589:, is the most common fiber used in sailcloth; it is also commonly referred to by the brand name Dacron. PET has excellent resiliency, high abrasion resistance, high UV resistance, high flex strength and low cost. Low absorbency allows the fiber to dry quickly. PET has been replaced by stronger fibers for most serious racing applications, but remains the most popular sail cloth due to lower price and high durability. Dacron is the brand name of Dupontâs Type 52 high modulus fiber made specifically for sailcloth. Allied Signal has produced a fiber called 1W70 polyester that has a 27% higher tenacity than Dacron. Other trade names include Terylene, Tetoron, Trevira and Diolen.
253:
745:
759:) produced by Ticona. It is naturally gold in color and has a modulus similar to Kevlar 29, but has less strength loss with flex. This is a benefit in endurance applications and for cruising sails where durability is key. Additional advantages of Vectran fiber has a 0.02% creep at 30% of max load after 10 000 hours, high chemical and abrasion resistance and high tensile strength. The UV endurance is inferior to PET and PEN, but the degradation levels off after roughly 400 hours of exposure, while the Aramids and Spectra continue to degrade.
601:), commonly known by Honeywell's trade name "Pentex", is another kind of polyester fiber, which stretches only 40% as much as standard PET fibers, but about twice as much as Kevlar 29. Because it only shrinks about a third as much as a good PET, PEN can not be woven as tightly; thus, woven PEN must be impregnated with resin making sails prone to damage from improper use and handling. PEN is better suited for making laminated sailcloth, where the fibers are laid straight for strength and are bonded to sheets of film for stability (e.g.,
559:
1174:-mat sails, probably because canoes and voyaging were included in the elaborate pre-Christian taboo system. Christianity took hold on Satawal during the decades after World War II, and the islanders then used canvas. When I and Gary Mount, as Peace Corps volunteers, demonstrated the obvious superiority of dacron over canvas with only a 4-inch square sample, the men agreed to purchase sails for the canoes of the island. As word of the superiority of dacron spread, the people of
194:
688:, which offers superior UV resistance (on par with PET), very high initial modulus numbers (second only to high modulus Carbon Fiber), superior breaking strength, and high flex strength. However, it also exhibits permanent and continuous elongation under a sustained load (AKA: creep). This results in a change in shape as the sail ages. Because of this Spectra is only used in spinnakers on high performance boats where the sails are replaced regularly.
42:
487:
736:. It is a gold fiber with an initial modulus that is significantly higher than other high modulus yarns, including aramids. Among PBO's desirable properties are high thermal stability, low creep, high chemical resistance, high cut and abrasion resistance, and excellent resistance to stretch after repeated folding. PBO is also quite flexible and has a soft feel. But PBOs have poor resistance to both UV and visible light.
244:; however, in some cases the strength of linen was preferred for some types of sails. It was not until the late 20th century that natural fibers were replaced by synthetics in mainstream use. Cotton sailcloth is still used for sportswear, upholstery and draperies. The traditional width for carded cotton sailcloth in the US was 23 inches (58 cm) while the British standard was 24 inches (61 cm).
708:. It is often used by European sailcloth manufacturers, is available in a wider variety of yarn sizes than Spectra, and is growing in popularity. Dyneema DSK78 set a new standard combining the typical high strength to weight ratio, excellent low stretch, abrasion, and UV resistance but added three times better creep performance compared to Dyneema SK75 and nearly two times better than Dyneema SK90.
139:
236:. These natural fibers have poor resistance to rot, UV light and water absorption. Linen is stronger, but cotton is lighter. Linen was the traditional fiber of sails until it was supplanted by cotton during the 19th century. At first cotton was used as a matter of necessity in the United States as it was indigenous and the supply of flax was periodically interrupted by wars such as the
618:
873:, the film provides most of the stretch resistance and the taffeta enhances tear and abrasion resistance. The high-end versions of this method use a woven Spectra or Kevlar taffeta. In some newer styles, off threadline aramid yarns, are also laid into the laminate. In some cases the second layer of taffeta is eliminated for cost and weight savings
549:
There is no perfect solution since in most cases the increase of one attribute generally results in the decreased attractiveness of another. Reduced stretch generally also reduces the flexibility causing a trade-off of performance for durability. Solving both problems generally sends the price out
860:
In the 1970s sailmakers began to laminate multiple materials with different characteristics to synergize the qualities of each. Using sheets of PET or PEN reduces stretch in all directions, where weaves are most efficient in the direction of the threadlines. Lamination also allow fibers to be placed
637:
has developed higher modulus Types 129, 149 and 159, but these have seen little use in sails, since generally as the modulus increases the flex strength decreases. DuPont has recently introduced Kevlar Edge, a fiber developed specifically for sails with 25% higher flex strength and a higher modulus
573:
because of its light weight, high tensile strength, superior abrasion resistance and flexibility. However, it has a low modulus allowing too much stretch to be suitable for upwind sails. Nylon is more susceptible to UV and chemical degradation than polyesters and its physical properties can change
668:
is an aramid, which is produced in The
Netherlands by Teijin, is chemically and physically similar to DuPontâs Kevlar. Twaron HM (High modulus) has similar stretch properties to Kevlar 49, greater tensile strength and better UV resistance. Twaron SM is similar to Kevlar 29. Like Kevlar, the fiber
632:
fiber, has become the predominant fiber for racing sails, since it was introduced by DuPont in 1971. It is stronger, has a higher strength to weight ratio than steel, and has a modulus that is five times greater than PET, and about twice as high as PEN. There are two popular types of Kevlar: Type
212:
used wool for sailcloth. The cloth was woven in one of three ways, according to locality and tradition: plain weave with individual threads going over and under each other, three-shaft twill with two threads going over and under at each cross thread, and four-shaft twill with thread interwoven with
807:
Sailcloth is woven in two forms: balanced and unbalanced. The yarns in balanced cloth are the same diameter and weight in lengthwise (the "warp") and across the width of the cloth (the "fill"). Unbalanced means a heavier yarn is used in one direction. Most moderns sails are "crosscut", which is an
494:
The characteristics of a sail are due to design, construction and the attributes of the fibers, which are woven together to make the sail cloth. The following sections discuss the attributes of fibers assuming a good design and careful construction. According to Mahr, there are six key factors in
902:
Wovens on both sides of a scrim without the film layer. The problem is getting enough high modulus yarn into the sandwich, and still being able to get a good bond, because, dissimilar fabrics donât often bond well. This technique is more experimental than practical, but may yield results in time.
839:
PEN film is extruded and biaxially oriented version of PEN fiber. Just as PEN fiber is stronger than PET fiber, PEN film is stronger than PET film. However, PEN film is rarely used in standard sailcloth styles because it shrinks more rapidly than PET, is less resistant to abuse, and reduces the
881:
In this construction, a scrim or strands (inserts) are sandwiched between layers of film. Thus load-bearing members are laid straight, which maximizes the high modulus of the fibers, where a woven material will have some inherent stretch to the weave. Laminating film to film around the strands
638:
than Kevlar 49. Kevlar, along with other aramid fibers, have poor UV resistance (Kevlar loses strength roughly twice as quickly in sunlight as PET) and rapid loss of strength with flexing, folding and flogging. Minimal flogging and careful handling can greatly extend the life of a Kevlar sail.
770:
is a high modulus synthetic fiber made from carbon atoms. It is virtually unaffected by UV exposure and provides exceptionally low stretch. Variants can balance along a continuum from brittle with no-stretch to extreme durability/flexibility with only slightly more stretch than aramid sails.
811:
Woven sail cloths have an inherent problem with stretch resistance. In a weave the warp and fill yarns pass over and under one another. As load is applied the yarns attempt to straighten out, this results in the fabric stretching, commonly referred to as "crimp". Fibers which are resistant to
790: yd/lb). The quality and weight of the weave can be more critical than the choice of fibers, since a poor weave can lead to high stretch and poor sail form. Weight is described in ounces, for example "an 8 oz. cloth". This means that an area of 72 cm Ă 91 cm (
1135:
657:, has a slightly lower modulus strength than Kevlar 29 but a slightly higher resistance to flex fatigue. The fiberâs lower UV resistance is enhanced by dyeing the naturally gold fiber black. Technora is most often used as bias support (X-ply) in laminate sailcloth.
920:
893:
Woven fabric with high UV and abrasion protection is added to the film-on-film. This combines the best of the above, but is costly, heavy, and stiff. This is an attractive method to combine high modulus fibers with poor UV resistance.
1149:
779:
Combed singles yarn sailcloth in high counts is used for spinnaker and head sails. The count often is 148 by 160 and the fabric is finished at 100 cm (40 in) wide with a length-to-mass ratio of about 13.10 m/kg
808:
unbalanced technique where the heavier yarns is in the fill. This allows greater loads to radiate up from the clew (back lower corner) along the leech (back edge). This is especially true of mainsails and high aspect jibs.
240:, during which demand for sailcloth for military use was high. As sail size grew linen was too heavy to be practical so cotton became more popular. Cotton did not substantially replace linen worldwide until the end of the
1169:
sails sewn by the men themselves. Most
Carolinian canoes had used canvas acquired during the Japanese presence in the islands. The people of Satawal, however, were reluctant to switch from the cumbersome
724:
similar to
Spectra, with about one half the modulus rating of Spectra. It has similar properties to Spectra including superior resistance to flex fatigue and UV degradation but also exhibits creep.
831:
is the most common film used in laminated sailcloth. It is an extruded and biaxially oriented version of PET fiber. In the US and
Britain, the most well-known trade names are Mylar and Melinex.
852:
is a loose weave or lattice of strands, typically bonded where they cross to maintain the grid pattern. Strands and scrims are used to strengthen or reinforce sailcloth (see laminates below).
1007:
Brigham, William Tufts; Stokes, John F. G. (1906). "Mat and Basket
Weaving of the Ancient Hawaiians Described and Compared with the Basketry of the Other Pacific Islanders".
882:
creates a very strong and dependable bond reducing the amount of adhesive needed. In high quality cloth, the strands or scrim are tensioned during the lamination process.
885:
The drawbacks are: film is not as abrasion or flex resistant as a weave, it does not protect the structural fibers from UV rays. In some cases UV protection is added.
1109:
1437:
1327:
1460:
820:
Films are thin sheet material extruded from synthetic polymers and are typically used along with woven cloth in a laminate (see laminates below).
389:
520:â Describes the long term stretch of a fiber or fabric. A material with creep may have a superior modulus, but lose its shape over time.
681:
677:
365:
1026:
Quimby, Frank J. (19 December 2017). "Spain in the
Mariana Islands, 1521-1898". In Berrocal, Maria Cruz; Tsang, Cheng-hwa (eds.).
732:
PBO (Poly (p-phenylene-2, 6-benzobisoxazole)) is liquid crystal polymer developed by Japan-based Toyobo under the trade name
455:, among others. The technology of pandan mat sails were also introduced to non-Austronesian peoples via contact, like to the
609:
outer layer of a laminate, protecting a PET film. PEN laminates are an economical alternative for higher performance sail.
537:â Strength lost due to bending, folding, or flogging, which is frequently measured with an industry standard 50 fold test.
106:
78:
1534:
1310:
1285:
1246:
1210:
George, Marianne (December 2017). "Te Laa o Lata of
Taumako: Gauging the performance of an ancient Polynesian sail".
1140:
1035:
991:
956:
812:
stretching cannot be woven as tightly as more flexible fibers such as PET, thus the cloth is more affected by crimp.
125:
1372:
1425:
85:
848:
Strands are combined from fibers; these are frequently narrow flat bands or ribbons of high strength material.
1431:
Kadolph, Sara J. Anna L. Langford. Textiles, Ninth
Edition. Pearson Education, Inc 2002. Upper Saddle River, NJ
1382:
63:
1028:
Historical
Archaeology of Early Modern Colonialism in Asia-Pacific: The Southwest Pacific and Oceanian Regions
828:
602:
1544:
1435:
D. Tanner; J. A. Fitzgerald; B. R. Phillips (1989). "The Kevlar Story - an
Advanced Materials Case Study".
363:
Specific examples of sails made from pandan mats in Austronesian-speaking regions include the sails of the
213:
two threads at a time in either direction. Such was the practice from the 11th through the 14th centuries.
92:
541:
252:
466:
Sails could also be made from woven mats of other similar plant leaves and fibers, including those from
149:
is cloth used to make sails. It can be made of a variety of materials, including natural fibers such as
1539:
1458:
E. E. Magat (1980). "Fibres from Extended Chain Aromatic Polyamides, New Fibres and Their Composites".
582:
59:
17:
1052:
74:
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29 and Type 49, the latter having a 50% higher initial modulus than Type 29 but a lower flex loss.
598:
545:âBoth the initial cost and its durability of the material define its cost-effectiveness over time.
52:
1407:
1549:
756:
310:
1410:, Historical Musings from Salem Maritime National Historic Site, National Park Service website
1095:
The Sea Nomads: A Study Based on the Literature of the Maritime Boat People of Southeast Asia
981:
325:
1413:
744:
529:â Strength loss from exposure to the Sunâs UV rays measured by a standardized exposure test.
344:. Some examples of pandan mat sails were so finely woven that they were compared to "coarse
1469:
1352:
Scott, William Henry (1082). "Boat-Building and Seamanship in Classic Philippine Society".
294:
290:
284:
8:
1145:
516:
1473:
1269:ʻIke Ulana Lau Hala: The Vitality and Vibrancy of Lau Hala Weaving Traditions in Hawaiʻi
1082:. Manila: Bureau of Education, Insular Government of the Philippine Islands. p. 43.
1493:
1485:
1266:) in Hawaii". In Keawe, Lia O'Neill M.A.; MacDowell, Marsha; Dewhurst, C. Kurt (eds.).
533:
99:
1497:
1378:
1306:
1281:
1267:
1242:
1031:
987:
962:
952:
512:â Measured as a force per cross sectional area of fiber. Higher is better for sails.
1477:
1446:
1273:
1219:
849:
508:
404:
333:
220:
for cloth, which evolved into the English word "duck" in reference to sail canvas.
1272:. Hawai'inuiakea School of Hawaiian Knowledge ; University of Hawai'i Press.
504:â The ability to resist stretching. Higher resistance is better for upwind sails.
500:
432:
269:
166:
1426:
Maximum Sail Power: The Complete Guide to Sails, Sail Technology and Performance
1514:
1223:
467:
422:
349:
276:
217:
1401:
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1528:
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in a straight, uninterrupted paths. There are four main construction styles:
705:
378:
983:
A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief: The Island Civilization of Ancient Hawai'i
966:
558:
1481:
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418:
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Travelling Home, 'Walkabout Magazine' and Mid-Twentieth-Century Australia
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384:
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241:
237:
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Carbon fiber mainsail, showing grey-scale hues typical of the material.
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Spinnaker, made of nylon because of its light weight and high strength.
341:
329:
280:
1422:, Department of Polymer Science The University of Southern Mississippi
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1414:
History of Sailing Yacht Masts, Rigging and Sails: 1900-Present day
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We, the Navigators: The Ancient Art of Landfinding in the Pacific
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1053:"In Search of the Philippines' Ancient Maritime Past in Taiwan!"
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951:(7th ed.). New York: Fairchild Publications. p. 484.
665:
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634:
629:
625:
621:
Aramid (Kevlar) sails, showing the typical color of the fabric.
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427:
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162:
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1428:, by Brian Hancock, Nomad Press, 2003 (excerpts at this link)
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have equipped at least one canoe on each island with dacron.
495:
evaluating a fiber for suitability in weaving a sail-cloth:
305:(screw pine) leaves and lashed with ropes usually made from
804: in Ă 36 in) weighs 230 g (8 oz).
617:
442:
437:
233:
154:
150:
31:
197:
Volunteer wins the America's Cup in 1887 with cotton sails
408:
301:, the sails were traditionally made from woven panels of
1262:
Gallaher, Timothy (2014). "The Past and Future of Hala (
605:
often called by one of its trade names Mylar), or as a
66:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
27:
Strong fabric of the type used to make ships' sails
1438:Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English
986:. University of California Press. pp. 25â26.
877:Film-scrim-film or film-insert-film (film-on-film)
869:Film is sandwiched in between two layers of woven
1461:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A
1526:
1136:"A Renaissance in Carolinian-Marianas Voyaging"
947:Tortora, Phyllis G.; Merkel, Robert S. (1996).
1402:Historic Balclutha Sails & Today's Options
1326:Nur, Ipeh; Garrawurra, Margaret Rarru (2021).
1241:. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 68â69.
888:
309:. These sails were integral in the subsequent
1325:
1300:
1006:
946:
700:is an extremely strong fiber produced by the
185:in various woven, spun, and molded textiles.
1255:
1110:"Traditional sail from Yap displayed at UOG"
1030:. University Press of Florida. p. 152.
490:Comparison of attributes of sailcloth fibers
1457:
1009:Memoirs of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum
755:is a polyester-based high performance LCP (
247:
126:Learn how and when to remove this message
1301:Rolls, Mitchell; Johnston, Anna (2016).
1261:
973:
743:
682:ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene
616:
557:
485:
421:, the oblong sails of the canoes of the
251:
192:
137:
14:
1527:
1370:
1364:
1328:"Dhomala DhÀwu: Makassan Sail Stories"
1209:
1092:
1077:
1057:University of HawaiÊ»i at MÄnoa Library
1044:
1025:
855:
1351:
1236:
1133:
1107:
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201:
1377:. Sheridan House, Inc. p. 228.
942:
940:
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843:
64:adding citations to reliable sources
35:
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864:
649:is an aramid, which is produced in
24:
1395:
949:Fairchild's dictionary of textiles
577:
25:
1561:
1212:Journal of the Polynesian Society
1141:Journal of the Polynesian Society
937:
142:Sails made with synthetic fibers.
1059:. University of HawaiÊ»i at MÄnoa
481:
40:
1345:
1319:
1294:
1230:
1203:
1127:
1097:. National Museum. p. 189.
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51:needs additional citations for
1101:
1086:
1071:
1019:
1000:
980:Kirch, Patrick Vinton (2012).
913:
727:
256:Sails made from woven mats of
13:
1:
925:Vikingeskibsmuseet i Roskilde
906:
314:
1305:. Anthem Press. p. 84.
574:due to moisture absorption.
320:) of the Austronesians from
7:
1508:
1108:Weiss, Matt (26 May 2016).
889:Woven-film-scrim-film-woven
834:
641:
550:of range for most sailors.
10:
1566:
1224:10.15286/jps.126.4.377-416
1161:As of 1973, all canoes on
840:working life of the sail.
774:
739:
711:
691:
672:
585:, the most common type of
583:Polyethylene terephthalate
274:
188:
29:
1374:The New Book of Sail Trim
1278:10.13140/RG.2.1.2571.4648
1093:Sopher, David E. (1965).
660:
612:
232:(flax), with some use of
161:in various forms of sail
1535:Sailing rigs and rigging
1078:Miller, Hugo H. (1910).
815:
669:is a bright gold color.
599:Polyethylene naphthalate
553:
224:was typically made from
1134:McCoy, Michael (1973).
696:Equivalent to Spectra,
318: 3000 to 1500 BCE
248:Austronesian traditions
1482:10.1098/rsta.1980.0055
1451:10.1002/anie.198906491
1332:The Cross Art Projects
823:
757:liquid crystal polymer
749:
622:
563:
491:
272:
198:
143:
1408:The Great Age of Duck
1237:Lewis, David (1994).
747:
620:
561:
489:
326:Island Southeast Asia
255:
196:
141:
1371:Textor, Ken (1995).
295:Austronesian peoples
291:seafaring traditions
285:Austronesian vessels
60:improve this article
1545:Sailboat components
1474:1980RSPTA.294..463M
1420:Making carbon fiber
1146:Auckland University
1114:The Guam Daily Post
856:Laminated sailcloth
1354:Philippine Studies
1264:Pandanus tectorius
750:
623:
593:PEN fiber (Pentex)
564:
542:Cost-effectiveness
492:
273:
202:Western traditions
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144:
1540:Marine propulsion
1468:(1411): 463â472.
898:Woven/scrim/woven
844:Scrim and strands
720:produces Certran
684:(UHMWPE) made by
526:ultraviolet light
509:Breaking strength
136:
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16:(Redirected from
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1416:by James Gilliam
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334:Island Melanesia
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419:Taumako Islands
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289:In the ancient
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1445:(5): 649â654.
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1404:by James Brink
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1337:17 September
1335:. Retrieved
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1154:. Retrieved
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1119:17 September
1117:. Retrieved
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1063:17 September
1061:. Retrieved
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395:Moken people
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307:coconut coir
299:Indo-Pacific
288:
260:leaves on a
215:
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146:
145:
122:
116:January 2017
113:
103:
96:
89:
82:
70:
58:Please help
53:verification
50:
1165:were using
1015:(1): 46â47.
728:Zylon (PBO)
569:is used in
468:sugar palms
448:waʻa kaulua
385:Philippines
371:Amis people
242:age of sail
238:War of 1812
75:"Sailcloth"
1529:Categories
1384:0924486813
1156:2015-01-09
930:2021-05-23
907:References
571:spinnakers
476:nipa palms
472:buri palms
445:, and the
342:Madagascar
330:Micronesia
311:migrations
281:Tanja sail
275:See also:
86:newspapers
18:Sail cloth
1498:121588983
686:Honeywell
587:polyester
461:Australia
356:" by the
354:sheepskin
348:" by the
338:Polynesia
210:longships
175:polyester
147:Sailcloth
1520:Oilcloth
1509:See also
1172:pandanus
967:34019003
835:PEN Film
829:PET film
718:Celanese
716:Hoechst
704:company
647:Technora
642:Technora
603:PET film
216:Doek is
169:such as
1470:Bibcode
1196:Puluwat
1188:Pulusuk
1163:Satawal
871:taffeta
799:⁄
785:⁄
775:Weaving
753:Vectran
740:Vectran
712:Certran
698:Dyneema
692:Dyneema
678:Spectra
673:Spectra
607:taffeta
453:Hawaiʻi
431:of the
417:of the
414:tepukei
403:of the
393:of the
383:of the
350:Spanish
297:of the
293:of the
266:Taumako
262:tepukei
189:History
179:aramids
100:scholar
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1176:Ifalik
1167:dacron
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680:is an
666:Twaron
661:Twaron
655:Teijin
635:DuPont
630:aramid
626:Kevlar
613:Kevlar
474:, and
457:Yolngu
435:, the
428:baurua
425:, the
411:, the
397:, the
390:kabang
387:, the
380:bangka
375:Taiwan
366:fayang
340:, and
322:Taiwan
303:pandan
283:, and
258:pandan
226:cotton
207:Viking
181:, and
165:, and
163:canvas
159:cotton
102:
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88:
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73:
1494:S2CID
1490:36370
1486:JSTOR
1192:Pulap
1180:Elato
850:Scrim
816:Films
734:Zylon
702:Dutch
651:Japan
628:, an
597:PEN (
567:Nylon
554:Nylon
517:Creep
358:Dutch
346:linen
324:, to
264:from
230:linen
218:Dutch
171:nylon
157:, or
107:JSTOR
93:books
1379:ISBN
1339:2024
1307:ISBN
1282:ISBN
1243:ISBN
1194:and
1121:2024
1065:2024
1032:ISBN
988:ISBN
963:OCLC
953:ISBN
443:Fiji
438:drua
407:and
234:hemp
222:Duck
155:hemp
151:flax
79:news
32:Sail
1478:doi
1466:294
1447:doi
1274:doi
1220:doi
1216:126
824:PET
706:DSM
653:by
459:of
451:of
441:of
409:Yap
373:in
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228:or
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