381:
689:
596:
580:
639:
332:
880:
655:
1757:
896:: "People associate the information age with the advent of the Internet in the 1990s, but the shift from the industrial era started more than a generation earlier, with the deindustrialization of the Rust Belt in the United States and comparable movements away from manufacturing in other industrialized countries. … The decline is readily measurable in statistics on crime, fatherless children, broken trust, reduced opportunities for and outcomes from education, and the like".
29:
670:
1771:
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1785:
871:. As a result, the traditional manufacturing workers in the region have experienced economic upheaval. This effect has devastated government budgets across the U.S. and increased corporate borrowing to fund retiree benefits. Some economists believe that GDP and employment can be dragged down by large long-run trade deficits.
1670:
There have also been attempts to reinvent properties in the Rust Belt in order to reverse its economic decline. Buildings with compartmentalization unsuitable for today's uses were acquired and renewed to facilitate new businesses. These business activities suggest that the revival is taking place in
246:
peaked in 1953 and has been declining since. In the late 20th century, the Rust Belt began experiencing the elimination or outsourcing of manufacturing jobs, which in some cases continues in the 21st century. The region, which previously was the nation's industrial heartland, has experienced economic
1560:
Different strategies were proposed in order to reverse the fortunes of the former
Factory Belt including building casinos and convention centers, retaining the creative class through arts and downtown renewal, encouraging the knowledge economy type of entrepreneurship, and other steps. This includes
750:
Coal, iron ore, and other raw materials were shipped in from surrounding regions which emerged as major ports on the Great Lakes and served as transportation hubs for the region with proximity to railroad lines. Coming in the other direction were millions of
European immigrants, who populated the
425:
In the 20th century, local economies in these states specialized in large-scale manufacturing of finished medium to heavy industrial and consumer products, as well as the transportation and processing of the raw materials required for heavy industry. The area was referred to as the
Manufacturing
899:
Problems associated with the Rust Belt persist even today, particularly around the eastern Great Lakes states, and many once-booming manufacturing metropolises dramatically slowed down. From 1970 to 2006, Cleveland, Detroit, Buffalo, and
Pittsburgh lost about 45% of their population and median
607:
Since the term "Rust Belt" is used to refer to a set of economic and social conditions rather than to an overall geographical region of the U.S., the Rust Belt has no precise boundaries. The extent to which a community may have been described as a "Rust Belt city" depends on how great a role
903:
During the mid-1990s, several Rust Belt metropolitan areas experienced a suspension in negative growth, indicated by stabilizing unemployment, wages, and populations. During the first decade of the 21st century, however, a negative trend still persisted: Detroit, Michigan lost 25.7% of its
532:
to appreciate. This made U.S. products more expensive for foreigners to buy and also made imports much cheaper for
Americans to purchase. The misaligned exchange rate was not rectified until 1986, by which time Japanese imports, in particular, had made rapid inroads into U.S. markets.
473:, the Steel Belt was born. Soon it developed into the Factory Belt with its manufacturing cities: Chicago, Buffalo, Detroit, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Toledo, Cleveland, St. Louis, Youngstown, and Pittsburgh, among others. This region for decades served as a magnet for immigrants from
1623:
closed their production lines, is now again well known around the world as a center of polymer research with four hundred polymer-related manufacturing and distribution companies operating in the area. The turnaround was accomplished in part by a partnership between
1561:
growing new industrial base with a pool of skilled labor, rebuilding the infrastructure and infrasystems, creating research and development-focused university-business partnerships, and close cooperation between central, state and local government, and business.
844:) caused much U.S. heavy industry to begin moving to other countries. Beginning with the recession of 1970–71, a new pattern of deindustrializing economy emerged. Competitive devaluation combined with each successive downturn saw traditional U.S.
536:
From 1987 to 1999, the U.S. stock market went into a stratospheric rise, and this continued to pull wealthy foreign money into U.S. banks, which biased the exchange rate against manufactured goods. Related issues include the decline of the
1556:
report suggests that the Great Lakes region has a sizable potential for transformation, citing already existing global trade networks, clean energy/low carbon capacity, developed innovation infrastructure, and higher educational network.
790:
The northern cities experienced changes that followed the end of World War II, with the onset of the outward migration of residents to newer suburban communities, and the declining role of manufacturing in the
American economy.
891:
wrote that the social and cultural consequences of deindustrialization and manufacturing decline that turned a former thriving
Factory Belt into a Rust Belt as a part of a bigger transitional trend that he called the
1675:, which became effective in August 2022, was designed to rebuild the manufacturing sector with thousands of jobs and research programs in states like Ohio focusing on making products like semiconductors due to the
851:
Wealth-producing primary and secondary sector jobs such as those in manufacturing and computer software were often replaced by much-lower-paying wealth-consuming jobs such as those in retail and government in the
1931:
825:, called for the U.S. to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and
1663:, of manufacturing when a growing number of American companies were moving their production facilities from overseas back home. Rust Belt states can ultimately benefit from this process of international
619:, including St. Louis, and many of those in the Great Lakes and Northern New York. At the center of this expanse lies an area stretching from northern Indiana and southern Michigan in the west to
1958:
1632:, and the city mayor's office. The Akron Global Business Accelerator that jump-started a score of successful business ventures in Akron resides in the refurbished B.F. Goodrich tire factory.
1533:
of 2008 than the other sectors of the economy, and a number of initiatives, both public and private, are encouraging the development of alternative fuel, nano and other technologies.
3021:
608:
industrial manufacturing played in its local economy in the past and how it does now, as well as on perceptions of the economic viability and living standards of the present day.
802:
which pegs its currency to the dollar and has much lower prevailing wages, forcing domestic wages to drift downward. Some economists are concerned that long-run effects of high
2170:"Deindustrialization in the Granite State: What Keene, New Hampshire Can Tell Us About the Roles of Monetary Policy and Financialization in the Loss of US Manufacturing Jobs"
615:, the manufacturing belt, or the factory belt because of their vibrant industrial economies in the past. This includes most of the cities of the Midwest as far west as the
3043:
2717:
832:
Since the 1960s, the expansion of worldwide free trade agreements have been less favorable to U.S. workers. Imported goods such as steel cost much less to produce in
1745:. The town is described through both the teenage glamour of high school lens in the early 2000s and the harsh reality lens of what the town became 10 years later.
2364:
The
Northern states, once the foundry of the nation, are known now as the Rust Belt or the Snow Belt, in invidious comparison to the supposedly booming Sun Belt.
794:
Outsourcing of manufacturing jobs in tradeable goods has been an important issue in the region. One source has been globalization and the expansion of worldwide
630:, the cities in the Rust Belt region were among the largest in the U.S. However, by the 20th century's end their population had fallen the most in the country.
611:
News media occasionally refer to a patchwork of defunct centers of heavy industry and manufacturing across the Great Lakes and
Midwestern United States as the
2817:
561:, lack of education, declining tax revenues, high unemployment and crime, drugs, swelling welfare rolls, deficit spending, and poor municipal credit ratings.
2188:
3095:
2553:"1990 Population and Maximum Decennial Census Population of Urban Places Ever Among the 100 Largest Urban Places, Listed Alphabetically by State: 1790–1990"
250:
Since the 1980s, presidential candidates have devoted much of their time to the economic concerns of the Rust Belt region, which includes several populous
3070:
3616:
2401:
2894:
817:
Some economists contend that the U.S. is borrowing to fund consumption of imports while accumulating unsustainable amounts of debt. On June 26, 2009,
3591:
3611:
2969:
2940:
2908:
2212:
848:
workers experiencing lay-offs. In general, in the
Factory Belt employment in the manufacturing sector declined by 32.9% between 1969 and 1996.
2734:
2523:
2284:
538:
2733:
Daniel Hartley. "Urban Decline in Rust-Belt Cities." Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland Economic Commentary, Number 2013-06, May 20, 2013.
798:
agreements. Anti-globalization groups argue that trade with developing countries has resulted in stiff competition from countries such as
751:
cities along the Great Lakes shores with then-unprecedented speed. Chicago was a rural trading post in the 1840s but grew to be as big as
3454:
2075:
3601:
1814:
1734:
facing the fictional Western Pennsylvanian town of Buell, itself brought about by thorough de-industrialization typical of the region.
44:
manufacturers for most of the 20th century, ceased most manufacturing in 1982, filed for bankruptcy in 2001, and was dissolved in 2003.
772:
as a "depressed industrial desert" as early as 1931, as its textile concerns were being uprooted and sent southward, primarily to the
3626:
3463:
3416:
497:
in some areas, who provided the industrial facilities with inexpensive labor. These migrants drawn by labor were also accompanied by
783:
followed by American entry into World War II was followed by a rapid return to economic growth, during which much of the industrial
762:
Early signs of the difficulty in the northern states were evident early in the 20th century before the "boom years" were even over.
2143:
513:
290:
286:
275:
2225:
High, Steven C. Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America's Rust Belt, 1969–1984. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003.
883:
Every state that lost a House seat due to population loss after the 2020 U.S. Census, except California, is part of the Rust Belt.
1643:
516:, cities in this area struggled to adapt to a variety of adverse economic and social conditions. From 1979 to 1982, known as the
2773:
1564:
New types of research and development-intensive nontraditional manufacturing have emerged recently in the Rust Belt, including
384:
Change in per capita personal income in metropolitan counties, 1980–2002, relative to the average for U.S. metropolitan areas:
2621:
2506:
2474:
1972:
811:
643:
574:
2119:
2798:"Rustbelt recovery: Against all the odds, American factories are coming back to life. Thank the rest of the world for that"
1592:
1737:
The 21st century evolution of this region of the U.S. is also depicted through the fictional town of New Canaan, Ohio, in
549:
which allowed factories to maintain production with fewer workers, the internationalization of American business, and the
441:
waterways, and abundance of paved roads, water canals, and railroads. After the transportation infrastructure linked the
840:). The introduction of pollution regulation in the late 1960's, combined with rapidly increasing U.S. energy costs (see
541:, the movement of manufacturing to the southeastern states with their lower labor costs, the layoffs due to the rise of
380:
3621:
3179:
1824:
1676:
1584:
is seen as representing an opportunity for the Rust Belt's revitalization. Among the successful recent examples is the
859:
In 1984, an incremental expansion of the U.S. trade deficit with China began combined with growing trade deficits with
502:
65:
3294:
Meyer, David R. (1989). "Midwestern Industrialization and the American Manufacturing Belt in the Nineteenth Century".
3391:
3377:
3361:
3347:
3288:
3274:
3260:
3246:
3225:
3211:
3197:
2385:
2264:
2256:
1616:
2061:
Meyer, David R. 1989. "Midwestern Industrialization and the American Manufacturing Belt in the Nineteenth Century."
3520:
3490:
2814:
1625:
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in industrial processes, the decreased need for labor in making steel products, new organizational methods such as
279:
2195:
3447:
756:
300:
2577:. (AMACOM) American Management Association. Citing Paul Craig Roberts, Paul Samuelson, and Lou Dobbs, pp. 36–38.
623:
in the east, where local tax revenues as of 2004 relied more heavily on manufacturing than on any other sector.
853:
3044:"Coming home: A growing number of American companies are moving their manufacturing back to the United States"
1880:
2670:
2405:
904:
population; Gary, Indiana, 22%; Youngstown, Ohio, 18.9%; Flint, Michigan, 18.7%; and Cleveland, Ohio, 14.5%.
426:
Belt, Factory Belt, or Steel Belt as distinct from the agricultural Midwestern states forming the so-called
3606:
2757:
1819:
1585:
312:
243:
1906:
1687:
The Rust Belt is depicted in various films, television shows, and songs. It is the subject of the popular
3515:
2923:
2718:
Did the Rust Belt Become Shiny? A Study of Cities and Counties That Lost Steel and Auto Jobs in the 1980s
2552:
1829:
1611:, a former "Rubber Capital of the World" that lost 35,000 jobs after major tire and rubber manufacturers
900:
household incomes fell: in Cleveland and Detroit by about 30%, in Buffalo by 20%, and Pittsburgh by 10%.
724:
688:
462:
454:
231:. The term gained popularity in the U.S. beginning in the 1980s when it was commonly contrasted with the
97:
3432:
1588:, which specializes in unmanned aerial systems integration, testing and aerial cinematography services.
3440:
728:
308:
57:
2834:"Greening the rustbelt: In the shadow of the climate bill, the industrial Midwest begins to get ready"
1638:, creates another promising avenue for the manufacturing resurgence. Such companies as MakerGear from
3596:
3120:
1723:
1607:, Blue Belt Technologies, and Seegrid are creating state-of-the-art robotic technology applications.
1504:
732:
595:
2590:
2531:
2281:
61:
2347:
2037:
Confronting Decline: The Political Economy of Deindustrialization in Twentieth-Century New England
437:
The flourishing industrial manufacturing in the region was caused in part by the proximity to the
335:
Change in total number of manufacturing jobs in metropolitan areas between 1954–2002; figures for
3525:
1098:
584:
528:
to 19%. High-interest rates attracted wealthy foreign "hot money" into U.S. banks and caused the
125:
37:
1581:
1573:
784:
600:
69:
1881:"The US is split into more than a dozen 'belts' defined by industry, weather, and even health"
1646:, are designing and manufacturing industrial and consumer products using 3-D imaging systems.
579:
2083:
1672:
1553:
763:
3421:
2637:
2575:
Outsourcing America: What's Behind Our National Crisis and How We Can Reclaim American Jobs
2299:
Beeson, Patricia E. "Sources of the decline of manufacturing in large metropolitan areas."
2106:
Nothin' but Blue Skies: The Heyday, Hard Times, and Hopes of America's Industrial Heartland
1762:
1612:
768:
697:
638:
529:
466:
133:
2881:
2614:
Bad Money: Reckless Finance, Failed Politics, and the Global Crisis of American Capitalism
715:
with the once-rapidly industrializing East Coast was effected through several large-scale
8:
1959:"Competition and the Decline of the Rust Belt | Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis"
1804:
1629:
1482:
1122:
841:
712:
646:(NIIP) has caused concern among economists over the effects of outsourcing and high U.S.
224:
204:
189:
173:
3327:
3319:
2441:
2018:
1799:
1596:
736:
570:
546:
458:
316:
212:
181:
739:
in 1875. A gate was opened between a variety of burgeoning industries on the interior
299:
was also hit hard by industrial decline during the same era, but cities closer to the
219:
on these regions attributable to the shrinking industrial sector especially including
3398:
The Next Shift: The Fall of Industry and the Rise of Health Care in Rust Belt America
3387:
3373:
3357:
3343:
3331:
3311:
3284:
3270:
3256:
3242:
3221:
3207:
3193:
3175:
2963:
2934:
2902:
2892:
2617:
2502:
2381:
2260:
2252:
2206:
2010:
1974:
From Good Works to a Good Job: An Exploration of Poverty and Work in Appalachian Ohio
1731:
1697:
1328:
1306:
1216:
1170:
1008:
826:
663:
616:
498:
208:
137:
2955:
2022:
3485:
3411:
3303:
2000:
1790:
1692:
1656:
1537:
1372:
1103:
1030:
888:
822:
803:
780:
766:, once the center of textile production in the U.S., was described in the magazine
647:
620:
470:
193:
73:
3427:
2895:"The Next Economy: Economic Recovery and Transformation in the Great Lakes Region"
2746:
2745:
Glenn King. Census Brief: "Rust Belt" Rebounds, CENBR/98-7, Issued December 1998.
2471:
810:(amount owed to foreign lenders) and a serious deterioration in the United States
149:
3570:
3169:
2821:
2478:
2288:
1738:
1639:
1569:
1530:
986:
557:. Cities struggling with these conditions shared several difficulties, including
521:
474:
331:
320:
33:
3354:
Good with Their Hands: Boxers, Bluesmen, and Other Characters from the Rust Belt
3366:
3002:
1844:
1776:
1577:
1260:
744:
716:
659:
558:
550:
304:
203:
to describe industry that has "rusted out", usually referring to the impact of
3307:
2186:
879:
654:
3585:
3565:
3315:
3096:"Biden touts computer chips bill in battleground Ohio amid tight Senate race"
1809:
1718:
1713:
1702:
1651:
1565:
1509:
962:
845:
807:
740:
693:
554:
525:
239:
238:
The Rust Belt experienced industrial decline starting in the 1950s. The U.S.
157:
85:
2893:
John C. Austin, Jennifer Bradley, and Jennifer S. Vey (September 27, 2010).
2005:
1988:
3530:
3495:
2014:
1854:
1834:
1701:
album in 1982. The song uses Allentown as a metaphor for the resilience of
1620:
1552:
Delving into the past and musing on the future of Rust Belt states, a 2010
1438:
1287:
1238:
1194:
1076:
837:
704:
627:
517:
431:
271:
263:
185:
165:
77:
3281:
Reorganizing the Rust Belt: An Inside Study of the American Labor Movement
3232:
The Cambridge Economic History of the United States: The Twentieth Century
2833:
2797:
3555:
3505:
3475:
3462:
3171:
Boom, Bust, Exodus: The Rust Belt, the Maquilas, and a Tale of Two Cities
2921:
2688:
The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order
2653:
Kahn, Matthew E. "The silver lining of rust belt manufacturing decline."
1859:
1839:
1727:
1635:
1608:
1604:
1544:, the Rust Belt composes one of the world's major manufacturing regions.
1416:
1350:
864:
833:
818:
674:
438:
336:
296:
251:
228:
220:
216:
3510:
3480:
3323:
2700:
1849:
1688:
1664:
1600:
1394:
1282:
806:
and outsourcing are a cause of economic problems in the U.S. with high
795:
720:
701:
669:
542:
509:
486:
446:
200:
169:
145:
113:
22:
3239:
People and Folks: Gangs, Crime, and the Underclass in a Rust-Belt City
2326:
28:
3545:
3535:
3500:
3384:
The American Steel Industry, 1850–1970: A Geographical Interpretation
3253:
Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America's Rust Belt, 1969–1984
1989:"The revolt of the Rust Belt: place and politics in the age of anger"
1706:
1660:
1146:
1054:
773:
450:
427:
282:
267:
177:
161:
129:
117:
101:
3370:
Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest
3140:
2249:
People and Folks: Gangs, Crime and the Underclass in a Rustbelt City
2169:
2050:
Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest
1529:
In the late 2000s, American manufacturing recovered faster from the
3560:
3550:
3428:
Collection: "Rust Belt" at the University of Michigan Museum of Art
2758:
Mark Peters, Jack Nicas. "Rust Belt Reaches for Immigration Tide",
2499:
Home From Nowhere: Remaking Our Everyday World for the 21st Century
1591:
In Pittsburgh, robotics research centers and companies such as the
1175:
1151:
1127:
943:
682:
442:
255:
232:
121:
109:
105:
93:
3071:"Rust Belt states reinvent their abandoned industrial landscapes"
2573:
Hira, Ron, and Anil Hira with foreword by Lou Dobbs, (May 2005).
1541:
1460:
967:
938:
707:
in North America; it opened in the 1930s and closed in the 1970s.
678:
153:
141:
89:
1932:"The Rust Belt is the Industrial Heartland of the United States"
21:"Steel Belt" redirects here. For the type of conveyor belt, see
3022:"Conference in Pittsburgh shows growing allure of 3-D printing"
1770:
868:
494:
482:
478:
2669:
David Friedman (Senior Fellow at the New America Foundation).
860:
799:
752:
490:
41:
2984:"ASX – Airspace Experience Technologies – Detroit MI – VTOL"
2924:"Clues From The Past: The Midwest As An Aspirational Region"
2983:
2922:
Joel Kotkin, March Schill, Ryan Streeter. (February 2012).
2189:"The Decline of the US Rust Belt: A Macroeconomic Analysis"
1035:
434:
states that are often called the "breadbasket of America".
259:
81:
2638:
GE's Immelt says the U.S. economy needs industrial renewal
2236:
Poverty and Place: Ghettos, Barrios, and the American City
2120:"This kind of shock to the economy will have consequences"
3424:
Digital Media Repository, Ball State University Libraries
3204:
Apocalypse town: cronache dalla fine della civiltà urbana
743:
continent and the markets of large East Coast cities and
3141:"American Rust (Official Series Site) Watch on Showtime"
2076:"Interactives . United States History Map. Fifty States"
1946:
The Continuing Decline of Manufacturing in the Rust Belt
505:
who were drawn by jobs and better economic opportunity.
3220:. Ann Arbor, Mich: University of Michigan Press, 1987.
2863:. Department of Geography, the University of Washington
2187:
Alder, Simeon, David Lagakos, and Lee Ohanian. (2012).
319:
or transforming their economies to shift focus towards
3003:"Mayor says attitude is key to Akron's revitalization"
2716:
Feyrer, James, Bruce Sacerdote, and Ariel Dora Stern.
2167:
1980:
3400:(Harvard University Press, 2021), focus on Pittsburgh
2589:
Cauchon, Dennis, and John Waggoner (October 3, 2004).
1705:
Americans in distressed industrial cities during the
1752:
323:, advanced manufacturing, and high-tech industries.
2524:"Timeline of Lowell History From the 1600s to 2009"
787:reached its peak population and industrial output.
3356:. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
3283:. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.
3069:Dayton, Stephen Starr in; Ohio (January 5, 2019).
2882:Rust Belt is still the heart of U.S. manufacturing
2144:"Volcker Shock: key economic indicators 1979-1987"
414: income below avg., growth avg. or below avg.
396: income above avg., growth avg. or below avg.
3269:. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1999.
2954:Circle, Cheetah Interactive, Paul (19 May 2013).
1986:
16:Region in the U.S. affected by industrial decline
3583:
2956:"Silicon Rust Belt » Rethink The Rust Belt"
2404:. USDA Economic Research Service. Archived from
2402:"Measuring Rurality: 2004 County Typology Codes"
2316:. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1999.
1948:. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1993.
908:2000–2020 population change in Rust Belt cities
408: income below avg., growth faster than avg.
390: income above avg., growth faster than avg.
247:distress and a resulting decline in population.
3372:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993.
3167:
2766:
2611:
524:decided to raise the base interest rate in the
3255:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003.
3000:
2636:Bailey, David and Soyoung Kim (June 26, 2009).
2052:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993.
420: income below avg. and further decreasing
3448:
3234:. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
3230:Engerman, Stanley L., and Robert E. Gallman.
3088:
3019:
2136:
2968:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2939:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2907:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2774:"City and Town Population Totals: 2020-2021"
2440:Hansen, Jeff; et al. (March 10, 2007).
2251:. Lake View Press, Chicago, IL, (paperback:
2211:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2707:, May 1999, Volume 283, No. 5, pages 55–80.
2665:
2663:
2607:
2605:
2603:
2501:. New York: Touchstone/Simon and Schuster.
2492:
2490:
1599:, Aethon Inc., American Robot Corporation,
779:In the first half of the 20th century, the
3455:
3441:
3422:Changing Gears Documentary Film Collection
3068:
2861:"Major Manufacturing Regions of the World"
2585:
2583:
2238:. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997.
1977:. PhD dissertation, Ohio University, 2007.
1879:Abadi, Mark; Gal, Shayanne (May 7, 2018).
1815:Early 1980s recession in the United States
599:Sectors of the U.S. economy as percent of
3617:Economy of the Northeastern United States
2722:Brookings-Wharton Papers on Urban Affairs
2466:
2464:
2462:
2111:
2004:
3592:1980 establishments in the United States
3412:Industrial Heartland map and photographs
3216:Denison, Daniel R., and Stuart L. Hart.
2660:
2600:
2496:
2487:
1878:
1732:economic, social, and population decline
878:
836:countries with cheap foreign labor (see
687:
668:
653:
637:
594:
578:
379:
330:
291:2024 United States presidential election
27:
3612:Economy of the Midwestern United States
2580:
2375:
2276:"Rust Belt Woes: Steel out, drugs in,"
1677:global chip shortage of the early 2020s
3584:
2953:
2630:
2521:
2459:
2439:
1987:Michael McQuarrie (November 8, 2017).
1636:Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing
731:in 1834, and the consolidation of the
402: income above avg. but decreasing
3436:
3293:
2470:Bivens, L. Josh (December 14, 2004).
1904:
1682:
812:net international investment position
644:net international investment position
575:Economic history of the United States
2567:
2555:. United States Bureau of the Census
2380:. University of Pennsylvania Press.
2247:Hagedorn, John M., and Perry Macon.
2117:
1593:National Robotics Engineering Center
2591:The Looming National Benefit Crisis
2108:. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2013.
856:sector when the economy recovered.
13:
3241:. Chicago: Lake View Press, 1988.
3160:
2858:
2348:"Sun On The Snow Belt (editorial)"
2176:. No. November/December 2017.
1825:Economy of Allentown, Pennsylvania
1626:Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
124:. Cities in the Rust Belt include
40:. The company, one of the largest
14:
3638:
3602:Belt regions of the United States
3405:
3386:. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973.
3237:Hagedorn, John, and Perry Macon.
2671:No Light at the End of the Tunnel
2430:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981.
2428:The Nine Nations of North America
1938:
1712:The Rust Belt is the setting for
1547:
591:is associated with the Rust Belt.
553:of foreign trade policies due to
508:Following several "boom" periods
3627:Urban decay in the United States
2278:The Northwest Florida Daily News
1993:The British Journal of Sociology
1783:
1769:
1755:
3296:The Journal of Economic History
3133:
3113:
3062:
3036:
3020:Len Boselovic (June 13, 2013).
3013:
3001:Sherry Karabin (May 16, 2013).
2994:
2976:
2947:
2915:
2886:
2875:
2852:
2826:
2790:
2751:
2739:
2727:
2710:
2693:
2680:
2647:
2545:
2515:
2497:Kunstler, James Howard (1996).
2433:
2420:
2394:
2369:
2340:
2319:
2306:
2293:
2270:
2241:
2228:
2219:
2180:
2168:Marie Christine Duggan (2017).
2161:
2118:Wolf, Zachary B. (2022-07-27).
2098:
2068:
2055:
270:. These states were crucial to
3342:. New York: Avon Books, 1992.
2897:. Brookings Institution Paper.
2522:Marion, Paul (November 2009).
2042:
2029:
1965:
1951:
1924:
1905:Stone, Lyman (March 1, 2018).
1898:
1872:
1644:North Huntingdon, Pennsylvania
242:sector as a percentage of the
1:
2690:. New York: Free Press, 1999.
2644:. Retrieved on June 28, 2009.
2484:. Retrieved on June 28, 2009.
1866:
326:
1820:Economy of the United States
1671:the once-stagnant area. The
1655:reported a growing trend of
1586:Detroit Aircraft Corporation
564:
369: 7.5% loss – 54.4% gain
313:Washington metropolitan area
7:
3192:. London: UCL Press, 1995.
3174:. Oxford University Press.
2778:United States Census Bureau
2063:Journal of Economic History
1830:Economy of Youngstown, Ohio
1748:
1628:, which chose to stay, the
1536:Along with the neighboring
906:
874:
725:Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
98:Lower Peninsula of Michigan
10:
3645:
2657:46, no. 3 (1999): 360–376.
2655:Journal of Urban Economics
2477:December 17, 2004, at the
2301:Journal of Urban Economics
1741:'s 2018 bestseller novel,
1695:," originally released on
1503:
1481:
1459:
1437:
1415:
1393:
1371:
1349:
1327:
1305:
1281:
1259:
1237:
1215:
1193:
1169:
1145:
1121:
1097:
1075:
1053:
1029:
1007:
985:
961:
937:
729:Allegheny Portage Railroad
711:The linking of the former
633:
568:
547:just-in-time manufacturing
309:New York metropolitan area
276:2016 presidential election
199:The term "Rust Belt" is a
58:Northeastern United States
20:
3622:Great Lakes region (U.S.)
3471:
3308:10.1017/S0022050700009505
3024:. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
2482:Economic Policy Institute
1907:"Where Is the Rust Belt?"
1505:Charleston, West Virginia
918:
915:
912:
757:1893 Columbian Exposition
735:following the end of the
733:New York Central Railroad
3265:Higgins, James Jeffrey.
3218:Revival in the rust belt
3190:The Rise of the Rustbelt
3168:Broughton, Chad (2015).
2612:Phillips, Kevin (2007).
2312:Higgins, James Jeffrey.
2303:28, no. 1 (1990): 71–86.
1642:, or ExOne Company from
1283:Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
717:infrastructural projects
225:automobile manufacturing
62:Midwestern United States
32:Rusting steel stacks of
3267:Images of the Rust Belt
3206:. Roma: Laterza, 2012.
2760:The Wall Street Journal
2376:Neumann, Tracy (2016).
2314:Images of the Rust Belt
2006:10.1111/1468-4446.12328
1099:Niagara Falls, New York
700:was one of the largest
585:Great Lakes megalopolis
539:iron and steel industry
445:found in the so-called
66:the very northern parts
38:Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
2378:Remaking the Rust Belt
2287:April 6, 2016, at the
1582:Information technology
884:
814:(NIIP) (−24% of GDP).
708:
685:
666:
651:
604:
592:
422:
377:
289:, and to the upcoming
70:Southern United States
45:
3279:Lopez, Steven Henry.
3202:Coppola, Alessandro.
2929:. Sagamore Institute.
2408:on September 14, 2011
1724:television adaptation
1673:CHIPS and Science Act
1554:Brookings Institution
882:
764:Lowell, Massachusetts
691:
672:
657:
641:
603:between 1947 and 2009
598:
582:
383:
363: 8.7–29.1% loss
334:
235:, which was surging.
120:metropolitan area in
104:, and small parts of
56:, is a region of the
31:
3466:of the United States
3007:The Akron Legal News
2705:The Atlantic Monthly
2701:The Great Disruption
2442:"Which Way Forward?"
2280:, January 16, 2008.
2201:on December 3, 2013.
1944:Crandall, Robert W.
1763:United States portal
1709:of the early 1980s.
698:Ashley, Pennsylvania
522:U.S. Federal Reserve
467:Western Pennsylvania
3607:Deindustrialization
2762:, May 13, 2013, A3.
2686:Fukuyama, Francis.
2472:Debt and the dollar
2446:The Birmingham News
2234:Jargowsky, Paul A.
2174:Dollars & Sense
2104:, McClelland, Ted.
1805:Deindustrialization
1630:University of Akron
1483:South Bend, Indiana
1147:St. Louis, Missouri
1123:Baltimore, Maryland
909:
842:1970s energy crisis
755:by the time of the
719:, most notably the
713:Northwest Territory
642:Deteriorating U.S.
357: 31–43.2% loss
205:deindustrialization
3338:Preston, Richard.
3050:. January 19, 2013
2820:2017-06-11 at the
2699:Francis Fukuyama.
1800:Decline of Detroit
1683:In popular culture
1597:Robotics Institute
907:
885:
737:American Civil War
709:
686:
667:
652:
650:over the long-run.
605:
593:
571:Regional economics
510:from the late-19th
423:
378:
375: >62% gain
345: >58% loss
274:'s victory in the
46:
3579:
3578:
3396:Winant, Gabriel.
3382:Warren, Kenneth.
2859:Beyers, William.
2840:. August 13, 2009
2675:Los Angeles Times
2623:978-0-14-314328-4
2508:978-0-684-83737-6
2354:. August 25, 1985
2035:David Koistinen,
1999:(S1): S120–S152.
1698:The Nylon Curtain
1527:
1526:
1477:3,620,962 (1950)
1461:Chicago, Illinois
1329:Springfield, Ohio
1307:Pontiac, Michigan
1217:Buffalo, New York
1171:Decatur, Illinois
1009:Saginaw, Michigan
957:1,849,568 (1950)
939:Detroit, Michigan
829:to drive demand.
827:consumer spending
664:Buffalo, New York
617:Mississippi River
499:African Americans
463:Appalachian Basin
351: 43–56% loss
3634:
3597:1980s neologisms
3457:
3450:
3443:
3434:
3433:
3352:Rotella, Carlo.
3335:
3251:High, Steven C.
3185:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3117:
3111:
3110:
3108:
3107:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3081:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3055:
3040:
3034:
3033:
3031:
3029:
3017:
3011:
3010:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2980:
2974:
2973:
2967:
2959:
2951:
2945:
2944:
2938:
2930:
2928:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2906:
2898:
2890:
2884:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2830:
2824:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2804:. March 10, 2011
2794:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2784:
2770:
2764:
2755:
2749:
2743:
2737:
2731:
2725:
2714:
2708:
2697:
2691:
2684:
2678:
2677:, June 16, 2002.
2667:
2658:
2651:
2645:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2609:
2598:
2587:
2578:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2530:. Archived from
2519:
2513:
2512:
2494:
2485:
2468:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2437:
2431:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2413:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2359:
2344:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2323:
2317:
2310:
2304:
2297:
2291:
2274:
2268:
2245:
2239:
2232:
2226:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2210:
2202:
2200:
2194:. Archived from
2193:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2155:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2130:
2115:
2109:
2102:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2086:on April 4, 2017
2082:. Archived from
2072:
2066:
2059:
2053:
2048:Teaford, Jon C.
2046:
2040:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2008:
1984:
1978:
1971:Leeman, Mark A.
1969:
1963:
1962:
1955:
1949:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1885:Business Insider
1876:
1793:
1791:Geography portal
1788:
1787:
1786:
1779:
1774:
1773:
1765:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1538:Golden Horseshoe
1395:Cincinnati, Ohio
1373:Hammond, Indiana
1031:Youngstown, Ohio
910:
894:Great Disruption
889:Francis Fukuyama
823:General Electric
781:Great Depression
675:Fisher auto body
621:Upstate New York
590:
514:mid-20th century
471:Western Virginia
453:, Wisconsin and
419:
413:
407:
401:
395:
389:
374:
368:
362:
356:
350:
344:
278:, his defeat by
209:economic decline
74:Upstate New York
3644:
3643:
3637:
3636:
3635:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3582:
3581:
3580:
3575:
3467:
3461:
3408:
3403:
3367:Teaford, Jon C.
3188:Cooke, Philip.
3182:
3163:
3161:Further reading
3158:
3149:
3147:
3139:
3138:
3134:
3125:
3123:
3121:"Philipp Meyer"
3119:
3118:
3114:
3105:
3103:
3094:
3093:
3089:
3079:
3077:
3075:The Irish Times
3067:
3063:
3053:
3051:
3042:
3041:
3037:
3027:
3025:
3018:
3014:
2999:
2995:
2982:
2981:
2977:
2961:
2960:
2952:
2948:
2932:
2931:
2926:
2920:
2916:
2900:
2899:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2876:
2866:
2864:
2857:
2853:
2843:
2841:
2832:
2831:
2827:
2822:Wayback Machine
2807:
2805:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2782:
2780:
2772:
2771:
2767:
2756:
2752:
2744:
2740:
2732:
2728:
2724:(2007): 41–102.
2715:
2711:
2698:
2694:
2685:
2681:
2668:
2661:
2652:
2648:
2635:
2631:
2624:
2610:
2601:
2588:
2581:
2572:
2568:
2558:
2556:
2551:
2550:
2546:
2537:
2535:
2528:Yankee Magazine
2520:
2516:
2509:
2495:
2488:
2479:Wayback Machine
2469:
2460:
2450:
2448:
2438:
2434:
2426:Garreau, Joel.
2425:
2421:
2411:
2409:
2400:
2399:
2395:
2388:
2374:
2370:
2357:
2355:
2352:Chicago Tribune
2346:
2345:
2341:
2331:
2329:
2327:"Who Makes It?"
2325:
2324:
2320:
2311:
2307:
2298:
2294:
2289:Wayback Machine
2275:
2271:
2246:
2242:
2233:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2204:
2203:
2198:
2191:
2185:
2181:
2166:
2162:
2153:
2151:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2128:
2126:
2116:
2112:
2103:
2099:
2089:
2087:
2080:www.learner.org
2074:
2073:
2069:
2060:
2056:
2047:
2043:
2034:
2030:
1985:
1981:
1970:
1966:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1943:
1939:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1915:
1913:
1903:
1899:
1889:
1887:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1864:
1789:
1784:
1782:
1775:
1768:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1739:Stephen Markley
1730:of both is the
1714:Philipp Meyer's
1685:
1640:Beachwood, Ohio
1550:
1531:Great Recession
1499:132,445 (1960)
1433:100,216 (1970)
1411:503,998 (1950)
1389:111,698 (1960)
1367:290,351 (1960)
1301:676,806 (1950)
1255:383,818 (1970)
1233:580,132 (1950)
1211:116,912 (1950)
1165:856,796 (1950)
1141:949,708 (1950)
1117:102,394 (1960)
1093:262,332 (1960)
1071:914,808 (1950)
1055:Cleveland, Ohio
1049:170,002 (1930)
1003:196,940 (1960)
987:Flint, Michigan
981:178,320 (1960)
877:
636:
588:
577:
567:
559:population loss
503:Great Migration
475:Austria-Hungary
461:mined from the
421:
417:
415:
411:
409:
405:
403:
399:
397:
393:
391:
387:
385:
376:
372:
370:
366:
364:
360:
358:
354:
352:
348:
346:
342:
340:
329:
213:population loss
100:, southeastern
52:, formerly the
34:Bethlehem Steel
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3642:
3641:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3472:
3469:
3468:
3464:"Belt" regions
3460:
3459:
3452:
3445:
3437:
3431:
3430:
3425:
3419:
3414:
3407:
3406:External links
3404:
3402:
3401:
3394:
3380:
3364:
3350:
3340:American Steel
3336:
3302:(4): 921–937.
3291:
3277:
3263:
3249:
3235:
3228:
3214:
3200:
3186:
3181:978-0199765614
3180:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3156:
3132:
3112:
3087:
3061:
3035:
3012:
2993:
2975:
2946:
2914:
2885:
2874:
2851:
2825:
2789:
2765:
2750:
2738:
2726:
2709:
2692:
2679:
2659:
2646:
2629:
2622:
2599:
2579:
2566:
2544:
2514:
2507:
2486:
2458:
2432:
2419:
2393:
2386:
2368:
2339:
2318:
2305:
2292:
2269:
2259:; clothbound:
2240:
2227:
2218:
2179:
2160:
2135:
2110:
2097:
2067:
2065:49(4):921–937.
2054:
2041:
2028:
1979:
1964:
1950:
1937:
1923:
1897:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1845:Shrinking city
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1794:
1780:
1777:Economy portal
1766:
1750:
1747:
1684:
1681:
1549:
1548:Transformation
1546:
1525:
1524:
1523:85,796 (1960)
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1455:78,185 (1970)
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1345:82,723 (1960)
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1323:85,279 (1970)
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1277:70,509 (1930)
1275:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1261:Lakewood, Ohio
1257:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1235:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1191:
1190:
1189:94,081 (1980)
1187:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1101:
1095:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1073:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1033:
1027:
1026:
1025:98,265 (1960)
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1005:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
989:
983:
982:
979:
976:
973:
970:
965:
959:
958:
955:
952:
949:
946:
941:
935:
934:
931:
928:
925:
921:
920:
917:
914:
876:
873:
804:trade deficits
745:Western Europe
741:North American
660:grain elevator
648:trade deficits
635:
632:
566:
563:
551:liberalization
455:Upper Michigan
416:
410:
404:
398:
392:
386:
371:
365:
359:
353:
347:
341:
339:are from 1958.
328:
325:
305:Greater Boston
72:. It includes
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3640:
3639:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
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3417:Rust Belt map
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3409:
3399:
3395:
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3392:0-8229-3597-X
3389:
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3378:0-253-35786-1
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3362:0-520-22562-7
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3348:0-13-029604-X
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3275:0-87338-626-4
3272:
3268:
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3261:0-8020-8528-8
3258:
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3250:
3248:
3247:0-941702-21-9
3244:
3240:
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3233:
3229:
3227:
3226:0-87944-322-7
3223:
3219:
3215:
3213:
3212:9788842098409
3209:
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3199:
3198:0-203-13454-0
3195:
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3136:
3122:
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3101:
3097:
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3065:
3049:
3048:The Economist
3045:
3039:
3023:
3016:
3008:
3004:
2997:
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2985:
2979:
2971:
2965:
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2904:
2896:
2889:
2883:
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2867:September 21,
2862:
2855:
2844:September 21,
2839:
2838:The Economist
2835:
2829:
2823:
2819:
2816:
2808:September 21,
2803:
2802:The Economist
2799:
2793:
2779:
2775:
2769:
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2754:
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2606:
2604:
2596:
2592:
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2584:
2576:
2570:
2559:September 22,
2554:
2548:
2534:on 2016-03-04
2533:
2529:
2525:
2518:
2510:
2504:
2500:
2493:
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2480:
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2451:September 21,
2447:
2443:
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2429:
2423:
2412:September 21,
2407:
2403:
2397:
2389:
2387:9780812292893
2383:
2379:
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2358:September 22,
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2315:
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2296:
2290:
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2265:0-941702-20-0
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2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1976:
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1968:
1960:
1954:
1947:
1941:
1933:
1927:
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1810:Dutch disease
1808:
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1753:
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1722:and its 2021
1721:
1720:
1719:American Rust
1715:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1703:working class
1700:
1699:
1694:
1690:
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1652:The Economist
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1566:biotechnology
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846:manufacturing
843:
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828:
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813:
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808:external debt
805:
801:
797:
792:
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782:
777:
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771:
770:
765:
760:
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754:
748:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
727:in 1830, the
726:
723:in 1825, the
722:
718:
714:
706:
705:coal breakers
703:
699:
695:
694:Huber Breaker
690:
684:
680:
676:
673:An abandoned
671:
665:
661:
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649:
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631:
629:
624:
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562:
560:
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555:globalization
552:
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531:
527:
526:United States
523:
519:
518:Volcker shock
515:
511:
506:
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500:
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492:
488:
485:, as well as
484:
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107:
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91:
87:
86:West Virginia
83:
79:
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71:
67:
63:
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24:
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3189:
3170:
3148:. Retrieved
3144:
3135:
3124:. Retrieved
3115:
3104:. Retrieved
3102:. 2022-09-09
3099:
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3078:. Retrieved
3074:
3064:
3052:. Retrieved
3047:
3038:
3026:. Retrieved
3015:
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2996:
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2854:
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2837:
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2806:. Retrieved
2801:
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2781:. Retrieved
2777:
2768:
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2721:
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2649:
2642:UK Guardian.
2641:
2632:
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2574:
2569:
2557:. Retrieved
2547:
2536:. Retrieved
2532:the original
2527:
2517:
2498:
2481:
2449:. Retrieved
2445:
2435:
2427:
2422:
2410:. Retrieved
2406:the original
2396:
2377:
2371:
2363:
2356:. Retrieved
2351:
2342:
2332:November 28,
2330:. Retrieved
2321:
2313:
2308:
2300:
2295:
2277:
2272:
2248:
2243:
2235:
2230:
2221:
2196:the original
2182:
2173:
2163:
2152:. Retrieved
2150:. 2022-10-10
2147:
2138:
2127:. Retrieved
2123:
2113:
2105:
2100:
2088:. Retrieved
2084:the original
2079:
2070:
2062:
2057:
2049:
2044:
2036:
2031:
1996:
1992:
1982:
1973:
1967:
1953:
1945:
1940:
1926:
1914:. Retrieved
1910:
1900:
1888:. Retrieved
1884:
1874:
1855:Steel crisis
1835:Modern ruins
1742:
1736:
1717:
1711:
1696:
1686:
1669:
1650:
1648:
1634:
1621:General Tire
1590:
1563:
1559:
1551:
1540:of southern
1535:
1528:
1439:Lorain, Ohio
1288:Pennsylvania
1239:Toledo, Ohio
1195:Canton, Ohio
1077:Dayton, Ohio
902:
898:
893:
886:
858:
850:
838:steel crisis
831:
816:
793:
789:
778:
767:
761:
749:
710:
628:World War II
625:
612:
610:
606:
535:
507:
449:of northern
436:
432:Great Plains
424:
317:diversifying
303:, including
295:
272:Donald Trump
264:Pennsylvania
254:, including
252:swing states
249:
237:
198:
166:Philadelphia
78:Pennsylvania
53:
49:
47:
18:
3080:January 26,
2616:. Penguin.
1916:November 2,
1890:November 2,
1860:Urban decay
1840:Outsourcing
1728:plot device
1716:2009 novel
1605:Quantapoint
1417:Parma, Ohio
1351:Akron, Ohio
919:Population
865:South Korea
834:Third World
819:Jeff Immelt
530:U.S. dollar
501:during the
459:coking coal
439:Great Lakes
337:New England
315:adapted by
297:New England
229:coal mining
221:steelmaking
217:urban decay
3586:Categories
3571:Unchurched
3150:2022-08-08
3126:2022-08-08
3106:2022-10-11
2783:2023-03-12
2538:2015-12-27
2154:2023-10-03
2129:2023-10-03
1867:References
1850:Steel City
1689:Billy Joel
1665:insourcing
1601:Automatika
1572:industry,
1474:2,896,016
796:free trade
721:Erie Canal
702:anthracite
658:A disused
569:See also:
543:automation
493:, and the
487:Yugoslavia
447:Iron Range
327:Background
311:, and the
301:East Coast
201:dysphemism
194:Youngstown
170:Pittsburgh
146:Cincinnati
134:Binghamton
116:, and the
114:New Jersey
54:Steel Belt
23:Steel belt
3332:154436086
3316:0022-0507
2595:USA Today
1726:. A core
1707:recession
1693:Allentown
1661:inshoring
1657:reshoring
1649:In 2013,
1617:Firestone
1471:2,746,388
887:In 1999,
821:, CEO of
774:Carolinas
677:plant in
626:Prior to
613:snow belt
587:shown in
565:Geography
457:with the
451:Minnesota
428:Corn Belt
283:Joe Biden
268:Wisconsin
178:St. Louis
174:Rochester
162:Milwaukee
150:Cleveland
130:Baltimore
126:Allentown
118:St. Louis
102:Wisconsin
50:Rust Belt
3100:NBC News
3054:June 20,
2964:cite web
2935:cite web
2903:cite web
2818:Archived
2475:Archived
2285:Archived
2267:), 1988.
2207:cite web
2148:Statista
2023:26010609
2015:29114874
1749:See also
1613:Goodrich
1578:nanotech
1574:infotech
1496:107,789
1465:Illinois
1408:331,285
1364:217,074
1311:Michigan
1298:334,563
1252:313,619
1230:292,648
1221:New York
1176:Illinois
1162:348,189
1152:Missouri
1138:620,961
1128:Maryland
1104:New York
1090:166,179
1068:478,403
1013:Michigan
1000:124,943
991:Michigan
978:102,746
954:951,270
944:Michigan
875:Outcomes
769:Harper's
683:Michigan
443:iron ore
321:services
280:Democrat
256:Michigan
244:U.S. GDP
233:Sun Belt
182:Syracuse
122:Missouri
110:Maryland
106:Kentucky
94:Illinois
3566:Tornado
3531:Pretzel
3496:Borscht
3324:2122744
3145:SHO.com
3028:May 25,
2090:June 7,
1691:song, "
1570:polymer
1542:Ontario
1520:53,421
1493:103,453
1487:Indiana
1452:68,652
1430:85,655
1405:309,317
1386:83,048
1377:Indiana
1361:190,469
1358:-12.26%
1342:65,358
1336:-10.25%
1320:66,337
1295:302,971
1274:56,646
1268:-10.07%
1249:270,871
1246:-13.63%
1227:278,349
1208:80,806
1202:-12.29%
1186:81,860
1180:-13.85%
1159:301,578
1156:-13.39%
1135:585,708
1114:55,593
1108:-12.45%
1087:137,644
1084:-17.17%
1065:372,624
1062:-22.11%
1046:82,026
1040:-26.77%
1022:61,799
1016:-28.47%
994:-34.97%
972:-31.97%
968:Indiana
951:639,111
948:-32.81%
854:service
679:Detroit
634:History
512:to the
190:Trenton
154:Detroit
142:Chicago
138:Buffalo
90:Indiana
68:of the
3556:Stroke
3516:Jell-O
3506:Cotton
3476:Banana
3390:
3376:
3360:
3346:
3330:
3322:
3314:
3287:
3273:
3259:
3245:
3224:
3210:
3196:
3178:
2620:
2505:
2384:
2263:
2255:
2039:(2013)
2021:
2013:
1911:Medium
1619:, and
1576:, and
1568:, the
1517:48,864
1514:-8.53%
1490:-4.02%
1468:-5.17%
1449:64,028
1446:-6.74%
1427:81,146
1424:-5.26%
1402:-6.63%
1383:77,879
1380:-6.22%
1339:58,662
1317:61,606
1314:-7.13%
1292:-9.44%
1271:50,942
1224:-4.89%
1205:70,872
1183:70,522
1111:48,671
1043:60,068
1019:44,202
997:81,252
975:69,903
924:change
916:State
869:Taiwan
867:, and
589:orange
520:, the
495:Levant
483:Russia
481:, and
479:Poland
418:
412:
406:
400:
394:
388:
373:
367:
361:
355:
349:
343:
307:, the
266:, and
227:, and
215:, and
192:, and
186:Toledo
96:, the
64:, and
3511:Fruit
3491:Black
3486:Bison
3481:Bible
3328:S2CID
3320:JSTOR
2927:(PDF)
2199:(PDF)
2192:(PDF)
2019:S2CID
1659:, or
1609:Akron
1132:-5.7%
933:Peak
930:2000
913:City
861:Japan
800:China
785:North
753:Paris
491:Italy
42:steel
3551:Snow
3546:Salt
3541:Rust
3536:Rice
3526:Pine
3521:Lead
3501:Corn
3388:ISBN
3374:ISBN
3358:ISBN
3344:ISBN
3312:ISSN
3285:ISBN
3271:ISBN
3257:ISBN
3243:ISBN
3222:ISBN
3208:ISBN
3194:ISBN
3176:ISBN
3082:2020
3056:2013
3030:2020
2970:link
2941:link
2909:link
2869:2011
2846:2011
2810:2011
2618:ISBN
2561:2011
2503:ISBN
2453:2011
2414:2011
2382:ISBN
2360:2011
2334:2011
2261:ISBN
2253:ISBN
2213:link
2092:2013
2011:PMID
1918:2020
1892:2020
1743:Ohio
1595:and
1443:Ohio
1421:Ohio
1399:Ohio
1355:Ohio
1333:Ohio
1265:Ohio
1243:Ohio
1199:Ohio
1081:Ohio
1059:Ohio
1036:Ohio
927:2020
692:The
583:The
573:and
469:and
430:and
287:2020
260:Ohio
158:Gary
82:Ohio
48:The
3561:Sun
3304:doi
2988:ASX
2815:PDF
2747:PDF
2735:PDF
2282:PDF
2124:CNN
2001:doi
776:.
696:in
662:in
601:GDP
465:in
285:in
36:in
3588::
3326:.
3318:.
3310:.
3300:49
3298:.
3143:.
3098:.
3073:.
3046:.
3005:.
2986:.
2966:}}
2962:{{
2937:}}
2933:{{
2905:}}
2901:{{
2836:.
2800:.
2776:.
2720:.
2703:,
2673:,
2662:^
2602:^
2593:.
2582:^
2526:.
2489:^
2461:^
2444:.
2362:.
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