040-3372
1968:Nanoscale
1949:254049484
1916:206107275
1880:Nanoscale
1836:0036-8075
1785:cite book
1777:872699361
1694:1076-2787
1643:1936-0851
1577:126225656
1526:0036-8075
1384:Hydrogels
1133:γ
1054:systems,
990:from the
921:Δ
884:Δ
853:Δ
801:Δ
798:−
789:
729:Δ
691:Δ
654:Δ
648:−
632:Δ
613:Δ
550:Δ
516:Δ
474:Δ
436:Δ
402:Δ
394:where if
365:Δ
359:−
343:Δ
324:Δ
258:bottom-up
3352:20545370
3324:Langmuir
3309:26031912
3239:19854448
3161:29226297
3082:32900090
3024:27759133
2966:16851494
2917:20568710
2889:ACS Nano
2874:26394039
2854:ACS Nano
2834:18582125
2814:Langmuir
2766:21644514
2746:Langmuir
2724:21639971
2683:45663847
2648:21887825
2605:21117631
2585:Langmuir
2570:18465887
2550:Langmuir
2500:32900090
2453:20568710
2433:ACS Nano
2399:21998382
2336:22837525
2240:27552640
2184:28365997
2055:34979471
2008:35174843
1908:29226297
1844:15994541
1745:40684317
1737:11923529
1651:20568710
1623:ACS Nano
1534:15994541
1459:27877722
1373:See also
1324:devices.
1100:Material
584:Kinetics
464:enthalpy
254:top-down
3211:Bibcode
3176:Polymer
3153:1425014
3054:Bibcode
2613:1113399
2523:Bibcode
2480:Bibcode
2407:1626420
2371:Bibcode
2363:Science
2344:7177740
2308:Bibcode
2300:Science
1999:8900142
1900:1425014
1814:Science
1717:Bibcode
1709:Science
1674:Bibcode
1557:Bibcode
1504:Science
1450:5099683
1429:Bibcode
597:Defects
502:entropy
462:is the
278:By size
176:History
146:toluene
83:scholar
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2984:(PDF)
2720:S2CID
2679:S2CID
2609:S2CID
2403:S2CID
2340:S2CID
2059:S2CID
1912:S2CID
1741:S2CID
1601:6 May
1573:S2CID
1483:6 May
90:JSTOR
76:books
3348:PMID
3340:ISSN
3305:PMID
3297:ISSN
3235:PMID
3227:ISSN
3157:PMID
3149:OSTI
3141:ISSN
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2004:PMID
1986:ISSN
1945:OCLC
1935:ISBN
1904:PMID
1896:OSTI
1840:PMID
1832:ISSN
1795:link
1791:link
1773:OCLC
1763:ISBN
1733:PMID
1690:ISSN
1647:PMID
1639:ISSN
1603:2020
1530:PMID
1522:ISSN
1485:2020
1455:PMID
252:The
62:news
3332:doi
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3219:doi
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