651:
war and the internal shifts of domestic China. Russell & Company relied heavily on an old framework of commercial business, but as time went on, businessmen and traders began processes of outsourcing and no longer confined trade to one house or dependency. Revolution in steam transport and continued industrialization altered shipping processes, meaning the former framework by which the company relied, failed; meaning the company met significant losses at the hands of newer firms who were more able to adapt business models which were not pre-conformed. Alterations in communication methods also cause significant problems for
Russell & Company. The failure to obtain communication regarding market fluctuations at the head of further competitors disadvantaged the historic firm even further.
38:
153:(Butler, the Hoppin brothers and Carrington). Russell was not required to input capital; his responsibilities were to reside in the branch house in Canton and devote his time to the strict management of the trade house’s business. The merchants and Carrington were tasked with exerting their influence and capabilities in order to draw consignments and commercial growth toward the house. The main trading house was simple in framework. It consisted of a security merchant and various other employed traders who were responsible for market communication, accounting and the direct sale of goods. The commercial house was officially constructed in 1819 under the Company.
584:
relations. The effects of
British pre-occupation and western commercialism had constructed Chinese resentment within areas of government and citizenship. However, Russell & Company’s ability to remain firm within areas such as Canton, sought the admiration of many Western counterparts. The company’s position within China improved relations via its effect on Chinese regional and urban economies. Before its existence, Western merchants were relatively isolated in their conduct of business, due to government pressure and an increased awareness of a growing opium trade.
179:
presence of United States merchants within Canton. The trading house was the first firm to be established in
Shanghai. Soon after such expansion, the company set up a further agency in Fuzhow, and following this established a branch in Hong Kong two years later. Between the years of 1861 and 1864, Russell & Company expanded through coastal areas of China, establishing branches or agencies in areas such as Ningbo, Hankou, Zhenjiang and Tianjin.
749:, in 1866, after a brief trip to Shanghai. Much like Russell & Co., Butterfield & Swire was a commission firm concerned mostly with merchandise in its first few years of operation before establishing their shipping branch, CNC. Swire once wrote that "the Shanghai S. N. Co.'s shares would never have seen a premium," citing this as the reason for entering the Yangtze steamship trade, a prospect he had expressed interest in as early as 1867.
634:
example of this is during the opium war of 1840, wherein
Russell & Company acquired a British owned ship entering Huangpu. The Ship had been sold in desperation as the owner knew of the risk of operating the ship within a known warzone. Named the ‘Chesapeake’, Russell & Company ended in selling the vessel to the Chinese Government for an exorbitant price, exemplifying Russell’s dedication to enterprise and independent commercialism.
100:, which lasted until the mid-1820s. Due to these circumstances, Butler and Carrington left Samuel Russell & Co. in 1823 whilst the Hoppin brothers and Russell continued to do business in Canton. After the five-year contract expired in January 1824, Russell entered into a partnership with factory owner and former agent of Brown & Ives, Phillip Ammidon, to establish Russell & Company. Russell and Company's ventures into the
166:
century, as
America sought to champion an international role that practiced free trade and that took advantage of open markets and un-capitalised demand. As a new country, the founding fathers were heavily focussed on an international economy, wherein America could utilise ambition in overseas markets in order to help drive and establish prosperity, wealth and interdependence within the domestic sphere of the nation.
149:
contract with commercial agents and
Providence merchants Cyrus Butler, Benjamin and Thomas Hoppin and Edward Carrington, who had previously served as American consul within China. According to the terms of the agreement, the providence merchants and the contractor (Samuel Russell) formed "a connexion in business at Canton in China, under the name of firm of Samuel Russell & Co. for the term of five years."
647:
more ports were established. Government regulation and inspection system meant that competition intensified and the former houses of trade met new challenges that they could not meet. Russell and
Company failed to adapt to these new conditions as their trading structure had once relied on a heavily autonomous structure amongst a little number of rivals and a lack of government intervention and regulation.
630:
interdependency. Into the controversial trade of Opium and the growing impact of foreign commercialism on
Chinese security, trade-house enterprises such as Russell & Company soon began to pressure the American government to finalise a treaty of commercialism and trade that would aid tensions with China and assist in the continuation of overseas American companies and a flowing international economy.
638:
was in frequent contact with members for congress, close government officials and members of office regarding discussions of
American expansion within China, the preferred character of assigned consuls and American representatives, as well as the most appropriate approach to expanding industry in a country infamous for seeking to limit Western contact.
162:
surges in industrial productivity and hence economic output. This economic trend was coupled an insurgency of fading protectionism within United States foreign policy, meaning that
American commercialism and the rise of companies such as ‘Russell & Company”, were underpinned also by a national goal of economic expansion into Asian markets.
729:, the commission firm dealt heavily in opium and had inherited connections in India from merchant John R. Latimer, who had refused to work for Russell & Co. prior to announcing his retirement. Its steamship subsidiary CCSNC became a direct competitor of Shanghai S. N. Co and would later be known as Jardine Matheson & Co. Ltd.
96:) under the name of Samuel Russell & Company. The contract would expire after five years and the profit accumulated would be split between all parties. Russell arrived in Canton in 1819 and established Samuel Russell & Co. By 1820 the company was experiencing financial difficulties as a result of an economic depression, the
241:, became a partner despite only having three years of experience as a clerk at Russell & Co., while Hunter was only given a share of Russell & Co. once Green relinquished one-sixteenth of his shares. From 1834 to 1836, the company saw a net profit of over $ 400,000 with an average of approximately $ 133,000 per year.
132:, who was Forbes's cousin and also the founder of Perkins & Company, accepted these conditions which lead to the decision to merge Perkins & Company and Russell & Company. Heard was appointed by Cushing to be a partner of the newly combined commission firm to manage the Perkins ships and Forbes's younger brother,
315:. By February 1867, Shanghai S. N. Co. had arranged plans to purchase rival steamships that were operating on the Yangtze River. From then on SSNC would hold a monopoly on the river and two coastal routes, Shanghai and Ningbo and Shanghai and Tianjin. This monopoly was disrupted in 1871 with the arrival of
591:
and their superiority in the Chinese trade market which platformed company officials with a tacit leadership over the American communities in China and the direction of commercialist strategies in many areas of trade and business. The company implored congress to participate in the concern of Western
294:
debuted a subsidiary, Shanghai Steam Navigation Company (Shanghai S. N. Co.), under the guidance of partner Edward Cunningham in 1862. They began operations with 5 steamships which eventually expanded to 18 steamships by the 1870s. For the next 15 years, Shanghai S. N. Co. would average 12% in profit
612:
Russell & Company were one of the first American trade houses to conduct transactions consisting of Indian based Opium. Following the company’s opening formation, one of the two resident Canton partners of the company travelled to India in order to work and maintain development of supply streams
169:
This early advocacy for open trade in Sino markets is reciprocated in the American government’s endorsement of Russell & Company. Russell & Company, although commercially independent, stood as a representative pillar of a governmental aim to increase trade and development in an imperialistic
659:
in 1869. By the 1870s, Russell & Co. were forced to seize their banking operations as the lucrative importing of precious metals were eventually overtaken by newer commission firms and professional banks. Initially, Shanghai S. N. Co. was established to counter their losses, however their rates
637:
The founder of Russell & Company in the earlier 1800’s withheld a voice of assertive care however for the situation of foreign policy and its contribution in commercial American expansion within China. Carrington as one of the early fathers of the company and scripters of its approach to trade,
616:
By the late 1820’s, Russell & Company were the biggest supplier of Indian based trade Opium into China. To continue and maintain this status, the company attained the employment of several American merchant traders within India, including J, B Higginson, J Church, and P Dixwell. These merchants
252:
in 1839. In 1842, John Forbes made an attempt to hire his cousin Paul S. Forbes, a decision that was vetoed by the other partners until 1846 when Paul S. Forbes took over Robert Forbes's position as a partner of the firm. By the early 1840s, Russell & Co. had become the largest American trading
650:
The civil war in America also disrupted the company’s ability to influence foreign policy, meaning that the power and influence they once held began to quickly diminish. The company was without funds, federal backing and support from importers and purchasers who had been affected by both the civil
646:
The decline of Russell & Company was led by a transformation in Chinese trade. The Second Opium War and the Tianjin Treaties in particular shifted more autonomy toward Western countries within regard to the extent of their dealings within China. Opium importation was eventually illegalized and
633:
Ultimately however, pressures from American and Western governments did not highly impact the commercial interests and ambitions of Russell & Company, even during the Opium wars wherein the company sought to operate as independently as possible in order to continue to fulfil profit margins. An
112:
In its first year of operating, the company worked exclusively as a commission firm for China and America with either Russell or Ammidon traveling elsewhere to increase their connections. The two partners would spend two years in different locations with one of them residing in Canton and in 1827,
620:
In Canton, one of the central partners of Russell & Company, Augustine Heard, also maintained trade ties with the banian office of Anshootos Day, transacting large amounts of opium. In the opening months of 1831, Russell & Company had successfully smuggled of 3, 500 chests of Indian opium
604:
Russell & Company’s history in the opium trade was rooted in its precursor establishment as ‘Perkins & Co’, which was responsible for the organization and coordination of drug trading throughout parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, mainly including Turkey. The origins of this trade were
583:
Russell & Company was born within a turbulent period within Chinese history and in a turbulent context of Chinese-America relations. The dissolution of the British East India Company’s overarching control of Chinese trade and the expansion of the trade and use of opium changed Chinese-Western
592:
nations in their growing desire to establish stable commercial relations with China. Robert Forbes, director of Russell & Company at the time even wrote to encourage the construction of a sufficient naval force that would safeguard American business pursuits, lives and property within China.
161:
The late nineteenth century saw a Chinese commercial culture that had become increasingly integrated with the market economy system of America. The century, especially the first half, was characterized by incessant growth in the American market, leading from socio-economic factors which included
152:
The early structure of the company was characterised as a contract arrangement, where Samuel Russell resided in Canton within the established trade house. The company was formed in first by the input of $ 20 000 USD in capital, arranged in conjunction between the contracting providence merchants
600:
It is believed that American traders and merchants within the Russell & Company were involved with the trade and sale of Opium from an early period in the company’s beginnings. The trade and sale of opium originally arose within the company to fulfill ongoing trade deficits in substitute of
236:
Under Green's leadership, the firm underwent major changes to offset the influx of commissions and increase in workload, after a clerk, William C. Hunter fell ill and was not able to return until March 1833 and John M. Forbes was advised to set sail for America by his doctors. Forbes would only
182:
In addition to this, the company soon moved from coastal areas to establish branches within interior areas of China, including regional areas. The company ran subsidiary enterprises; including a steam-ship company and a silk processing plant. Later branches would also sell insurance and deal in
165:
Russell & Company’s ability to quickly adapt to resource and supply demand within a bustling Chinese market acted as a hallmark of American foreign policy at the time toward new internationalised businesses. American foreign policy and trade were heavily intertwined in the first half of the
148:
The founding structure of Russell & Company was driven by driving American-Chinese commercialist groups at the beginning of the 19th century. The founder and main proprietor of Russell & Company, Samuel Russell, was originally a resident of Middletown, Connecticut, before establishing a
685:
commission firm Russell & Sturgis under the guidance of Cushing. The founder, George R. Russell (no relation to Samuel Russell) was the nephew of Ammidon. The similarities in naming became important to note for the partners of Russell & Co. though Russell, Sturgis & Co. would never
629:
American foreign policy throughout the period of Russell & Company’s formation was largely influenced by attitudes of assertive expansion and aggressive Western commercialism that were thought governmentally necessary for a relatively new country that sought domestic stability and economic
605:
born in the shipping of the drug from Smyrna to Canton within early parts of the 1800’s, suggesting that members of Russell & Company’s founding group were well versed and acquainted with the Opium trade and the key figures of its supply and demand throughout parts of both Europe and Asia.
178:
Before the middle of the century Russell & Company were relatively under-developed and served as a commission house in the trade and sale of basic items. However, the company soon began to maintain a leading position within Chinese-American trade from 1844, following the growing commercial
183:
foreign exchange for overseas merchants and businesses. In 1849 the company amassed a capital profit of $ 220 000 USD which increased by $ 50 000USD into the period of 1860. These returns more than doubled some of Russell & Company’s closest competitors, including Augustine Head & co.
587:
As the largest trading firm within China and much of Asia in its totality, the company both conducted commercial business and worked for capital but also influenced and directed American foreign policy at the time. The company did this by exerting their financial position
697:
Heard and Coolidge formed a rival merchant house Augustine Heard & Co. in 1840 after there were disagreements between the partners of Russell & Company. The firm was managed mainly by Heard's nephews and had branch offices in Shanghai and Hong Kong.
613:
for the Russell & Company. Succeeding this, Russell & Company developed their own unique streams of supply and trade to dominate the market of opium within Canton nearing the middle of the century and specifically in the opening years of the 1830’s.
1069:
Bruner, Katherine F., John K. Fairbank, and Richard J. Smith, eds. Entering China's Service: Robert Hart's Journals, 1854-1863. Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1986; distributed by Harvard University
654:
In the 1860s, the China trade underwent a series of transformation which was the result of more competition from their British rivals and the shortened length of time that was needed to commute to locations with the opening of the
601:
products such as silver. By the closing period of the 1820’s, the delivery of Opium into the Russell controlled area of Canton was believed to be around 1500 chest annually: equating roughly 2 million USD$ worth of Opium.
608:
The War of 1812 temporarily restricted the movements and expansion of the drug throughout trade routes. Following this however came the introduction of Indian opium, which heralded a new opportunity for many traders.
1261:
Abe, K, 2016,, ‘The Anglo-Chinese propaganda battles: British, Qing and Cantonese intellectuals and the first opium war in Canton’, Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 56, pp. 172–193,
617:
were essentially developed into traders who were passed with the responsibility of developing supply streams, purchasing opium and assisting in the completion of international transactions and transport to Canton.
92:
was approached by Providence merchants Edward C. Carrington, Cyrus Butler and Benjamin and Thomas Hoppin to be an employee of their new resident commission firm in Canton (now referred to as
191:
Following the acquisition of Perkins & Co. in 1829, Russell and Co. inherited Cushing's extensive opium trading connections from across the globe. Their illegal trade at that time in
128:
leaving the position of resident partner Perkins & Co. vacant. Prior to his death, Forbes had written in a letter that Russell was to replace him if complications were to arise and
295:
with their best year seeing a 50% return. With $ 1.35 million in initial capital, Shanghai S. N. Co. became the largest joint-stock company in China losing the title in 1865 to the
121:
to relieve him of his duties. In 1830, Russell began a three-way partnership with Low and Heard excluding Ammidon from the new contract and forced him to resign from the company.
1849:
1284:
Wills, John E., Jr. "Tribute, Defensiveness, and Dependency: Uses and Limits of Some Basic Ideas About Mid-Qing Dynasty Foreign Relations," American Neptune 48 (1988) .
1844:
237:
return in 1835 to find that he was contracted as a partner of Russell & Co. since the beginning of the year, an offer which he accepted. In 1836 Russell's nephew,
1436:
1060:
Hughes, Sarah Forbes, ed. Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes. 2 vols. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1899; Reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1981
709:
was formed by Protestant missionary, D.W.C Olyphant, in the early 1810s who opposed the opium trade on moral grounds as a result of his Christian principles.
269:
in 1853 and a branch was formed in Hong Kong in 1855. From 1861 to 1864, the company established multiple branches in Ningbo, Tianjin, Zhenjiang and Hankou.
244:
With Green announcing his retirement in 1838 and the expiration of their partnership in the beginning of 1840, John Forbes formed a new partnership with
923:
113:
instead of replacing Russell at his post at their main headquarters, Ammidon returned to the United States from his ventures in India and contracted
826:(32nd President of the United States), in the 1860s, having first joined in 1833 and served as the Chief of Operations of Russell & Company in
1819:
1809:
225:
was brought in as the new head of the firm and agent after Heard left Russell & Co. in January of the following year. In the same year, the
1252:
Richardson, James D., comp. A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents. 20 vols. New York: Bureau of National Literature, 1917.
304:
1429:
296:
1275:
A Selective Survey," paper presented to the annual meeting of Ohio Academy of History, Wittenberg University, Springfield, Ohio, April 1988.
1829:
229:'s monopoly on the British China Trade came to an end and Russell & Co. entered into an unofficial partnership with two British firms,
209:
and Juliana Wood, William W. Wood was employed by Russell & Co. to be Low's secretary in February before leaving the company in July.
1814:
261:
In August 1846, W.P Peirce opened a branch in Shanghai and by 1852 the main headquarters of Russell & Co. was moved from Canton to
1824:
1422:
661:
320:
1778:
1834:
31:
1587:
1839:
1293:
Edward Carrington to Daniel Webster, 2 March 1843, Shewmaker, The Papers of Daniel Webster: Diplomatic Papers, 1:894-896.
287:
newspaper in China, was the manager of Russell & Company's Shanghai Steam Navigation Co. until his death in 1865.
1390:
1340:
1315:
1228:
1135:
1100:
1046:
966:
935:
17:
1687:
713:
wrote in a memo to Heard that he should remain “on guard” due to Olyphant's vocal disavowal of their practices.
621:
into China; equal to twenty percent of the total amount of opium imported into China in the whole of 1831 alone.
959:
Golden Ghetto: The American Commercial Community at Canton and the Shaping of American China Policy, 1784-1844
311:, where the former would abstain from trading on the Canton River and the latter would no longer trade on the
104:
trade began shortly after with Ammidon who set sail for India with the intention to deal in Indian opium.
37:
810:
230:
80:. The firm specialised in trading tea, silk and opium and was eventually involved in the shipping trade.
664:
alongside their waterfront properties. Facing further financial difficulties, the company devolved into
136:
would replace Heard's position as a clerk at Russell & Company. Russell and Cushing left Canton for
1592:
1127:
722:
1715:
1573:
1648:
1528:
1263:
807:, William H Low's nephew, founder of trading company A. A. Low & Brothers, served as a partner.
316:
308:
1306:
Cortazzi, Hugh; Bleadsdale, Charlotte (2002). "John Samuel Swire (1825-98) and Japan, 1867-98".
1710:
1696:
1475:
1119:
848:
746:
665:
279:
1410:
Russell & Company Records at Baker Library Historical Collections, Harvard Business School
1724:
1122:; He, Sebing (2012), "Russell and Company and the Imperialism of Anglo-American Free Trade",
833:
1414:
1243:
North-China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette. Shanghai, 1870-1941. Microfilm.
775:(1813–1898), brother of R B. Forbes and the great-granduncle of 2004 presidential candidate
1662:
1629:
1557:
903:. Russell and Company, 1818-1891: America's Trade and Diplomacy in Nineteenth-Century China
798:
766:
324:
245:
129:
856:. Latimer was manager of Russell & Company's Shanghai Steam Navigation Co. until 1865.
8:
1788:
1729:
1155:
Russell and Company in Shanghai, 1843-1891:U. S. Trade and Diplomacy in Treaty Port China
202:
196:
1487:
1470:
1016:
1008:
823:
772:
710:
226:
206:
133:
1409:
303:
came to a quid pro quo agreement with competitors Jardines, Dent & Co., who owned
1677:
1638:
1624:
1386:
1336:
1311:
1224:
1131:
1096:
1042:
1020:
962:
931:
819:
782:
776:
742:
738:
706:
249:
114:
991:
Downs, Jacques M (1968). "American Merchants and the China Opium Trade, 1800–1840".
1783:
1667:
1566:
1000:
794:
222:
49:
791:, who later founded Augustine Heard & Company, a large trading house in China.
1672:
1602:
1533:
1520:
1482:
1356:
804:
788:
624:
238:
210:
118:
1682:
1643:
1597:
1578:
726:
284:
89:
140:
in August 1831, leaving the management of Russell & Co. to Heard and Low.
1803:
1701:
1552:
1547:
1460:
1124:
Narratives of Free Trade: The Commercial Cultures of Early US-China Relations
312:
270:
97:
265:. To further expand their operations in the tea trade, a firm was set up in
1619:
1614:
1538:
1446:
660:
of return would continue to decrease and in 1877 they were acquired by the
1039:
America's First Adventure in China: Trade, Treaties, Opium, and Salvation
1503:
1381:
Sweeting, Anthony (2012). May Holdsworth & Christopher Munn (ed.).
1172:. East Asian Research Centre, Harvard University. pp. 77, 122–133.
1091:
Hamilton, Peter E (2012). May Holdsworth & Christopher Munn (ed.).
1012:
656:
1768:
827:
93:
1004:
233:
and Whiteman & Co., to further expand the opium trade in India.
76:) was the largest American trading house of the mid-19th century in
1747:
681:
Russell Sturgis & Co. was established in 1834 as a branch of a
274:
262:
218:
213:
was then hired as a clerk to increase interest in trading opium in
205:
estuary was particularly lucrative. In 1831, son of theatre actors
67:
1191:
1264:
https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.427345640032414
737:
Owner of a London-based commission firm, John Swire & Sons,
256:
1773:
1763:
1508:
1465:
682:
299:, to which they took second place. In 1866–67, Russell & Co
266:
214:
192:
137:
57:
686:
address it. By 1840, the firm was acquired by Russell & Co
625:
Impacts of American foreign policy and International Relations
1444:
170:
and relatively under-developed modern market within Shanghai
125:
101:
77:
752:
930:, Missouri: Columbia University of Missouri Press Print,
330:
253:
house in China and maintained that position for decades.
124:
In August 1829, Thomas T. Forbes died in a typhoon near
1308:
Britain & Japan: Biographical Portraits, Volume IV
1170:
A Research Guide to China Coast Newspapers, 1822–1911
813:, who later became head of Baring Brothers in London.
1850:
Trading companies disestablished in the 19th century
1221:
Anglo-American Steamship Rivalry in China, 1862-1874
355:
Location (under the ownership of Shanghai S. N. Co)
1305:
716:
1845:Trading companies established in the 19th century
676:
323:(CCSNC), both founded by prominent British firms
1801:
1168:Prescott, Frank HH (1965). King; Clarke (eds.).
769:(1804–1889) was the head of Russell and Company.
692:
327:and Jardine, Matheson & Co., respectively.
305:Hong Kong, Canton & Macao Steamboat Company
1430:
928:The Panic of 1819: The First Great Depression
257:Shanghai Steam Navigation Company (1846–1877)
27:19th cengury American trading house in China
836:, R B Forbes' nephew, head partner in 1884.
797:(1800–1875) Philanthropist - benefactor of
1437:
1423:
1385:. Hong Kong University Press. p. 71.
1086:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1076:
732:
1310:. Hong Kong: Routledge. pp. 150–61.
1192:"Shanghai S.N. Co., Shanghai (U.S. Flag)"
1118:
1041:, Philadelphia: Temple University Press,
986:
984:
982:
980:
978:
701:
1380:
1330:
1324:
1189:
1167:
1090:
1032:
1030:
922:
896:
894:
892:
890:
662:China Merchants Steam Navigation Company
72:
36:
1073:
952:
950:
948:
946:
888:
886:
884:
882:
880:
878:
876:
874:
872:
870:
816:George Tyson, in the 1850s in Hong Kong
753:Notable people of Russell & Company
221:while Low was forced to leave in 1833.
14:
1820:American companies established in 1824
1810:Defunct companies of the United States
1802:
1333:Augustine Heard and Company, 1858-1862
1214:
1212:
1157:. University of Hong Kong. p. 11.
1036:
975:
331:Steamships owned by Shanghai S. N. Co.
273:Nichol Latimer, who was a resident of
32:Russell & Company (disambiguation)
1418:
1301:
1299:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1148:
1146:
1027:
990:
956:
741:collaborated with wool manufacturer,
156:
1114:
1112:
943:
918:
916:
914:
912:
867:
1830:Defunct companies based in Shanghai
1218:
1209:
24:
1331:Lockwood, Stephen Chapman (1971).
1296:
1176:
1152:
1143:
900:
578:
25:
1861:
1815:History of foreign trade in China
1403:
1383:Dictionary of Hong Kong Biography
1357:"Discover more about our history"
1190:Dick, Howard; Kentwell, Stephen.
1109:
1093:Dictionary of Hong Kong Biography
909:
1825:Companies disestablished in 1891
321:China Coast Steam Navigation Co.
1445:European and American trade in
1374:
1349:
1287:
1278:
1269:
1255:
1246:
1237:
1161:
717:Jardine, Matheson & Company
283:which was the most influential
1095:. Hong Kong University Press.
1063:
1054:
961:. Hong Kong University Press.
721:Founded in July 1832 by Scots
677:Russell, Sturgis & Company
671:
595:
186:
62:
13:
1:
860:
846:Nichol Latimer, publisher of
785:, senior partner of the firm.
745:to establish a Chinese firm,
693:Augustine Heard & Company
107:
83:
1835:1824 establishments in China
1223:. Harvard University Press.
231:Jardine, Matheson, & Co.
173:
143:
7:
1588:Jardine, Matheson & Co.
840:
757:
297:Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank
41:Canton headquarters c. 1880
10:
1866:
1840:Trading companies of China
1574:Gibb, Livingston & Co.
1128:Hong Kong University Press
641:
29:
1756:
1740:
1529:Augustine Heard & Co.
1519:
1496:
1453:
1219:Liu, Kwang Ching (1962).
957:Downs, Jacques M (2014).
309:Augustine Heard & Co.
277:and the publisher of the
53:
1649:Robert Morrison Olyphant
317:China Navigation Co. Ltd
195:opium via the island of
1711:David Sassoon & Co.
1697:Shewan, Tomes & Co.
1120:Johnson, Kendall Albert
1037:Haddad, John R (2013),
993:Business History Review
747:Butterfield & Swire
733:Butterfield & Swire
446:Shanghai-Tianjin route
429:Shanghai-Tianjin route
1725:E.D. Sassoon & Co.
854:Nichol Latimer and Co.
702:Olyphant & Company
73:Kei4Coeng1 Joeng4Hong2
42:
1658:Russell & Company
834:William Howell Forbes
822:, the grandfather of
743:Robert S. Butterfield
325:John Swire & Sons
46:Russell & Company
40:
1663:Robert Bennet Forbes
1630:Hollingworth Magniac
799:Princeton University
767:Robert Bennet Forbes
666:Shewan & Company
130:John Perkins Cushing
30:For other uses, see
1730:Elias David Sassoon
1153:He, Sibing (2011).
924:Browning, Andrew H.
901:He, Sebing (1997).
475:Hong Kong-Shanghai
396:Huquang (Ou-Guang)
1639:Olyphant & Co.
1611:Magniac & Co.
1488:Thirteen Factories
1471:East India Company
1130:, pp. 83–98,
849:North China Herald
824:Franklin Roosevelt
773:John Murray Forbes
762:(chronologically)
707:Olyphant & Co.
371:Kiangse (Kiangsu)
280:North China Herald
227:East India Company
157:Commercial Origins
134:John Murray Forbes
43:
1797:
1796:
1741:Chinese Officials
1678:William Henry Low
1625:Thomas Chay Beale
1567:Dodwell & Co.
820:Warren Delano Jr.
783:William Henry Low
777:John Forbes Kerry
576:
575:
558:Hong Kong-Canton
514:Hong Kong-Canton
250:Warren Delano Jr.
18:Russell & Co.
16:(Redirected from
1857:
1668:John Cleve Green
1439:
1432:
1425:
1416:
1415:
1397:
1396:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1335:. Leiden Press.
1328:
1322:
1321:
1303:
1294:
1291:
1285:
1282:
1276:
1273:
1267:
1259:
1253:
1250:
1244:
1241:
1235:
1234:
1216:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1187:
1174:
1173:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1150:
1141:
1140:
1116:
1107:
1106:
1088:
1071:
1067:
1061:
1058:
1052:
1051:
1034:
1025:
1024:
988:
973:
972:
954:
941:
940:
920:
907:
906:
898:
795:John Cleve Green
525:Hong Kong-Macao
464:Shanghai-Wusong
346:
345:
343:
342:
338:
290:Russell & Co
246:Robert B. Forbes
74:
64:
63:Qíchāng Yángháng
55:
21:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1854:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1793:
1752:
1736:
1688:Russell Sturgis
1673:Abiel Abbot Low
1603:John Abel Smith
1593:William Jardine
1534:Augustine Heard
1515:
1492:
1483:Old China Trade
1449:
1443:
1406:
1401:
1400:
1393:
1379:
1375:
1365:
1363:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1343:
1329:
1325:
1318:
1304:
1297:
1292:
1288:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1238:
1231:
1217:
1210:
1200:
1198:
1196:Old China Ships
1188:
1177:
1166:
1162:
1151:
1144:
1138:
1117:
1110:
1103:
1089:
1074:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1049:
1035:
1028:
1005:10.2307/3112527
989:
976:
969:
955:
944:
938:
921:
910:
899:
868:
863:
852:and founder of
843:
811:Russell Sturgis
805:Abiel Abbot Low
789:Augustine Heard
760:
755:
735:
723:William Jardine
719:
704:
695:
679:
674:
644:
627:
598:
581:
579:Diplomatic Role
344:
340:
336:
334:
333:
259:
211:Joseph Coolidge
207:William B. Wood
189:
176:
159:
146:
119:Augustine Heard
110:
86:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1863:
1853:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1795:
1794:
1792:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1750:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1721:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1707:
1706:
1705:
1704:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1690:
1685:
1683:Samuel Russell
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1654:
1653:
1652:
1651:
1646:
1644:David Olyphant
1635:
1634:
1633:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1608:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1598:James Matheson
1595:
1584:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1579:Hugh Bold Gibb
1570:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1548:Dent & Co.
1544:
1543:
1542:
1541:
1536:
1525:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1514:
1513:
1512:
1511:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1468:
1463:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1450:
1442:
1441:
1434:
1427:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1405:
1404:External links
1402:
1399:
1398:
1391:
1373:
1348:
1341:
1323:
1316:
1295:
1286:
1277:
1268:
1254:
1245:
1236:
1229:
1208:
1175:
1160:
1142:
1136:
1108:
1101:
1072:
1062:
1053:
1047:
1026:
999:(4): 418–442.
974:
967:
942:
936:
908:
865:
864:
862:
859:
858:
857:
842:
839:
838:
837:
831:
817:
814:
808:
802:
792:
786:
780:
770:
759:
756:
754:
751:
734:
731:
727:James Matheson
718:
715:
711:John M. Forbes
703:
700:
694:
691:
678:
675:
673:
670:
643:
640:
626:
623:
597:
594:
580:
577:
574:
573:
572:Yangtze River
570:
567:
563:
562:
560:Yangtze River
556:
553:
552:Plymouth Rock
549:
548:
545:
542:
538:
537:
534:
531:
527:
526:
523:
520:
516:
515:
512:
509:
505:
504:
503:Yangtze River
501:
498:
494:
493:
491:Yangtze River
484:
481:
477:
476:
473:
470:
466:
465:
462:
459:
455:
454:
449:Yangtze River
442:
439:
435:
434:
425:
422:
418:
417:
413:Yangtze River
411:
408:
404:
403:
402:Yangtze River
400:
397:
393:
392:
390:Yangtze River
386:
383:
379:
378:
375:
372:
368:
367:
366:Yangtze River
364:
361:
360:Surprise (惊异)
357:
356:
353:
352:Active Period
350:
332:
329:
258:
255:
188:
185:
175:
172:
158:
155:
145:
142:
115:William H. Low
109:
106:
90:Samuel Russell
85:
82:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1862:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1757:Key Locations
1755:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1716:David Sassoon
1714:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1703:
1702:Robert Shewan
1700:
1699:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1586:
1585:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1553:Lancelot Dent
1551:
1550:
1549:
1546:
1545:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1521:Foreign Hongs
1518:
1510:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1497:Chinese Hongs
1495:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1461:Canton System
1459:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1440:
1435:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1421:
1420:
1417:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1394:
1392:9789888083664
1388:
1384:
1377:
1362:
1358:
1352:
1344:
1342:9781684171682
1338:
1334:
1327:
1319:
1317:9781136641473
1313:
1309:
1302:
1300:
1290:
1281:
1272:
1265:
1258:
1249:
1240:
1232:
1230:9780674184886
1226:
1222:
1215:
1213:
1197:
1193:
1186:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1171:
1164:
1156:
1149:
1147:
1139:
1137:9789888053902
1133:
1129:
1126:, Hong Kong:
1125:
1121:
1115:
1113:
1104:
1102:9789888083664
1098:
1094:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1066:
1057:
1050:
1048:9781439906910
1044:
1040:
1033:
1031:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
970:
968:9789888313327
964:
960:
953:
951:
949:
947:
939:
937:9780826221834
933:
929:
925:
919:
917:
915:
913:
904:
897:
895:
893:
891:
889:
887:
885:
883:
881:
879:
877:
875:
873:
871:
866:
855:
851:
850:
845:
844:
835:
832:
829:
825:
821:
818:
815:
812:
809:
806:
803:
800:
796:
793:
790:
787:
784:
781:
778:
774:
771:
768:
765:
764:
763:
750:
748:
744:
740:
739:John S. Swire
730:
728:
724:
714:
712:
708:
699:
690:
689:
684:
669:
667:
663:
658:
652:
648:
639:
635:
631:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
593:
589:
585:
571:
568:
565:
564:
561:
557:
554:
551:
550:
546:
543:
540:
539:
535:
532:
529:
528:
524:
521:
518:
517:
513:
510:
507:
506:
502:
499:
496:
495:
492:
489:
485:
482:
479:
478:
474:
471:
468:
467:
463:
460:
457:
456:
453:
450:
447:
443:
440:
437:
436:
433:
430:
426:
423:
420:
419:
416:
412:
409:
406:
405:
401:
398:
395:
394:
391:
387:
384:
381:
380:
376:
373:
370:
369:
365:
362:
359:
358:
354:
351:
348:
347:
339:
328:
326:
322:
318:
314:
313:Yangtze River
310:
307:(HCMSB), and
306:
302:
298:
293:
288:
286:
282:
281:
276:
272:
268:
264:
254:
251:
247:
242:
240:
234:
232:
228:
224:
223:John C. Green
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
199:
194:
184:
180:
171:
167:
163:
154:
150:
141:
139:
135:
131:
127:
122:
120:
116:
105:
103:
99:
98:Panic of 1819
95:
91:
81:
79:
75:
69:
65:
59:
51:
47:
39:
33:
19:
1657:
1620:Thomas Beale
1615:Daniel Beale
1539:Albert Heard
1382:
1376:
1364:. Retrieved
1360:
1351:
1332:
1326:
1307:
1289:
1280:
1271:
1257:
1248:
1239:
1220:
1199:. Retrieved
1195:
1169:
1163:
1154:
1123:
1092:
1065:
1056:
1038:
996:
992:
958:
927:
902:
853:
847:
761:
736:
720:
705:
696:
687:
680:
653:
649:
645:
636:
632:
628:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
590:
586:
582:
566:Kiang Loong
559:
490:
487:
451:
448:
445:
431:
428:
414:
389:
300:
291:
289:
278:
260:
243:
239:Abiel A. Low
235:
197:
190:
181:
177:
168:
164:
160:
151:
147:
123:
111:
87:
71:
61:
45:
44:
1476:James Flint
672:Competitors
596:Opium Trade
497:Fire Queen
203:Pearl River
187:1820s–1840s
1804:Categories
1447:Qing China
861:References
657:Suez Canal
569:1867–1873
555:1866–1877
544:1866–1877
533:1866–1877
522:1865–1866
511:1865–1866
500:1865–1877
488:Hong Kong
483:1865–1873
472:1863–1865
461:1862–1877
441:1862–1875
424:1862–1877
410:1862–1864
399:1862–1866
385:1862–1865
374:1861–1877
319:(CNC) and
108:Beginnings
84:Foundation
1779:Hong Kong
1558:John Dent
1021:153582226
905:(Thesis).
668:in 1891.
530:Fusiyama
508:Kiukiang
486:Shanghai
452:Shanghai
438:Szecheun
427:Shanghai
407:Chekiang
388:Shanghai
382:Pembroke
377:Shanghai
363:1861–1862
174:Expansion
144:Structure
94:Guangzhou
88:In 1818,
1789:Shanghai
1748:Lin Zexu
1504:Ewo Hong
1361:Jardines
926:(2019),
841:Officers
758:Partners
469:Fohkien
458:Tsatlee
432:Yangtze
275:Shanghai
263:Shanghai
219:Calcutta
68:Jyutping
1013:3112527
642:Decline
541:Hirado
519:Poyang
480:Moyune
444:Ningbo
421:Shanse
415:Hankou
285:British
201:in the
193:Turkish
50:Chinese
1774:Fuzhou
1769:Canton
1509:Howqua
1466:Cohong
1454:Topics
1389:
1366:17 May
1339:
1314:
1227:
1201:15 May
1134:
1099:
1070:Press.
1045:
1019:
1011:
965:
934:
828:Canton
683:Manila
335:": -->
271:Briton
267:Fuzhou
215:Parsee
198:Lintin
138:Boston
70::
60::
58:pinyin
52::
1784:Macau
1017:S2CID
1009:JSTOR
349:Name
126:Macao
102:opium
78:China
1764:Amoy
1387:ISBN
1368:2021
1337:ISBN
1312:ISBN
1225:ISBN
1203:2021
1132:ISBN
1097:ISBN
1043:ISBN
963:ISBN
932:ISBN
725:and
547:N/A
536:N/A
337:edit
248:and
217:and
117:and
54:旗昌洋行
1001:doi
1806::
1359:.
1298:^
1211:^
1194:.
1178:^
1145:^
1111:^
1075:^
1029:^
1015:.
1007:.
997:42
995:.
977:^
945:^
911:^
869:^
66:;
56:;
1438:e
1431:t
1424:v
1395:.
1370:.
1345:.
1320:.
1266:.
1233:.
1205:.
1105:.
1023:.
1003::
971:.
830:.
801:.
779:.
688:.
341:]
301:.
292:.
48:(
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
