Carbohydrate - Knowledge

1795:(1977) where it was intended to distinguish sugars from other carbohydrates (which were perceived to be nutritionally superior). However, the report put "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains" in the complex carbohydrate column, despite the fact that these may contain sugars as well as polysaccharides. This confusion persists as today some nutritionists use the term complex carbohydrate to refer to any sort of digestible saccharide present in a whole food, where fiber, vitamins and minerals are also found (as opposed to processed carbohydrates, which provide energy but few other nutrients). The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: simple if they are sugars ( 1080: 1085: 550: 1231:, the ketose corresponding to the aldose glyceraldehydes, is a symmetric molecule with no stereo centers. The assignment of D or L is made according to the orientation of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the carbonyl group: in a standard Fischer projection if the hydroxyl group is on the right the molecule is a D sugar, otherwise it is an L sugar. The "D-" and "L-" prefixes should not be confused with "d-" or "l-", which indicate the direction that the sugar 1022: 6564: 1438: 640:. Today, the term is generally understood in the biochemistry sense, which excludes compounds with only one or two carbons and includes many biological carbohydrates which deviate from this formula. For example, while the above representative formulas would seem to capture the commonly known carbohydrates, ubiquitous and abundant carbohydrates often deviate from this. For example, carbohydrates often display chemical groups such as: 1818:) raise blood glucose rapidly, while some complex carbohydrates (starches), raise blood sugar slowly. The speed of digestion is determined by a variety of factors including which other nutrients are consumed with the carbohydrate, how the food is prepared, individual differences in metabolism, and the chemistry of the carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are sometimes divided into "available carbohydrates", which are absorbed in the 1673: 2020: 40: 2715:, while the oxidation of one gram of lipids yields about 38 kJ (9 kcal). The human body stores between 300 and 500 g of carbohydrates depending on body weight, with the skeletal muscle contributing to a large portion of the storage. Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g., oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of 1646: 1688:

crackers, jams and fruit products, pastas and breakfast cereals. Lower amounts of digestible carbohydrate are usually associated with unrefined foods as these foods have more fiber, including beans, tubers, rice, and unrefined fruit. Animal-based foods generally have the lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of

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for simple sugars, and 3.57 to 4.12 kilocalories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods. Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and

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Most dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block (as in the polysaccharides starch and glycogen), or together with another monosaccharide (as in the hetero-polysaccharides sucrose and lactose). Unbound glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey. Glucose is

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scientific statement said that "when calorie intake is held constant body-fat accumulation does not appear to be affected by even very pronounced changes in the amount of fat vs carbohydrate in the diet." In the long term, effective weight loss or maintenance depends on

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extremely abundant and has been isolated from a variety of natural sources across the world, including male cones of the coniferous tree Wollemia nobilis in Rome, the roots of Ilex asprella plants in China, and straws from rice in California.

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The British Dietetic Association (BDA) today revealed its much-anticipated annual list of celebrity diets to avoid in 2018. The line-up this year includes Raw Vegan, Alkaline, Pioppi and Ketogenic diets as well as Katie Price's Nutritional

1591:(two D-glucoses linked β-1,4). Disaccharides can be classified into two types: reducing and non-reducing disaccharides. If the functional group is present in bonding with another sugar unit, it is called a reducing disaccharide or biose. 4963: 1068:, literally a "carbon hydrate". Monosaccharides are important fuel molecules as well as building blocks for nucleic acids. The smallest monosaccharides, for which n=3, are dihydroxyacetone and D- and L-glyceraldehydes. 4797:

Venditti A, Frezza C, Vincenti F, Brodella A, Sciubba F, Montesano C, et al. (February 2019). "A syn-ent-labdadiene derivative with a rare spiro-β-lactone function from the male cones of Wollemia nobilis".

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Meng Y, Bai H, Wang S, Li Z, Wang Q, Chen L (September 2017). "Efficacy of low carbohydrate diet for type 2 diabetes mellitus management: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials".

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in humans, even though it is often included in the calculation of total food energy just as though it did (i.e., as if it were a digestible and absorbable carbohydrate such as a sugar). In the strict sense,

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Organisms typically cannot metabolize all types of carbohydrate to yield energy. Glucose is a nearly universal and accessible source of energy. Many organisms also have the ability to metabolize other

1285:, becomes a stereogenic center with two possible configurations: The oxygen atom may take a position either above or below the plane of the ring. The resulting possible pair of stereoisomers is called 3041: 3240: 2790:), thereby pushing the reaction forward irreversibly. In some cases, as with humans, not all carbohydrate types are usable as the digestive and metabolic enzymes necessary are not present. 1768:

jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55–75% of total energy from carbohydrates, but only 10% directly from sugars (their term for simple carbohydrates). A 2017

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Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, acids, their simple derivatives and their polymers having linkages of the acetal type. They may be classified according to their

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and are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods. Starch is a polysaccharide and is abundant in cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and processed food based on cereal

1745:, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose. Even though these complex carbohydrates are not very digestible, they represent an important dietary element for humans, called 4689:

Seckold R, Fisher E, de Bock M, King BR, Smart CE (March 2019). "The ups and downs of low-carbohydrate diets in the management of Type 1 diabetes: a review of clinical outcomes".

516:, the term "carbohydrate" (or "carbohydrate by difference") is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash, and ethanol. This includes chemical compounds such as 4519: 4990: 1863:

concepts have been developed to characterize food behavior during human digestion. They rank carbohydrate-rich foods based on the rapidity and magnitude of their effect on

2766:. The monosaccharide units can then enter into monosaccharide catabolism. A 2 ATP investment is required in the early steps of glycolysis to phosphorylate Glucose to 4775: 3720: 797:) in a large variety of ways. Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups replaced or removed. For example, 5532: 3376: 1814:

In any case, the simple vs. complex chemical distinction has little value for determining the nutritional quality of carbohydrates. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g.,

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Carbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective as low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss over the short term when overall calorie intake is reduced. An

3866: 4479:"Effects of carbohydrate-restricted diets on low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in overweight and obese adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 4070: 4741: 3056: 1844:

call for moderate- to high-carbohydrate consumption from a balanced diet that includes six one-ounce servings of grain foods each day, at least half from

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The carbohydrate value is calculated in the USDA database and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the "dietary fiber".

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OH group bound to carbon 5: they either have identical absolute configurations (R,R or S,S) (α), or opposite absolute configurations (R,S or S,R) (β).

5027: 2687:) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: 1516:, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one 4430:"Effects of low-carbohydrate diets v. low-fat diets on body weight and cardiovascular risk factors: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials" 438:. Although it is not digestible by humans, cellulose and insoluble dietary fiber generally help maintain a healthy digestive system by facilitating 2831: 1258:

The aldehyde or ketone group of a straight-chain monosaccharide will react reversibly with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a

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recommends that people with diabetes should adopt a generally healthy diet, rather than a diet focused on carbohydrate or other macronutrients.

1329:. When monosaccharides are not immediately needed, they are often converted to more space-efficient (i.e., less water-soluble) forms, often 5248: 4667: 1725:

are also common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; most organisms, however, cannot metabolize

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Taken together, these findings indicate that calorie intake, not macronutrient composition, determines long-term weight loss maintenance.

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often refer to carbohydrates as either simple or complex. However, the exact distinction between these groups can be ambiguous. The term

1769: 4049: 3975: 478:, the term "carbohydrate" has many synonyms, like "sugar" (in the broad sense), "saccharide", "ose", "glucide", "hydrate of carbon" or " 3836: 428:, and some vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honey is often added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. 5720: 1417:, or fruit sugar, is found in many plants and humans, it is metabolized in the liver, absorbed directly into the intestines during 5067: 4478: 3810: 3519: 744:) and there are many chemicals that do conform to this formula but are not considered to be monosaccharides (e.g., formaldehyde CH 497:

and in many informal contexts, the term "carbohydrate" often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate

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Catabolism is the metabolic reaction which cells undergo to break down larger molecules, extracting energy. There are two major

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concerned specifically with the generation of natural and unnatural carbohydrate structures. This can include the synthesis of

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concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support the claim that whole grain diets can affect cardiovascular disease.

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During the conversion from straight-chain form to the cyclic form, the carbon atom containing the carbonyl oxygen, called the

285: 4917: 4346: 4043: 3552: 3505: 3446: 3234: 3198: 505:, and desserts). This informality is sometimes confusing since it confounds chemical structure and digestibility in humans. 4767: 4083: 3731: 3328: 5112: 3939: 3470: 5056: 4256: 3660: 3360: 5081: 5052: 3614: 3589: 3558: 3370: 3322: 1713:

will express enzymes for the digestion of lactose when it is present, but if both lactose and glucose are present the

3951: 3907: 3852: 3822: 3409: 1831: 1761: 362: 5062: 3758:"A high-protein, high-fat, carbohydrate-free diet reduces energy intake, hepatic lipogenesis, and adiposity in rats" 3798: 3605:

Pigman W, Anet EF (1972). "Chapter 4: Mutarotations and Actions of Acids and Bases". In Pigman W, Horton D (eds.).

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How they are linked together: the oxygen on carbon number 1 (C1) of α-D-glucose is linked to the C2 of D-fructose.

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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein and Amino Acids

1232: 833:, and may be divided initially into three principal groups, namely sugars, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. 513: 4737: 1937:

in a diet. The reasoning of diet advocates that carbohydrates cause undue fat accumulation by increasing blood

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Balan V, Bals B, Chundawat SP, Marshall D, Dale BE (2009). "Lignocellulosic Biomass Pretreatment Using AFEX".

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Pigman W, Horton D (1972). "Chapter 1: Stereochemistry of the Monosaccharides". In Pigman W, Horton D (eds.).

736:. However, some biological substances commonly called "monosaccharides" do not conform to this formula (e.g., 5646: 3997:

Jenkins DJ, Jenkins AL, Wolever TM, Thompson LH, Rao AV (February 1986). "Simple and complex carbohydrates".

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of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix

195:), nor are all chemicals that do conform to this definition automatically classified as carbohydrates (e.g., 4150: 1305:

OH substituent and the anomeric hydroxyl are on the same side (cis) of the plane of the ring, is called the

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of glucose. Note the position of the hydroxyl group (red or green) on the anomeric carbon relative to the CH

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Carbohydrate chemistry is a large and economically important branch of organic chemistry. Some of the main

2008: 1510:. Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful of disaccharides are particularly notable. 1429:, a major sugar of insects, is rapidly hydrolyzed into two glucose molecules to support continuous flight. 588:

during the Neolithic agricultural revolution. The term "carbohydrate" was first proposed by German chemist

1909:, fruits, and vegetables. A "meta-analysis, of moderate quality," included as adverse effects of the diet 1610:

Oligosaccharides are saccharide polymers composed of three to ten units of monosaccharides, connected via

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Carbohydrates and Glycosylation – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology

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In glycolysis, oligo- and polysaccharides are cleaved first to smaller monosaccharides by enzymes called

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Lei Y, Shi SP, Song YL, Bi D, Tu PF (May 2014). "Triterpene saponins from the roots of Ilex asprella".

2932: 2826: 2811: 179:, H has a covalent bond with C but not with O). However, not all carbohydrates conform to this precise 1056:

to smaller carbohydrates. They are aldehydes or ketones with two or more hydroxyl groups. The general

5517: 5439: 5194: 3844: 2787: 2783: 1765: 1635: 1378: 1200: 434:, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble 4371: 1618:. They are usually linked to lipids or amino acids glycosic linkage with oxygen or nitrogen to form 5888: 5537: 5258: 5199: 5105: 3840: 3803: 2922: 830: 561: 4288:

Schwartz MW, Seeley RJ, Zeltser LM, Drewnowski A, Ravussin E, Redman LM, Leibel RL (August 2017).

4218:"Low-carbohydrate diets for overweight and obesity: a systematic review of the systematic reviews" 1964:, but for people with type 2 diabetes, they are a viable option for losing weight or helping with 1112:

Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its

490:". Some of these terms, especially "carbohydrate" and "sugar", are also used with other meanings. 6381: 5706: 5631: 5380: 5375: 5361: 5336: 5085: 4100:

Seidelmann SB, Claggett B, Cheng S, Henglin M, Shah A, Steffen LM, et al. (September 2018).

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Kelly SA, Hartley L, Loveman E, Colquitt JL, Jones HM, Al-Khudairy L, et al. (August 2017).

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Carbohydrates in Grain Legume Seeds: Improving Nutritional Quality and Agronomic Characteristics

1211:, of which four of its six carbons atoms are stereogenic, making D-glucose one of 2=16 possible 6588: 6567: 6375: 5814: 5666: 5600: 5486: 5481: 5186: 4633: 2917: 2907: 2873: 2868: 2816: 2716: 1950: 589: 354: 278: 215: 3469:. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper – 66. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1444:, also known as table sugar, is a common disaccharide. It is composed of two monosaccharides: 1270:

ring with an oxygen bridge between two carbon atoms. Rings with five and six atoms are called

6369: 5671: 5636: 5592: 5356: 5215: 4631: 4033: 3967: 3190: 3183: 2912: 2851: 2846: 2806: 1988: 1946: 1888: 1753: 1650: 1631: 1188: 1121: 1041: 768: 475: 412:, pizza or pasta. Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table sugar (sucrose, extracted from 394: 1871:

is absorbed, while glycemic load is a measure of the total absorbable glucose in foods. The

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being the most important in nature as it is the product of photosynthesis in plants) and in

6508: 5760: 5610: 5315: 5291: 5253: 4897: 4807: 3090: 2821: 2779: 2775: 2708: 1968:. There is limited evidence to support routine use of low-carbohydrate dieting in managing 1875:

is a similar, more recent classification method that ranks foods based on their effects on

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The history of the discovery regarding carbohydrates dates back around 10,000 years ago in

501:(such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, 5063:

IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN): Carbohydrate Nomenclature

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levels, and that low-carbohydrate diets have a "metabolic advantage", is not supported by

8: 5555: 5174: 5098: 4896:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 581. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. pp. 61–77. 4151:"Carbohydrate quality and human health: a series of systematic reviews and meta-analyses" 4102:"Dietary carbohydrate intake and mortality: a prospective cohort study and meta-analysis" 2856: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2720: 2711:. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 16 kJ (4 kcal) of 1949:, although two reviews showed that carbohydrate restriction may improve lipid markers of 1930: 1294: 596:, a form of carbohydrate storage in animal livers, was discovered by French physiologist 4901: 4811: 4546:"Overweight and diabetes prevention: is a low-carbohydrate-high-fat diet recommendable?" 3094: 6593: 5780: 5770: 5678: 5351: 5296: 5283: 4874: 4831: 4714: 4570: 4545: 4511: 4459: 4410: 4359: 4314: 4289: 4248: 4183: 4126: 4101: 4010: 3894: 3867:"Whole grain cereals for the primary or secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease" 3807: 3493: 3288: 3263: 3158: 3133: 3114: 1479: 1195:

with two possible configurations each (R or S). Because of this asymmetry, a number of

1045: 59: 4170: 4117: 1346: 420:), lactose (abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which occur naturally in 373:

is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important

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Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve as an

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Maton A, Hopkins J, McLaughlin CW, Johnson S, Warner MQ, LaHart D, Wright JD (1993).

3163: 3106: 2877: 2756: 2744: 1925: 1402: 653: 537:" is applied for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in human food. 138: 5090: 4878: 4835: 4819: 4718: 4515: 4463: 4414: 4252: 4187: 3690: 3630: 1893:

Low-carbohydrate diets may miss the health advantages – such as increased intake of

1394: 1079: 5961: 5573: 4905: 4858: 4815: 4698: 4649: 4603: 4565: 4557: 4493: 4441: 4394: 4309: 4301: 4232: 4165: 4121: 4113: 4006: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3769: 3283: 3275: 3264:"The role of short chain fatty acids in appetite regulation and energy homeostasis" 3153: 3145: 3118: 3098: 2987: 2966: 2897: 2885: 2841: 2799: 2004: 1965: 1705: 1495: 1228: 1084: 1057: 721: 581: 443: 260: 73: 4607: 4078: 1156:, and so on. These two systems of classification are often combined. For example, 6410: 6356: 6336: 6227: 5527: 5409: 4337:

Butryn ML, Clark VL, Coletta MC (2012). Akabas SR, Lederman SA, Moore BJ (eds.).

4087: 3943: 3814: 3312: 2971: 2948: 2889: 2712: 2519: 1969: 1961: 1823: 1819: 1808: 1662: 1611: 1605: 1583:-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose. Other notable disaccharides include 1576: 1557: 1525: 1282: 929: 794: 657: 455: 439: 252: 4909: 4149:

Reynolds A, Mann J, Cummings J, Winter N, Mete E, Te Morenga L (February 2019).

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Hall KD (March 2017). "A review of the carbohydrate-insulin model of obesity".

4217: 3668: 3216: 3017: 2937: 2881: 2728: 2692: 2684: 1980: 1902: 1856: 1849: 1804: 1796: 1722: 1696: 1491: 1330: 1239:. This usage of "d-" and "l-" is no longer followed in carbohydrate chemistry. 1216: 1184: 1016: 960: 861: 790: 733: 672: 637: 597: 390: 256: 244: 4632:

American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee (January 2019).

4561: 4446: 4429: 3500:(3rd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor (NY): Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. 3149: 1879:

levels, which are caused by glucose (or starch) and some amino acids in food.

6582: 6503: 6420: 6308: 6199: 5750: 5740: 5476: 5163: 4476: 3012: 2893: 2046: 1934: 1894: 1872: 1864: 1860: 1746: 1737:. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. 1734: 1639: 1475: 1410: 1096: 994: 525: 479: 435: 382: 378: 180: 168: 4498: 3774: 3757: 3542: 1278:

forms, respectively, and exist in equilibrium with the straight-chain form.

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Gjuladin-Hellon T, Davies IG, Penson P, Amiri Baghbadorani R (March 2019).

4455: 4406: 4323: 4244: 4179: 4135: 3903: 3783: 3515: 3297: 3167: 3110: 2977: 2836: 2658: 2491: 2433: 2231: 1957: 1918: 1827: 1800: 1700: 1623: 1615: 1463: 1457: 1398: 1390: 1326: 1267: 1212: 1002: 938: 902: 885: 629: 494: 386: 374: 248: 207: 196: 47: 4398: 4305: 4018: 6545: 6533: 6405: 6316: 6064: 6059: 5999: 5806: 5582: 5444: 3134:"Photons to illuminate the universe of sugar diversity through bioarrays" 2974:– A process where glucose can be synthesized by non-carbohydrate sources. 2884:

residues or structures containing more than one monosaccharide, known as

1996: 1906: 1845: 1757: 1358: 1293:, the -OH substituent on the anomeric carbon rests on the opposite side ( 1220: 1192: 1169: 975: 798: 737: 665: 529: 521: 517: 370: 200: 188: 184: 118: 31: 3691:"Calculation of the Energy Content of Foods – Energy Conversion Factors" 3279: 1956:

Carbohydrate-restricted diets are no more effective than a conventional

1219:, an aldotriose, there is one pair of possible stereoisomers, which are 1021: 636:

O) to be the simplest carbohydrate, while others claimed that title for

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Sugar content of selected common plant foods (in grams per 100 g)

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recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 45 and 65% of

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Natural saccharides are generally built of simple carbohydrates called

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Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be

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operon is repressed, resulting in the glucose being used first (see:

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Carbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87 kilocalories of energy per

1627: 1568: 1532:-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates four things: 1426: 1418: 1382: 1342: 1263: 990: 952: 948: 906: 870: 689:

is three or more. A typical monosaccharide has the structure H–(CHOH)

609: 585: 431: 413: 401: 291: 240: 224: 51: 3102: 1474:. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a 1044:

furthest from the aldehyde; because this -OH is on the right of the

524:, which are not normally considered carbohydrates. It also includes 6496: 6457: 6442: 6415: 6364: 6298: 6171: 6166: 6151: 6136: 6052: 6047: 5867: 5862: 3007: 2982: 2673: 2000: 1984: 1914: 1815: 1738: 1544: 1540: 1521: 1487: 1449: 1414: 1374: 1370: 1334: 1275: 1271: 1173: 1125: 1113: 1037: 986: 922: 918: 874: 818: 779: 772: 749: 729: 710: 702: 593: 483: 350: 338: 303: 126: 27:

Organic compound that consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

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Mansoor N, Vinknes KJ, Veierød MB, Retterstøl K (February 2016).

4290:"Obesity Pathogenesis: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement" 2997: 2680: 2118: 1938: 1876: 1868: 1742: 1718: 1689: 1584: 1572: 1564: 1517: 1513: 1471: 1467: 1445: 1441: 1406: 1386: 1322: 1251: 1157: 1149: 1145: 1025: 971: 898: 894: 890: 866: 725: 649: 323: 307: 274: 55: 43: 3081:

Flitsch SL, Ulijn RV (January 2003). "Sugars tied to the spot".

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named it one of the "top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018".

1945:. Further, it is not clear how low-carbohydrate dieting affects 1672: 263:) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. While the 6528: 6523: 6513: 6490: 6467: 6435: 6222: 6217: 6161: 6124: 6109: 6089: 6076: 6037: 6032: 6027: 5940: 5893: 5883: 5857: 5852: 5755: 4427: 4287: 2942: 2903:

Common reactions for glycosidic bond formation are as follows:

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Byrne CS, Chambers ES, Morrison DJ, Frost G (September 2015).

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diet as a means of weight loss, but with risks of undesirable

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is used for the same purpose. The most abundant carbohydrate,

341:) and as structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants and 6114: 5917: 5795: 5775: 3996: 3609:(2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 165–194. 3229:(3rd ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 184. 3180: 2732: 2704: 2700: 2695:

storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of

2606: 2462: 2259: 2203: 2174: 2090: 1422: 1203:, the aldohexose D-glucose, for example, has the formula (C·H 1187:(-OH), with the exception of the first and last carbons, are 855: 534: 425: 421: 409: 405: 232: 4216:

Churuangsuk C, Kherouf M, Combet E, Lean M (December 2018).

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Carroll GT, Wang D, Turro NJ, Koberstein JT (January 2008).

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of both monosaccharides participates in the glycosidic bond.

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Monosaccharides can be linked together into what are called

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group carbon (C=O) and hydroxyl group (–OH) react forming a

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The Effect of Dietary Fiber on Fecal Weight and Composition

2670: 2376: 2343: 2287: 1684: 717: 442:. Other polysaccharides contained in dietary fiber include 299: 269: 134: 106: 97: 88: 5053:

Carbohydrates, including interactive models and animations

4891: 4148: 3584:(2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 1–67. 3261: 3131: 2691:

synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by

1333:. In many animals, including humans, this storage form is 1092: 39: 4983:"Energetics of Cellular Respiration (Glucose Metabolism)" 3755: 3049:

The European Polysaccharide Network of Excellence (EPNOE)

1992: 1789:

U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs

1362: 1354: 802: 502: 366: 259:. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest (lower 243:. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: 4688: 3540: 3189:. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 1867:

levels. Glycemic index is a measure of how quickly food

1466:, the simplest kind of polysaccharide. Examples include 3974:. Harvard School of Public Health. September 18, 2012. 1594: 1369:

is a component of lyxoflavin found in the human heart.

528:

which is a carbohydrate but which does not contribute

5323:(amino acid→pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or TCA intermediate) 4786:– via Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. 3436: 1645: 1199:

may exist for any given monosaccharide formula. Using

628:. Following this definition, some chemists considered 345:

in arthropods and fungi). The 5-carbon monosaccharide

5120: 3756:

Pichon L, Huneau JF, Fromentin G, Tomé D (May 2006).

1301:

OH side branch. The alternative form, in which the CH

1140:. Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called 79: 76: 3607:

The Carbohydrates: Chemistry and Biochemistry Vol 1A

3582:

The Carbohydrates: Chemistry and Biochemistry Vol 1A

3463:"Chapter 1 – The role of carbohydrates in nutrition" 1071: 365:) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as 109: 103: 100: 85: 3358: 2928:While some common protection methods are as below: 1822:and "unavailable carbohydrates", which pass to the 1337:, especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants, 94: 91: 50:found in animal milk. It consists of a molecule of 4740:. British Dietetic Association. December 7, 2017. 4336: 3397: 3362:A Textbook of Botany for Colleges and Universities 3182: 1999:, such as low energy levels and increased hunger, 1897:– afforded by high-quality carbohydrates found in 1883:Health effects of dietary carbohydrate restriction 1749:. Fiber enhances digestion, among other benefits. 1575:molecule, occurs naturally in mammalian milk. The 4339:Behavioral approaches to the treatment of obesity 1254:can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form. 6580: 4934: 3547:. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. 1983:– is established as a medical diet for treating 1242: 5017:"Compolition of foods raw, processed, prepared" 2703:. Plant components are consumed by animals and 1979:An extreme form of low-carbohydrate diet – the 767:form of a monosaccharide often coexists with a 3491: 1409:occurs in human metabolism, especially in the 1317:Monosaccharides are the major fuel source for 5822: 5714: 5106: 4592: 3541:Campbell NA, Williamson B, Heyden RJ (2006). 608:Formerly the name "carbohydrate" was used in 302:'), and is used for almost all sugars (e.g., 137:ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the 4848: 3962: 3960: 3858: 3579: 3437:Matthews CE, Van Holde KE, Ahern KG (1999). 3349:USDA National Nutrient Database, 2015, p. 13 3213:USDA National Nutrient Database, 2015, p. 14 3080: 4732: 4730: 4728: 3874:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2832:Lobry de Bruyn–Van Ekenstein transformation 1991:during the early 21st century, it became a 1703:but glucose is often metabolized first. In 720:that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone 273:, which was originally taken from the word 5836: 5829: 5815: 5721: 5707: 5113: 5099: 4974: 4957: 4955: 4738:"Top 5 worst celeb diets to avoid in 2018" 4636:Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2019 3931:Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (1998), 3834:Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (2003). 3604: 1312: 133:(O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen 4653: 4569: 4497: 4445: 4313: 4169: 4125: 3957: 3893: 3773: 3359:Coulter JM, Barnes CR, Cowles HC (1930). 3287: 3157: 2793: 2657:Carbohydrate metabolism is the series of 1536:Its monosaccharides: glucose and fructose 4725: 3401:Tietz fundamentals of clinical chemistry 3398:Burtis CA, Ashwood ER, Tietz NW (2000). 3222: 3042:"Etymology of main polysaccharide names" 3035: 3033: 2669:and interconversion of carbohydrates in 2018: 1671: 1644: 1462:Two joined monosaccharides are called a 1436: 1246: 1124:handedness. If the carbonyl group is an 1020: 38: 5024:United States Department of Agriculture 4961: 4952: 4596:Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 4283: 4281: 4279: 4277: 4262:from the original on September 23, 2019 3990: 3352: 1679:products: rich sources of carbohydrates 1321:, being used both as an energy source ( 1060:of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C•H 1040:group and the blue atoms highlight the 14: 6581: 4670:from the original on December 18, 2018 4627: 4625: 4543: 4537: 4387:European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 4341:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 259. 4031: 3796:Food and Nutrition Board (2002/2005). 3598: 3494:"Structural Basis of Glycan Diversity" 3473:from the original on December 22, 2015 3310: 3039: 1028:is an aldohexose with the formula (C·H 231: 'sugar'), a group that includes 5810: 5702: 5094: 5033:from the original on October 31, 2016 4993:from the original on January 25, 2018 4980: 4778:from the original on January 30, 2017 4142: 4080:Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 3641:from the original on October 31, 2014 3561:from the original on November 2, 2014 3391: 3030: 2896:are very important, and the usage of 2862: 2719:. Organisms capable of anaerobic and 1842:Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 5223:Electron acceptors other than oxygen 4586: 4384: 4378: 4274: 4209: 4197:from the original on August 11, 2021 4093: 1760:from whole-grain carbohydrates. The 1595:Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides 544: 5082:Consortium for Functional Glycomics 4682: 4622: 4470: 4421: 4330: 4052:from the original on April 24, 2022 3441:(3rd ed.). Benjamin Cummings. 3379:from the original on April 17, 2022 3317:(2nd ed.). London: Heinemann. 2679:The most important carbohydrate is 1793:Dietary Goals for the United States 1599: 1490:atom from one monosaccharide and a 1349:of plants and many forms of algae. 1345:, is a structural component of the 612:for any compound with the formula C 24: 5728: 5009: 4744:from the original on July 31, 2020 4011:10.1111/j.1753-4887.1986.tb07585.x 3418:from the original on June 24, 2016 3331:from the original on July 27, 2020 3243:from the original on April 2, 2019 2727:(aerobic) to release energy, with 1656: 1587:(two D-glucoses linked α-1,4) and 1010: 813:is composed of repeating units of 724:. Examples of monosaccharides are 713:groups added, usually one on each 450:, which feed some bacteria in the 25: 6605: 5046: 3701:from the original on May 24, 2010 3522:from the original on May 19, 2020 1775: 1762:Food and Agriculture Organization 1567:, a disaccharide composed of one 1072:Classification of monosaccharides 167:), which does not mean the H has 163:may or may not be different from 6563: 6562: 4525:from the original on May 6, 2020 4434:The British Journal of Nutrition 3978:from the original on May 7, 2013 3933:Carbohydrates in human nutrition 3467:Carbohydrates in human nutrition 3268:International Journal of Obesity 2802:that involve carbohydrates are: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2532: 2529: 1498:of unmodified disaccharides is C 1432: 1083: 1078: 837:The major dietary carbohydrates 548: 72: 5244:Substrate-level phosphorylation 4885: 4842: 4820:10.1016/j.phytochem.2018.11.012 4790: 4768:"Carbohydrates and Blood Sugar" 4760: 4064: 4025: 3925: 3828: 3790: 3749: 3713: 3683: 3653: 3623: 3573: 3534: 3485: 3455: 3430: 1848:sources and the rest are from 1539:Their ring types: glucose is a 660:and deoxy modifications (e.g., 514:USDA National Nutrient Database 5781:"Minerals" (Chemical elements) 5080:, a collaboration between the 3886:10.1002/14651858.CD005051.pub3 3492:Bertozzi CR, Rabuka D (2017). 3343: 3304: 3255: 3207: 3174: 3125: 3074: 2661:processes responsible for the 2636: 1729:or other polysaccharides like 1172:(a five-carbon aldehyde), and 1036:. The red atoms highlight the 469: 13: 1: 5647:Reverse cholesterol transport 4608:10.1016/j.diabres.2017.07.006 4550:European Journal of Nutrition 4171:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31809-9 4118:10.1016/s2468-2667(18)30135-x 3721:"Carbohydrate reference list" 3023: 2738: 2646: 1974:American Diabetes Association 1634:, do not. They have roles in 1486:, resulting in the loss of a 1243:Ring-straight chain isomerism 1144:, those with four are called 1132:; if the carbonyl group is a 821:-containing form of glucose. 400:Carbohydrates are central to 349:is an important component of 5299:(protein→peptide→amino acid) 5078:Functional Glycomics Gateway 4851:Chemistry & Biodiversity 3314:Introduction to Biochemistry 2009:British Dietetic Association 1826:, where they are subject to 1667: 1385:, a component of milk sugar 603: 7: 4981:Mehta S (October 9, 2013). 4910:10.1007/978-1-60761-214-8_5 3813:September 12, 2006, at the 2955: 2892:and selective reactions of 1960:in preventing the onset of 1832:gastrointestinal microbiota 1183:Each carbon atom bearing a 1128:, the monosaccharide is an 1120:atoms it contains, and its 824: 805:, is a modified version of 462:by these bacteria to yield 377:that play key roles in the 210:, where it is a synonym of 206:The term is most common in 10: 6610: 5684:Phospagen system (ATP-PCr) 5154:Primary nutritional groups 4634:"5. Lifestyle Management: 3498:Essentials of Glycobiology 2933:Carbohydrate acetalisation 2866: 2812:Carbohydrate acetalisation 2650: 2638: 2014: 1886: 1803:) and complex if they are 1770:Cochrane Systematic Review 1660: 1603: 1556:suffix indicates that the 1455: 1136:, the monosaccharide is a 1014: 983:Non-starch polysaccharides 955:, fructo-oligosaccharides 844:(degree of polymerization) 584:during the cultivation of 540: 284: 29: 6558: 6396: 6353: 6335: 6307: 6249: 6242: 6210: 6182: 6075: 6010: 5972: 5939: 5916: 5907: 5876: 5845: 5736: 5659: 5619: 5591: 5572: 5546: 5518:Anoxygenic photosynthesis 5508: 5501: 5472: 5440:Pentose phosphate pathway 5435: 5418: 5401: 5394: 5374: 5335: 5306: 5282: 5273: 5230: 5214: 5195:Oxidative phosphorylation 5173: 5162: 5136: 4987:Biochemistry Notes, Notes 4562:10.1007/s00394-018-1636-y 4447:10.1017/S0007114515004699 4106:The Lancet. Public Health 3942:January 15, 2007, at the 3845:World Health Organization 3150:10.1007/s10719-007-9052-1 2888:. Selective formation of 2600: 2370: 2084: 1766:World Health Organization 1379:pentose phosphate pathway 1297:) of the ring from the CH 1164:(a six-carbon aldehyde), 959: 928: 854: 786:with a new C–O–C bridge. 740:and deoxy-sugars such as 171:with O (for example with 5889:Cyclohexane conformation 5538:Entner-Doudoroff pathway 5200:electron transport chain 5187:Pyruvate decarboxylation 4086:August 20, 2014, at the 3804:National Academies Press 3802:. Washington, D.C.: The 3762:The Journal of Nutrition 3185:Human Biology and Health 2923:Crich beta-mannosylation 2784:Fructose 1,6-biphosphate 1626:, though some, like the 831:degree of polymerization 675:with general formula (CH 30:Not to be confused with 6382:Isomaltooligosaccharide 5632:Sphingolipid metabolism 5533:DeLey-Doudoroff pathway 5381:carbohydrate catabolism 5376:Carbohydrate metabolism 5362:Purine nucleotide cycle 5086:Nature Publishing Group 4962:Maughan R (June 2013). 3544:Biology: Exploring Life 2723:metabolize glucose and 2707:, and used as fuel for 2653:Carbohydrate metabolism 1313:Use in living organisms 1180:(a six-carbon ketone). 510:nutritional information 464:short-chain fatty acids 265:scientific nomenclature 6376:Galactooligosaccharide 5601:Fatty acid degradation 5321:Amino acid degradation 5068:Carbohydrates detailed 4968:www.onesearch.cuny.edu 4863:10.1002/cbdv.201300155 4544:Brouns F (June 2018). 3138:Glycoconjugate Journal 2918:Koenigs-Knorr reaction 2908:Chemical glycosylation 2874:Carbohydrate synthesis 2869:Carbohydrate synthesis 2827:Koenigs–Knorr reaction 2817:Carbohydrate digestion 2794:Carbohydrate chemistry 2024: 1951:cardiovascular disease 1787:was first used in the 1680: 1653: 1632:fructooligosaccharides 1453: 1255: 1201:Le Bel-van't Hoff rule 1049: 945:Other oligosaccharides 935:Malto-oligosaccharides 590:Carl Schmidt (chemist) 63: 6370:Fructooligosaccharide 5761:Essential fatty acids 5637:Eicosanoid metabolism 5593:Fatty acid metabolism 5357:Pyrimidine metabolism 5216:Anaerobic respiration 4499:10.1093/nutrit/nuy049 4488:(Systematic review). 4399:10.1038/ejcn.2016.260 4306:10.1210/er.2017-00111 4227:(Systematic review). 3913:on September 28, 2018 3775:10.1093/jn/136.5.1256 3047:. In Navard P (ed.). 2913:Fischer glycosidation 2852:Ferrier rearrangement 2847:Tipson-Cohen reaction 2807:Amadori rearrangement 2022: 1989:celebrity endorsement 1947:cardiovascular health 1889:Low-carbohydrate diet 1754:Institute of Medicine 1675: 1651:fructooligosaccharide 1648: 1440: 1413:of certain proteins. 1250: 1229:1, 3-dihydroxyacetone 1116:group, the number of 1024: 476:scientific literature 42: 5611:Fatty acid synthesis 5316:Amino acid synthesis 4772:The Nutrition Source 4648:(Suppl 1): S46–S60. 4038:. CABI. p. 79. 3972:The Nutrition Source 3223:Cummings JH (2001). 2822:Cyanohydrin reaction 2776:Fructose 6-Phosphate 2764:glycoside hydrolases 2709:cellular respiration 1785:complex carbohydrate 1494:from the other. The 1484:dehydration reaction 1395:plant cell membranes 1048:, this is a D sugar. 978:, modified starches 815:N-acetyl glucosamine 5175:Aerobic respiration 4902:2009biof.book...61B 4812:2019PChem.158...91V 3728:www.diabetes.org.uk 3280:10.1038/ijo.2015.84 3095:2003Natur.421..219F 3062:on February 9, 2018 2890:glycosidic linkages 2857:Ferrier II reaction 2768:Glucose 6-Phosphate 2721:aerobic respiration 2033: 1933:, not the ratio of 1931:calorie restriction 1857:glycemic index (GI) 1709:, for example, the 1612:glycosidic linkages 838: 58:bonded by beta-1-4 5679:Ethanol metabolism 5627:Steroid metabolism 5352:Nucleotide salvage 5284:Protein metabolism 5026:. September 2015. 4942:"FoodData Central" 4774:. August 5, 2013. 4164:(10170): 434–445. 4032:Hedley CL (2001). 3671:on October 3, 2017 3311:Fearon WF (1949). 2876:is a sub-field of 2863:Chemical Synthesis 2747:of monosaccharide 2745:metabolic pathways 2683:, a simple sugar ( 2031: 2025: 1681: 1654: 1543:and fructose is a 1480:glycosidic linkage 1454: 1361:is a component of 1353:is a component of 1256: 1148:, five are called 1050: 1046:Fischer projection 836: 654:glycosaminoglycans 592:in 1844. In 1856, 560:. You can help by 508:Often in lists of 183:definition (e.g., 64: 60:glycosidic linkage 54:and a molecule of 6576: 6575: 6554: 6553: 6238: 6237: 5804: 5803: 5696: 5695: 5692: 5691: 5655: 5654: 5568: 5567: 5564: 5563: 5551:Xylose metabolism 5497: 5496: 5370: 5369: 5347:Purine metabolism 5292:Protein synthesis 5269: 5268: 5191:Citric acid cycle 5149:Metabolic network 5144:Metabolic pathway 4919:978-1-60761-213-1 4703:10.1111/dme.13845 4691:Diabetic Medicine 4655:10.2337/dc19-S005 4486:Nutrition Reviews 4348:978-0-470-65588-7 4294:Endocrine Reviews 4237:10.1111/obr.12744 4231:(12): 1700–1718. 4108:(Meta-analysis). 4045:978-0-85199-944-9 3999:Nutrition Reviews 3737:on March 14, 2016 3554:978-0-13-250882-7 3507:978-1-621821-32-8 3448:978-0-8053-3066-3 3404:. W.B. Saunders. 3236:978-0-8493-2387-4 3200:978-0-13-981176-0 3089:(6920): 219–220. 3040:Avenas P (2012). 2898:protecting groups 2878:organic chemistry 2800:organic reactions 2757:citric acid cycle 2634: 2633: 2080:total sugars (%) 2044:total, including 1943:clinical evidence 1926:Endocrine Society 1649:The structure of 1571:molecule and one 1520:molecule and one 1215:. In the case of 1042:asymmetric center 1008: 1007: 801:, a component of 578: 577: 139:empirical formula 16:(Redirected from 6601: 6566: 6565: 6357:oligosaccharides 6337:Tetrasaccharides 6247: 6246: 5962:Dihydroxyacetone 5914: 5913: 5831: 5824: 5817: 5808: 5807: 5723: 5716: 5709: 5700: 5699: 5667:Metal metabolism 5589: 5588: 5574:Lipid metabolism 5506: 5505: 5399: 5398: 5392: 5391: 5304: 5303: 5280: 5279: 5206: 5171: 5170: 5115: 5108: 5101: 5092: 5091: 5042: 5040: 5038: 5032: 5021: 5003: 5002: 5000: 4998: 4978: 4972: 4971: 4964:"Surgery Oxford" 4959: 4950: 4949: 4946:fdc.nal.usda.gov 4938: 4932: 4931: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4785: 4783: 4764: 4758: 4757: 4751: 4749: 4734: 4723: 4722: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4677: 4675: 4657: 4629: 4620: 4619: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4573: 4556:(4): 1301–1312. 4541: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4530: 4524: 4501: 4483: 4474: 4468: 4467: 4449: 4425: 4419: 4418: 4382: 4376: 4375: 4369: 4365: 4363: 4355: 4334: 4328: 4327: 4317: 4285: 4272: 4271: 4269: 4267: 4261: 4222: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4196: 4173: 4155: 4146: 4140: 4139: 4129: 4112:(9): e419–e428. 4097: 4091: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4029: 4023: 4022: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3964: 3955: 3929: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3912: 3906:. Archived from 3897: 3871: 3862: 3856: 3832: 3826: 3794: 3788: 3787: 3777: 3768:(5): 1256–1260. 3753: 3747: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3736: 3730:. Archived from 3725: 3717: 3711: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3687: 3681: 3680: 3678: 3676: 3667:. Archived from 3657: 3651: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3627: 3621: 3620: 3602: 3596: 3595: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3489: 3483: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3434: 3428: 3427: 3425: 3423: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3386: 3384: 3365:. BiblioBazaar. 3356: 3350: 3347: 3341: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3308: 3302: 3301: 3291: 3274:(9): 1331–1338. 3259: 3253: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3220: 3214: 3211: 3205: 3204: 3188: 3178: 3172: 3171: 3161: 3129: 3123: 3122: 3078: 3072: 3071: 3069: 3067: 3061: 3055:. Archived from 3046: 3037: 2988:Glycoinformatics 2967:Carbohydrate NMR 2886:oligosaccharides 2842:Wohl degradation 2642: 2034: 2030: 2007:discomfort. The 2005:gastrointestinal 1966:glycemic control 1809:oligosaccharides 1706:Escherichia coli 1636:cell recognition 1600:Oligosaccharides 1087: 1082: 1058:chemical formula 930:Oligosaccharides 839: 835: 795:oligosaccharides 769:closed ring form 722:functional group 701:–H, that is, an 582:Papua New Guinea 573: 570: 552: 545: 444:resistant starch 295: 288: 261:molecular weight 253:oligosaccharides 228: 178: 158: 116: 115: 112: 111: 108: 105: 102: 99: 96: 93: 90: 87: 84: 81: 78: 21: 6609: 6608: 6604: 6603: 6602: 6600: 6599: 6598: 6579: 6578: 6577: 6572: 6550: 6411:Oat beta-glucan 6398:Polysaccharides 6392: 6355: 6349: 6331: 6303: 6234: 6228:Neuraminic acid 6206: 6178: 6071: 6006: 5968: 5935: 5909:Monosaccharides 5903: 5872: 5841: 5835: 5805: 5800: 5732: 5727: 5697: 5688: 5672:Iron metabolism 5651: 5615: 5576: 5560: 5542: 5528:Carbon fixation 5493: 5468: 5431: 5414: 5410:Gluconeogenesis 5383: 5378: 5366: 5338: 5331: 5302: 5275: 5265: 5226: 5210: 5198: 5165: 5158: 5132: 5119: 5049: 5036: 5034: 5030: 5019: 5015: 5012: 5010:Further reading 5007: 5006: 4996: 4994: 4979: 4975: 4960: 4953: 4940: 4939: 4935: 4920: 4890: 4886: 4847: 4843: 4795: 4791: 4781: 4779: 4766: 4765: 4761: 4747: 4745: 4736: 4735: 4726: 4687: 4683: 4673: 4671: 4630: 4623: 4591: 4587: 4542: 4538: 4528: 4526: 4522: 4481: 4475: 4471: 4426: 4422: 4383: 4379: 4367: 4366: 4357: 4356: 4349: 4335: 4331: 4286: 4275: 4265: 4263: 4259: 4225:Obesity Reviews 4220: 4214: 4210: 4200: 4198: 4194: 4153: 4147: 4143: 4098: 4094: 4088:Wayback Machine 4069: 4065: 4055: 4053: 4046: 4030: 4026: 3995: 3991: 3981: 3979: 3968:"Carbohydrates" 3966: 3965: 3958: 3944:Wayback Machine 3930: 3926: 3916: 3914: 3910: 3880:(8): CD005051. 3869: 3863: 3859: 3833: 3829: 3815:Wayback Machine 3795: 3791: 3754: 3750: 3740: 3738: 3734: 3723: 3719: 3718: 3714: 3704: 3702: 3689: 3688: 3684: 3674: 3672: 3659: 3658: 3654: 3644: 3642: 3635:Merriam-Webster 3629: 3628: 3624: 3617: 3603: 3599: 3592: 3578: 3574: 3564: 3562: 3555: 3539: 3535: 3525: 3523: 3508: 3490: 3486: 3476: 3474: 3461: 3460: 3456: 3449: 3435: 3431: 3421: 3419: 3412: 3396: 3392: 3382: 3380: 3373: 3357: 3353: 3348: 3344: 3334: 3332: 3325: 3309: 3305: 3260: 3256: 3246: 3244: 3237: 3221: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3201: 3179: 3175: 3130: 3126: 3103:10.1038/421219a 3079: 3075: 3065: 3063: 3059: 3053:Springer-Verlag 3044: 3038: 3031: 3026: 2972:Gluconeogenesis 2958: 2949:p-Methoxybenzyl 2894:hydroxyl groups 2871: 2865: 2796: 2741: 2735:as byproducts. 2655: 2649: 2079: 2077: 2072: 2070: 2062: 2057: 2052: 2045: 2043: 2038: 2023:Glucose tablets 2017: 1970:type 1 diabetes 1962:type 2 diabetes 1891: 1885: 1824:large intestine 1820:small intestine 1805:polysaccharides 1797:monosaccharides 1778: 1723:Polysaccharides 1697:monosaccharides 1670: 1665: 1663:Polysaccharides 1659: 1657:Polysaccharides 1630:series and the 1608: 1606:Oligosaccharide 1602: 1597: 1579:for lactose is 1577:systematic name 1558:anomeric carbon 1526:systematic name 1509: 1505: 1501: 1460: 1435: 1421:, and found in 1331:polysaccharides 1315: 1304: 1300: 1283:anomeric carbon 1245: 1237:polarized light 1217:glyceraldehydes 1210: 1206: 1110: 1109: 1108: 1105: 1074: 1067: 1063: 1035: 1031: 1019: 1013: 1011:Monosaccharides 961:Polysaccharides 862:Monosaccharides 843: 827: 791:polysaccharides 759: 755: 747: 734:glyceraldehydes 700: 694: 684: 678: 673:monosaccharides 658:carboxylic acid 644:-acetyl (e.g., 635: 627: 621: 617: 606: 574: 568: 565: 558:needs expansion 543: 482:compounds with 472: 456:large intestine 440:bowel movements 326:(milk sugar)). 306:(fruit sugar), 257:polysaccharides 245:monosaccharides 176: 172: 157: 151: 147: 141: 75: 71: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6607: 6597: 6596: 6591: 6574: 6573: 6571: 6570: 6559: 6556: 6555: 6552: 6551: 6549: 6548: 6543: 6542: 6541: 6536: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6509:Levan beta 2→6 6506: 6501: 6500: 6499: 6483: 6472: 6471: 6470: 6454: 6445: 6440: 6439: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6402: 6400: 6394: 6393: 6391: 6390: 6385: 6379: 6373: 6367: 6361: 6359: 6351: 6350: 6348: 6347: 6341: 6339: 6333: 6332: 6330: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6313: 6311: 6309:Trisaccharides 6305: 6304: 6302: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6255: 6253: 6244: 6240: 6239: 6236: 6235: 6233: 6232: 6231: 6230: 6220: 6214: 6212: 6208: 6207: 6205: 6204: 6203: 6202: 6197: 6195:Mannoheptulose 6188: 6186: 6180: 6179: 6177: 6176: 6175: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6156: 6155: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6129: 6128: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6081: 6079: 6073: 6072: 6070: 6069: 6068: 6067: 6057: 6056: 6055: 6050: 6042: 6041: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6016: 6014: 6008: 6007: 6005: 6004: 6003: 6002: 5994: 5993: 5992: 5987: 5978: 5976: 5970: 5969: 5967: 5966: 5965: 5964: 5956: 5955: 5954: 5952:Glyceraldehyde 5945: 5943: 5937: 5936: 5934: 5933: 5932: 5931: 5929:Glycolaldehyde 5922: 5920: 5911: 5905: 5904: 5902: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5880: 5878: 5874: 5873: 5871: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5849: 5847: 5843: 5842: 5834: 5833: 5826: 5819: 5811: 5802: 5801: 5799: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5737: 5734: 5733: 5730:Food chemistry 5726: 5725: 5718: 5711: 5703: 5694: 5693: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5675: 5674: 5663: 5661: 5657: 5656: 5653: 5652: 5650: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5623: 5621: 5617: 5616: 5614: 5613: 5608: 5605:Beta oxidation 5597: 5595: 5586: 5570: 5569: 5566: 5565: 5562: 5561: 5559: 5558: 5553: 5547: 5544: 5543: 5541: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5523:Chemosynthesis 5520: 5515: 5513:Photosynthesis 5509: 5503: 5499: 5498: 5495: 5494: 5492: 5491: 5490: 5489: 5484: 5473: 5470: 5469: 5467: 5466: 5465: 5464: 5462:Leloir pathway 5454: 5453: 5452: 5450:Polyol pathway 5442: 5436: 5433: 5432: 5430: 5429: 5423:Glycogenolysis 5419: 5416: 5415: 5413: 5412: 5402: 5396: 5389: 5372: 5371: 5368: 5367: 5365: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5343: 5341: 5333: 5332: 5330: 5329: 5324: 5318: 5312: 5310: 5301: 5300: 5294: 5288: 5286: 5277: 5271: 5270: 5267: 5266: 5264: 5263: 5262: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5236: 5234: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5224: 5220: 5218: 5212: 5211: 5209: 5208: 5179: 5177: 5168: 5160: 5159: 5157: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5140: 5138: 5134: 5133: 5118: 5117: 5110: 5103: 5095: 5089: 5088: 5075: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5048: 5047:External links 5045: 5044: 5043: 5011: 5008: 5005: 5004: 4973: 4951: 4933: 4918: 4884: 4857:(5): 767–775. 4841: 4800:Phytochemistry 4789: 4759: 4724: 4697:(3): 326–334. 4681: 4621: 4585: 4536: 4492:(3): 161–180. 4469: 4440:(3): 466–479. 4420: 4393:(3): 323–326. 4377: 4347: 4329: 4300:(4): 267–296. 4273: 4208: 4141: 4092: 4063: 4044: 4024: 3989: 3956: 3924: 3857: 3827: 3789: 3748: 3712: 3682: 3652: 3622: 3616:978-0323138338 3615: 3597: 3591:978-0323138338 3590: 3572: 3553: 3533: 3506: 3484: 3454: 3447: 3429: 3410: 3390: 3372:978-1113909954 3371: 3351: 3342: 3324:978-1483225395 3323: 3303: 3254: 3235: 3215: 3206: 3199: 3173: 3124: 3073: 3028: 3027: 3025: 3022: 3021: 3020: 3018:Saccharic acid 3015: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2969: 2964: 2957: 2954: 2953: 2952: 2946: 2940: 2938:Trimethylsilyl 2935: 2926: 2925: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2900:is extensive. 2882:monosaccharide 2867:Main article: 2864: 2861: 2860: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2844: 2839: 2834: 2829: 2824: 2819: 2814: 2809: 2795: 2792: 2740: 2737: 2729:carbon dioxide 2693:photosynthesis 2685:monosaccharide 2651:Main article: 2648: 2645: 2632: 2631: 2628: 2625: 2622: 2619: 2616: 2613: 2610: 2603: 2602: 2598: 2597: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2585: 2582: 2579: 2577: 2571: 2570: 2567: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2552: 2550: 2544: 2543: 2540: 2537: 2534: 2531: 2528: 2525: 2522: 2516: 2515: 2512: 2509: 2506: 2503: 2500: 2497: 2494: 2488: 2487: 2484: 2481: 2478: 2475: 2472: 2469: 2466: 2459: 2458: 2455: 2452: 2449: 2446: 2443: 2440: 2437: 2430: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2420: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2402: 2401: 2398: 2395: 2392: 2389: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2373: 2372: 2368: 2367: 2364: 2361: 2358: 2355: 2352: 2349: 2346: 2340: 2339: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2327: 2324: 2321: 2318: 2312: 2311: 2308: 2305: 2302: 2299: 2296: 2293: 2290: 2284: 2283: 2280: 2277: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2262: 2256: 2255: 2252: 2249: 2246: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2228: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2212: 2209: 2206: 2200: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2187: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2171: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2143: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2127: 2124: 2121: 2115: 2114: 2111: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2087: 2086: 2082: 2081: 2078:proportion of 2074: 2067: 2064: 2059: 2054: 2049: 2042:Carbohydrate, 2040: 2016: 2013: 2003:, nausea, and 1981:ketogenic diet 1935:macronutrients 1887:Main article: 1884: 1881: 1777: 1776:Classification 1774: 1758:dietary energy 1669: 1666: 1661:Main article: 1658: 1655: 1604:Main article: 1601: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1562: 1561: 1550: 1547: 1537: 1524:molecule. The 1507: 1503: 1499: 1492:hydroxyl group 1456:Main article: 1434: 1431: 1389:, is found in 1314: 1311: 1302: 1298: 1244: 1241: 1208: 1204: 1193:stereo centers 1191:, making them 1185:hydroxyl group 1103: 1089: 1076: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1065: 1061: 1033: 1029: 1017:Monosaccharide 1015:Main article: 1012: 1009: 1006: 1005: 984: 980: 979: 969: 964: 957: 956: 946: 942: 941: 936: 933: 926: 925: 916: 910: 909: 888: 882: 881: 864: 859: 852: 851: 848: 845: 826: 823: 757: 753: 745: 696: 690: 680: 676: 638:glycolaldehyde 633: 623: 619: 613: 605: 602: 598:Claude Bernard 576: 575: 555: 553: 542: 539: 512:, such as the 471: 468: 391:blood clotting 369:. The related 181:stoichiometric 174: 169:covalent bonds 153: 149: 143: 121:consisting of 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6606: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6589:Carbohydrates 6587: 6586: 6584: 6569: 6561: 6560: 6557: 6547: 6544: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6531: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6504:Hemicellulose 6502: 6498: 6495: 6494: 6493: 6492: 6488: 6484: 6482: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6466: 6465: 6464: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6453: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6408: 6407: 6404: 6403: 6401: 6399: 6395: 6389: 6386: 6383: 6380: 6377: 6374: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6362: 6360: 6358: 6352: 6346: 6343: 6342: 6340: 6338: 6334: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6314: 6312: 6310: 6306: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6267: 6265: 6262: 6260: 6257: 6256: 6254: 6252: 6251:Disaccharides 6248: 6245: 6241: 6229: 6226: 6225: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6209: 6201: 6200:Sedoheptulose 6198: 6196: 6193: 6192: 6191:Ketoheptoses 6190: 6189: 6187: 6185: 6181: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6159: 6158:Deoxy sugars 6157: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6134: 6133: 6130: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6087: 6086: 6083: 6082: 6080: 6078: 6074: 6066: 6063: 6062: 6061: 6058: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6045: 6044:Ketopentoses 6043: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6020: 6019:Aldopentoses 6018: 6017: 6015: 6013: 6009: 6001: 5998: 5997: 5995: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5982: 5981:Aldotetroses 5980: 5979: 5977: 5975: 5971: 5963: 5960: 5959: 5957: 5953: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5942: 5938: 5930: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5923: 5921: 5919: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5906: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5881: 5879: 5875: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5850: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5839:carbohydrates 5832: 5827: 5825: 5820: 5818: 5813: 5812: 5809: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5771:Fortification 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5746:Carbohydrates 5744: 5742: 5739: 5738: 5735: 5731: 5724: 5719: 5717: 5712: 5710: 5705: 5704: 5701: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5673: 5670: 5669: 5668: 5665: 5664: 5662: 5658: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5618: 5612: 5609: 5606: 5602: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5590: 5587: 5584: 5580: 5575: 5571: 5557: 5556:Radiotrophism 5554: 5552: 5549: 5548: 5545: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5521: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5510: 5507: 5504: 5500: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5479: 5478: 5477:Glycosylation 5475: 5474: 5471: 5463: 5460: 5459: 5458: 5455: 5451: 5448: 5447: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5437: 5434: 5428: 5424: 5421: 5420: 5417: 5411: 5407: 5404: 5403: 5400: 5397: 5393: 5390: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5373: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5344: 5342: 5340: 5334: 5328: 5325: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5313: 5311: 5309: 5305: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5285: 5281: 5278: 5272: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5246: 5245: 5241: 5238: 5237: 5235: 5233: 5229: 5222: 5221: 5219: 5217: 5213: 5205: 5201: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5178: 5176: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5161: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5141: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5116: 5111: 5109: 5104: 5102: 5097: 5096: 5093: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5058: 5054: 5051: 5050: 5029: 5025: 5018: 5014: 5013: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4977: 4969: 4965: 4958: 4956: 4947: 4943: 4937: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4888: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4845: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4793: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4763: 4756: 4743: 4739: 4733: 4731: 4729: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4685: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4642:Diabetes Care 4639: 4637: 4628: 4626: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4589: 4581: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4540: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4480: 4473: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4424: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4381: 4373: 4361: 4354: 4350: 4344: 4340: 4333: 4325: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4219: 4212: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4172: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4152: 4145: 4137: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4096: 4089: 4085: 4082: 4081: 4076: 4072: 4067: 4051: 4047: 4041: 4037: 4036: 4028: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3993: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3963: 3961: 3953: 3952:92-5-104114-8 3949: 3945: 3941: 3938: 3934: 3928: 3917:September 27, 3909: 3905: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3868: 3861: 3854: 3853:92-4-120916-X 3850: 3847:. pp. 55–56. 3846: 3842: 3838: 3837: 3831: 3824: 3823:0-309-08537-3 3820: 3816: 3812: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3800: 3793: 3785: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3752: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3716: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3686: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3656: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3626: 3618: 3612: 3608: 3601: 3593: 3587: 3583: 3576: 3560: 3556: 3550: 3546: 3545: 3537: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3488: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3458: 3450: 3444: 3440: 3433: 3417: 3413: 3411:9780721686349 3407: 3403: 3402: 3394: 3378: 3374: 3368: 3364: 3363: 3355: 3346: 3330: 3326: 3320: 3316: 3315: 3307: 3299: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3258: 3242: 3238: 3232: 3228: 3227: 3219: 3210: 3202: 3196: 3192: 3187: 3186: 3177: 3169: 3165: 3160: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3128: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3077: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3043: 3036: 3034: 3029: 3019: 3016: 3014: 3013:Macromolecule 3011: 3009: 3006: 3004: 3001: 2999: 2996: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2973: 2970: 2968: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2959: 2950: 2947: 2944: 2941: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2930: 2929: 2924: 2921: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2905: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2858: 2855: 2853: 2850: 2848: 2845: 2843: 2840: 2838: 2835: 2833: 2830: 2828: 2825: 2823: 2820: 2818: 2815: 2813: 2810: 2808: 2805: 2804: 2803: 2801: 2791: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2736: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2677: 2675: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2654: 2644: 2641: 2640: 2629: 2626: 2623: 2620: 2617: 2614: 2611: 2608: 2605: 2604: 2599: 2595: 2592: 2589: 2586: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2573: 2572: 2568: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2551: 2549: 2546: 2545: 2526: 2523: 2521: 2518: 2517: 2513: 2510: 2507: 2504: 2501: 2498: 2495: 2493: 2490: 2489: 2485: 2482: 2479: 2476: 2473: 2470: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2460: 2456: 2453: 2450: 2447: 2444: 2441: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2431: 2427: 2424: 2421: 2418: 2415: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2403: 2399: 2396: 2393: 2390: 2387: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2374: 2369: 2365: 2362: 2359: 2356: 2353: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2342: 2341: 2337: 2334: 2331: 2328: 2325: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2313: 2309: 2306: 2303: 2300: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2289: 2286: 2285: 2281: 2278: 2275: 2272: 2269: 2266: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2257: 2253: 2250: 2247: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2233: 2230: 2229: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2213: 2210: 2207: 2205: 2202: 2201: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2176: 2173: 2172: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2153: 2150: 2148: 2145: 2144: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2120: 2117: 2116: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2092: 2089: 2088: 2083: 2075: 2068: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2048: 2047:dietary fiber 2041: 2036: 2035: 2029: 2021: 2012: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1977: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1927: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1895:dietary fiber 1890: 1880: 1878: 1877:blood insulin 1874: 1873:insulin index 1870: 1866: 1865:blood glucose 1862: 1861:glycemic load 1858: 1853: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1840: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1801:disaccharides 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1781:Nutritionists 1773: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1750: 1748: 1747:dietary fiber 1744: 1740: 1736: 1735:arabinoxylans 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1707: 1702: 1701:disaccharides 1698: 1693: 1691: 1686: 1678: 1674: 1664: 1652: 1647: 1643: 1641: 1640:cell adhesion 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1624:glycoproteins 1621: 1617: 1616:disaccharides 1614:, similar to 1613: 1607: 1592: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1548: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1535: 1534: 1533: 1531: 1528:for sucrose, 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1482:formed via a 1481: 1477: 1476:covalent bond 1473: 1469: 1465: 1459: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1433:Disaccharides 1430: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1411:glycosylation 1408: 1404: 1400: 1399:glycoproteins 1396: 1392: 1391:galactolipids 1388: 1384: 1380: 1377:occur in the 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1310: 1308: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1253: 1249: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1213:stereoisomers 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1107: 1101: 1098: 1094: 1088: 1086: 1081: 1069: 1059: 1055: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1027: 1023: 1018: 1004: 1003:Hydrocolloids 1000: 996: 995:Hemicellulose 992: 988: 985: 982: 981: 977: 973: 970: 968: 965: 962: 958: 954: 950: 947: 944: 943: 940: 939:Maltodextrins 937: 934: 931: 927: 924: 920: 917: 915: 912: 911: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 889: 887: 886:Disaccharides 884: 883: 880: 876: 872: 868: 865: 863: 860: 857: 853: 849: 846: 841: 840: 834: 832: 822: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 787: 785: 781: 778: 774: 770: 766: 761: 751: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 716: 712: 708: 704: 699: 693: 688: 683: 674: 669: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 631: 626: 616: 611: 601: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 572: 563: 559: 556:This section 554: 551: 547: 546: 538: 536: 531: 527: 526:dietary fiber 523: 519: 515: 511: 506: 504: 500: 496: 491: 489: 485: 481: 477: 467: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 436:dietary fiber 433: 429: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 398: 396: 392: 388: 385:, preventing 384: 383:fertilization 380: 379:immune system 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 333:store (e.g., 332: 327: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 298: 'wine, 297: 294: 287: 283: 280: 279:Ancient Greek 276: 272: 271: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 249:disaccharides 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 227: 220: 217: 216:Ancient Greek 213: 209: 204: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 170: 166: 162: 156: 146: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 114: 69: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 6485: 6474: 6456: 6388:Maltodextrin 6269:Isomaltulose 6060:Deoxy sugars 5996:Ketotetrose 5899:Mutarotation 5838: 5745: 5457:Galactolysis 5427:Glycogenesis 5232:Fermentation 5204:ATP synthase 5035:. Retrieved 4995:. Retrieved 4986: 4976: 4967: 4945: 4936: 4893: 4887: 4854: 4850: 4844: 4803: 4799: 4792: 4780:. Retrieved 4771: 4762: 4755:Supplements. 4753: 4746:. Retrieved 4694: 4690: 4684: 4672:. Retrieved 4645: 4641: 4635: 4599: 4595: 4588: 4553: 4549: 4539: 4527:. Retrieved 4489: 4485: 4472: 4437: 4433: 4423: 4390: 4386: 4380: 4352: 4338: 4332: 4297: 4293: 4264:. Retrieved 4228: 4224: 4211: 4199:. Retrieved 4161: 4157: 4144: 4109: 4105: 4095: 4079: 4066: 4054:. Retrieved 4034: 4027: 4005:(2): 44–49. 4002: 3998: 3992: 3980:. Retrieved 3971: 3932: 3927: 3915:. Retrieved 3908:the original 3877: 3873: 3860: 3835: 3830: 3797: 3792: 3765: 3761: 3751: 3739:. Retrieved 3732:the original 3727: 3715: 3703:. Retrieved 3694: 3685: 3673:. Retrieved 3669:the original 3664: 3661:"Show Foods" 3655: 3645:February 26, 3643:. Retrieved 3634: 3631:"lyxoflavin" 3625: 3606: 3600: 3581: 3575: 3563:. Retrieved 3543: 3536: 3524:. Retrieved 3497: 3487: 3477:December 21, 3475:. Retrieved 3466: 3457: 3439:Biochemistry 3438: 3432: 3420:. Retrieved 3400: 3393: 3381:. Retrieved 3361: 3354: 3345: 3335:November 30, 3333:. Retrieved 3313: 3306: 3271: 3267: 3257: 3245:. Retrieved 3225: 3218: 3209: 3184: 3176: 3141: 3137: 3127: 3086: 3082: 3076: 3064:. Retrieved 3057:the original 3048: 2978:Glycobiology 2927: 2902: 2872: 2837:Nef reaction 2797: 2761: 2742: 2678: 2656: 2637: 2635: 2492:Sweet potato 2232:Navel orange 2026: 1997:side effects 1978: 1958:healthy diet 1955: 1923: 1919:constipation 1907:whole grains 1892: 1854: 1841: 1836: 1828:fermentation 1813: 1792: 1791:publication 1784: 1779: 1751: 1714: 1704: 1694: 1682: 1609: 1580: 1563: 1553: 1529: 1512: 1464:disaccharide 1461: 1458:Disaccharide 1327:biosynthesis 1316: 1306: 1290: 1280: 1268:heterocyclic 1266:, forming a 1257: 1182: 1111: 1090: 1077: 1051: 903:isomaltulose 828: 788: 762: 738:uronic acids 697: 695:(C=O)–(CHOH) 691: 686: 681: 670: 641: 630:formaldehyde 624: 614: 607: 579: 569:January 2022 566: 562:adding to it 557: 507: 495:food science 492: 473: 430: 399: 387:pathogenesis 375:biomolecules 328: 292: 289: 282: 268: 225: 222: 219: 211: 208:biochemistry 205: 197:formaldehyde 189:deoxy-sugars 185:uronic acids 164: 160: 154: 144: 68:carbohydrate 67: 65: 48:disaccharide 36: 6546:Xanthan gum 6534:Amylopectin 6406:Beta-glucan 6317:Maltotriose 6132:Ketohexoses 6085:Aldohexoses 6065:Deoxyribose 6000:Erythrulose 5958:Ketotriose 5948:Aldotriose 5583:lipogenesis 5445:Fructolysis 5259:Lactic acid 5037:October 30, 4997:October 15, 4782:January 30, 4748:December 1, 4602:: 124–131. 4368:|work= 3843:). Geneva: 3741:October 30, 3565:December 2, 3144:(1): 5–10. 3066:January 28, 2659:biochemical 2371:Vegetables 2076:Sucrose as 1846:whole grain 1620:glygolipids 1569:D-galactose 1478:known as a 1448:(left) and 1359:Deoxyribose 1221:enantiomers 1170:aldopentose 976:amylopectin 850:Components 799:deoxyribose 666:sialic acid 530:food energy 522:lactic acid 480:polyhydroxy 470:Terminology 460:metabolized 418:sugar beets 395:development 371:deoxyribose 201:acetic acid 119:biomolecule 52:D-galactose 32:hydrocarbon 18:Saccharides 6583:Categories 6322:Melezitose 6264:Isomaltose 6259:Cellobiose 5925:Aldodiose 5406:Glycolysis 5339:metabolism 5337:Nucleotide 5327:Urea cycle 5308:Amino acid 5297:Catabolism 5240:Glycolysis 5183:Glycolysis 5166:metabolism 5126:catabolism 5122:Metabolism 5055:(Requires 4693:(Review). 4552:(Review). 4389:(Review). 4160:(Review). 3526:August 30, 3422:January 8, 3024:References 2993:Glycolipid 2962:Bioplastic 2753:glycolysis 2749:catabolism 2739:Catabolism 2647:Metabolism 2575:Sugar beet 2548:Sugar cane 2434:Red pepper 1987:. Through 1711:lac operon 1589:cellobiose 1522:D-fructose 1450:D-fructose 1319:metabolism 1260:hemiacetal 1189:asymmetric 1178:ketohexose 1162:aldohexose 1152:, six are 1054:hydrolyzed 784:hemiacetal 771:where the 765:open-chain 709:with many 458:, and are 452:microbiota 408:, such as 277:(from 214:(from 212:saccharide 6594:Nutrition 6476:Galactose 6431:Cellulose 6421:Sizofiran 6345:Stachyose 6327:Raffinose 6294:Trehalose 6279:Lactulose 6100:Galactose 6023:Arabinose 5985:Erythrose 5837:Types of 5741:Additives 5579:lipolysis 5386:anabolism 5130:anabolism 5057:MDL Chime 4806:: 91–95. 4674:April 24, 4529:April 24, 4370:ignored ( 4360:cite book 4266:April 24, 4201:April 24, 4056:April 24, 3937:chapter 1 3705:August 2, 3383:April 24, 3247:April 24, 3003:Glycomics 2674:organisms 2667:breakdown 2663:formation 2316:Pineapple 2071:fructose/ 2069:Ratio of 2058:fructose 1911:halitosis 1739:Ruminants 1727:cellulose 1668:Nutrition 1628:raffinose 1573:D-glucose 1518:D-glucose 1446:D-glucose 1427:Trehalose 1419:digestion 1383:Galactose 1347:cell wall 1343:cellulose 1289:. In the 1264:hemiketal 1026:D-glucose 991:Cellulose 953:stachyose 949:Raffinose 907:trehalose 871:galactose 610:chemistry 604:Structure 586:sugarcane 432:Cellulose 414:sugarcane 402:nutrition 351:coenzymes 241:cellulose 226:sákkharon 56:D-glucose 6568:Category 6497:Glycogen 6480:Galactan 6458:Fructose 6443:Chitosan 6416:Lentinan 6365:Acarbose 6299:Turanose 6243:Multiple 6184:Heptoses 6172:Rhamnose 6167:Fuculose 6152:Tagatose 6137:Fructose 6053:Xylulose 6048:Ribulose 6012:Pentoses 5974:Tetroses 5877:Geometry 5868:Pyranose 5863:Furanose 5791:Vitamins 5786:Proteins 5751:Coloring 5502:Nonhuman 5487:O-linked 5482:N-linked 5274:Specific 5028:Archived 4991:Archived 4928:19768616 4894:Biofuels 4879:40353516 4871:24827686 4836:53757166 4828:30481664 4776:Archived 4742:Archived 4719:53102654 4711:30362180 4668:Archived 4664:30559231 4616:28750216 4580:29541907 4520:Archived 4516:56488132 4508:30544168 4464:21670516 4456:26768850 4415:54484172 4407:28074888 4324:28898979 4257:Archived 4253:52174104 4245:30194696 4192:Archived 4188:58632705 4180:30638909 4136:30122560 4084:Archived 4050:Archived 3982:April 3, 3976:Archived 3940:Archived 3904:28836672 3811:Archived 3784:16614413 3699:Archived 3665:usda.gov 3639:Archived 3559:Archived 3520:Archived 3516:20301274 3471:Archived 3416:Archived 3377:Archived 3329:Archived 3298:25971927 3241:Archived 3168:17610157 3111:12529622 3051:. Wien: 3008:Glycosyl 2983:Glycogen 2956:See also 2755:and the 2073:glucose 2066:Sucrose 2063:glucose 2001:insomnia 1985:epilepsy 1915:headache 1850:enriched 1816:fructose 1743:termites 1545:furanose 1541:pyranose 1488:hydrogen 1452:(right). 1415:Fructose 1401:in many 1375:xylulose 1371:Ribulose 1335:glycogen 1307:β anomer 1291:α anomer 1276:pyranose 1272:furanose 1174:fructose 1150:pentoses 1146:tetroses 1126:aldehyde 1114:carbonyl 1038:aldehyde 987:Glycogen 963:(>9) 923:mannitol 919:Sorbitol 875:fructose 847:Subgroup 825:Division 819:nitrogen 780:carbonyl 773:aldehyde 750:inositol 730:fructose 711:hydroxyl 703:aldehyde 594:glycogen 484:aldehyde 339:glycogen 318:sugar), 304:fructose 221:σάκχαρον 191:such as 129:(H) and 127:hydrogen 6539:Amylose 6487:Glucose 6462:Fructan 6452:Dextran 6448:Dextrin 6426:Zymosan 6289:Sucrose 6284:Maltose 6274:Lactose 6223:Nonoses 6218:Octoses 6211:Above 7 6147:Sorbose 6142:Psicose 6120:Mannose 6105:Glucose 6095:Altrose 6077:Hexoses 5990:Threose 5941:Trioses 5846:General 5766:Flavors 5756:Enzymes 5642:Ketosis 5254:Ethanol 5137:General 4898:Bibcode 4808:Bibcode 4571:5959976 4315:5546881 4127:6339822 4019:3703387 3895:6484378 3806:. Page 3695:fao.org 3675:June 4, 3289:4564526 3159:7088275 3119:4421938 3091:Bibcode 2998:Glycome 2681:glucose 2609:, sweet 2601:Grains 2587:0.1–0.5 2584:0.1–0.5 2560:0.2–1.0 2557:0.2–1.0 2542:Traces 2465:, sweet 2436:, sweet 2177:, dried 2119:Apricot 2085:Fruits 2053:sugars 2015:Sources 1939:insulin 1899:legumes 1869:glucose 1830:by the 1719:Diauxie 1690:lactose 1585:maltose 1565:Lactose 1514:Sucrose 1496:formula 1472:lactose 1468:sucrose 1442:Sucrose 1407:Mannose 1403:tissues 1397:and in 1387:lactose 1323:glucose 1287:anomers 1252:Glucose 1233:rotates 1225:epimers 1197:isomers 1158:glucose 1154:hexoses 1142:trioses 1100:anomers 999:Pectins 972:Amylose 914:Polyols 899:maltose 895:lactose 891:Sucrose 867:Glucose 726:glucose 652:(e.g., 650:sulfate 541:History 454:of the 424:, many 353:(e.g., 324:lactose 308:sucrose 293:gleûkos 286:γλεῦκος 275:glucose 159:(where 117:) is a 44:Lactose 6529:Starch 6524:Pectin 6519:Mannan 6514:Lignin 6491:Glucan 6468:Inulin 6436:Chitin 6162:Fucose 6125:Talose 6110:Gulose 6090:Allose 6038:Xylose 6033:Ribose 6028:Lyxose 5918:Dioses 5894:Epimer 5884:Anomer 5858:Ketose 5853:Aldose 5776:Lipids 5164:Energy 4926: 4916: 4877: 4869: 4834: 4826: 4717: 4709: 4662: 4614: 4578: 4568: 4514: 4506: 4462: 4454: 4413: 4405: 4345: 4322: 4312: 4251: 4243: 4186: 4178: 4158:Lancet 4134: 4124: 4042: 4017: 3950: 3902: 3892: 3851: 3821: 3782: 3613: 3588: 3551: 3514: 3504: 3445: 3408: 3369: 3321: 3296: 3286: 3233: 3197: 3166: 3156: 3117: 3109: 3083:Nature 2943:Benzyl 2774:) and 2725:oxygen 2713:energy 2701:lipids 2697:starch 2689:plants 2671:living 2536:Traces 2533:Traces 2530:Traces 2406:Carrot 2204:Grapes 2147:Banana 2051:Total 1972:. The 1953:risk. 1903:pulses 1839:USDA's 1731:chitin 1554:-oside 1367:Lyxose 1351:Ribose 1339:starch 1235:plane 1168:is an 1166:ribose 1160:is an 1138:ketose 1134:ketone 1130:aldose 1122:chiral 1118:carbon 967:Starch 932:(3–9) 879:xylose 858:(1–2) 856:Sugars 811:chitin 807:ribose 777:ketone 748:O and 742:fucose 732:, and 715:carbon 707:ketone 685:where 662:fucose 646:chitin 518:acetic 499:starch 488:ketone 448:inulin 426:fruits 393:, and 347:ribose 343:chitin 335:starch 331:energy 320:ribose 255:, and 239:, and 237:starch 233:sugars 193:fucose 131:oxygen 123:carbon 6384:(IMO) 6378:(GOS) 6372:(FOS) 6354:Other 6115:Idose 5796:Water 5660:Other 5620:Other 5395:Human 5276:paths 5031:(PDF) 5020:(PDF) 4875:S2CID 4832:S2CID 4715:S2CID 4523:(PDF) 4512:S2CID 4482:(PDF) 4460:S2CID 4411:S2CID 4260:(PDF) 4249:S2CID 4221:(PDF) 4195:(PDF) 4184:S2CID 4154:(PDF) 3911:(PDF) 3870:(PDF) 3735:(PDF) 3724:(PDF) 3191:52–59 3115:S2CID 3060:(PDF) 3045:(PDF) 2951:ether 2945:ether 2782:) to 2733:water 2705:fungi 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