Roman glass - Knowledge

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in technology. From the 2nd century onwards styles became increasingly regionalised, and evidence indicates that bottles and closed vessels such as unguentaria moved as a by-product of the trade in their contents, and many appear to have matched the Roman scale of liquid measurement. The use of coloured glass as a decorative addition to pale and colourless glasses also increased, and metal vessels continued to influence the shape of glass vessels. After the conversion of Constantine, glass works began to move more quickly from depicting Pagan religious imagery towards Christian religious imagery. The movement of the capital to

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this period vessel forms varied between workshops, with areas such as the Rhineland and northern France producing distinctive forms which are not seen further south. Growth in the industry continued into the 3rd century AD, when sites at the Colonia Claudia Agrippinensis appear to have experienced significant expansion, and by the 3rd and early 4th centuries producers north of the Alps were exporting down to the north of Italy and the transalpine regions.

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that styles of glass varied geographically, with the translucent coloured fine wares of the early 1st century notably 'western' in origin, whilst the later colourless fine wares are more 'international'. These objects also represent the first with a distinctly Roman style unrelated to the Hellenistic casting traditions on which they are based, and are characterised by novel rich colours. 'Emerald' green, dark or

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from Wadi El Natrun as a flux, has resulted in a largely homogenous composition in the majority of Roman glasses. Despite the publication of major analyses, comparisons of chemical analyses produced by different analytical methods have only recently been attempted, and although there is some variation in Roman glass compositions, meaningful compositional groups have been difficult to establish for this period.

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frequent and extensive, and that quantities of broken glassware were concentrated at local sites prior to melting back into raw glass. In the eastern empire, there is evidence of recycled Roman glass being used to glaze Parthian pottery. Compositionally, repeated recycling is visible via elevated levels of those metals used as colourants.

927:-rich minerals were used. However, antimony acts as a stronger decolourant than manganese, producing a more truly colourless glass; in Italy and northern Europe antimony or a mixture of antimony and manganese continued to be used well into the 3rd century. This end has been linked to the end of Roman occupation of 1003:

The natural 'aqua' shade can be intensified with the addition of copper. During the Roman period this was derived from the recovery of oxide scale from scrap copper when heated, to avoid the contaminants present in copper minerals. Copper produced a translucent blue moving towards a darker and denser

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The scarcity of archaeological evidence for Roman glass-making facilities has resulted in the use of chemical compositions as evidence for production models, as the division of production indicates that any variation is related to differences in raw glass making. However, the Roman reliance on natron

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allowed glass workers to produce vessels with considerably thinner walls, decreasing the amount of glass needed for each vessel. Glass blowing was also considerably quicker than other techniques, and vessels required considerably less finishing, representing a further saving in time, raw material and

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Under strongly reducing conditions, copper present in the glass will precipitate inside the matrix as cuprous oxide, making the glass appear brown to blood red. Lead encourages precipitation and brilliance. The red is a rare find, but is known to have been in production during the 4th, 5th and later

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By the early-to-mid-1st century AD, the growth of the Empire saw the establishment of glass working sites at locations along trade routes, with Cologne and other Rhineland centres becoming important glass working sites from the Imperial period, and Syrian glass being exported as far as Italy. During

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From around 70 AD colourless glass becomes the predominant material for fine wares, and the cheaper glasses move towards pale shades of blue, green, and yellow. Debate continues whether this change in fashion indicates a change in attitude that placed glass as individual material of merit no longer

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both indicate that recycling broken glass was an important part of the glass industry, and this seems to be supported by the fact that only rarely are glass fragments of any size recovered from domestic sites of this period. In the western empire there is evidence that recycling of broken glass was

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Glass making reached its peak at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, with glass objects in domestic contexts of every kind. The primary production techniques of blowing, and to a lesser extent casting, remained in use for the rest of the Roman period, with changes in vessel types but little change

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for mosaics, and the first window glass, as furnace technology improved allowing molten glass to be produced for the first time. At the same time, the expansion of the empire also brought an influx of people and an expansion of cultural influences that resulted in the adoption of eastern decorative

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The glass industry was therefore a relatively minor craft during the Republican period; although, during the early decades of the 1st century AD the quantity and diversity of glass vessels available increased dramatically. This was a direct result of the massive growth of the Roman influence at the

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and the dominance of colourless or 'aqua' glasses. Production of raw glass was undertaken in geographically separate locations to the working of glass into finished vessels, and by the end of the 1st century AD large scale manufacturing resulted in the establishment of glass as a commonly available

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Artisans used a mass of mud and straw fixed around a metal rod to form a core, and built up a vessel by either dipping the core in liquified glass, or by trailing liquid glass over the core. The core was removed after the glass had cooled, and handles, rims and bases were then added. These vessels

518:, a deep blue-green and Persian or 'peacock' blue are most commonly associated with this period, and other colours are very rare. Of these, Emerald green and peacock blue were new colours introduced by the Romano-Italian industry and almost exclusively associated with the production of fine wares. 513:

The earliest Roman glass follows Hellenistic traditions and uses strongly coloured and 'mosaic' patterned glass. During the late Republican period new highly coloured striped wares with a fusion of dozens of monochrome and lace-work strips were introduced. During this period there is some evidence

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developed in Rome, Campania and the Po Valley by the end of the 1st century BC, producing the new blown vessels alongside cast vessels. Italy is known to have been a centre for the working and export of brightly coloured vessels at this time, with production peaking during the mid-1st century AD.

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illustrates. These workshops could produce many tonnes of raw glass in a single furnace firing, and although this firing might have taken weeks, a single primary workshop could potentially supply multiple secondary glass working sites. It is therefore thought that raw glass production was centred

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As a result of these factors, the cost of production was reduced and glass became available for a wider section of society in a growing variety of forms. By the mid-1st century AD this meant that glass vessels had moved from a valuable, high-status commodity, to a material commonly available: "a

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The siting of glass-making workshops was governed by three primary factors: the availability of fuel which was needed in large quantities, sources of sand which represented the major constituent of the glass, and natron to act as a flux. Roman glass relied on natron from Wadi El Natrun, and as a

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However, during the last thirty years of the 1st century AD there was a marked change in style, with strong colours disappearing rapidly, replaced by 'aqua' and true colourless glasses. Colourless and 'aqua' glasses had been in use for vessels and some mosaic designs prior to this, but start to

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In comparison to glass making, there is evidence for glass working in many locations across the empire. Unlike the making process, the working of glass required significantly lower temperatures and substantially less fuel. As a result of this and the expansion of the Empire, glass working sites

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states that "the most highly valued glass is colourless and transparent, as closely as possible resembling rock crystal" (36, 198), which is thought to support this last position, as is evidence for the persistence of casting as a production technique, which produced the thickly walled vessels

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Colourless glass was produced in the Roman period by adding either antimony or manganese oxide. This oxidised the iron (II) oxide to iron (III) oxide, which although yellow, is a much weaker colourant, allowing the glass to appear colourless. The use of manganese as a decolourant was a Roman

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This was produced by binding rods of coloured glass together and heating and fusing them into a single piece. These were then cut in cross-section, and the resulting discs could be fused together to create complex patterns. Alternately, two strips of contrasting-coloured glass could be fused

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styles. The changes that took place in the Roman glass industry during this period can therefore be seen as a result of three primary influences: historical events, technical innovation and contemporary fashions. They are also linked to the fashions and technologies developed in the

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dominate the blown glass market at this time. The use of strong colours in cast glass died out during this period, with colourless or 'aqua' glasses dominating the last class of cast vessels to be produced in quantity, as mould and free-blowing took over during the 1st century AD.

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Melting does not appear to have taken place in crucibles; rather, cooking pots appear to have been used for small scale operations. For larger work, large tanks or tank-like ceramic containers were utilised. In the largest cases, large furnaces were built to surround these tanks.

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Roman glass has also been shown to contain around 1% to 2% chlorine, in contrast to later glasses. This is thought to have originated either in the addition of salt (NaCl) to reduce the melting temperature and viscosity of the glass, or as a contaminant in the natron.

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Roman glass production relied on the application of heat to fuse two primary ingredients: silica and soda. Technical studies of archaeological glasses divide the ingredients of glass as formers, fluxes, stabilisers, as well as possible opacifiers or colourants.

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Glass working sites such as those at Aquileia also had an important role in the spread of glassworking traditions and the trade in materials that used hollow glasswares as containers. However, by the 4th and 5th centuries Italian glass workshops predominate.

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has been much studied, although artistically they are relatively unsophisticated. In contrast, a much smaller group of 3rd century portrait levels are superbly executed, with pigment painted on top of the gold. The same technique began to be used for gold

417:(36, 194), in addition to evidence for the first use of molten glass in the mid-1st century AD, indicates that furnace technologies experienced marked development during the early-to-mid-1st century AD, in tandem with the expansion of glass production. 404:

periods, it is clear that glass making was a significant industry. By the end of the Roman period glass was being produced in large quantities contained in tanks situated inside highly specialised furnaces, as the 8-tonne glass slab recovered from

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Verney-Carron, Aurélie; Sessegolo, Loryelle; Chabas, Anne; Lombardo, Tiziana; Rossano, Stéphanie; Perez, Anne; Valbi, Valentina; Boutillez, Chloé; Muller, Camille; Vaulot, Cyril; Trichereau, Barbara; Loisel, Claudine (2023-06-17).

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and revived in the 3rd century. There are a very fewer larger designs, but the great majority of the around 500 survivals are roundels that are the cut-off bottoms of wine cups or glasses used to mark and decorate graves in the

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Strips of coloured glass were twisted with a contrasting coloured thread of glass before being fused together. This was a popular method in the early period, but appears to have gone out of fashion by the mid-1st century

367:: Glasses formed of silica and soda are naturally soluble, and require the addition of a stabiliser such as lime or magnesia. Lime was the primary stabiliser in use during the Roman period, entering the glass through 84:

material in the Roman world, and one which also had technically very difficult specialized types of luxury glass, which must have been very expensive, and competed with silver and gold as elite tableware.

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period. The majority of manufacturing techniques were time-consuming, and the initial product was a thick-walled vessel which required considerable finishing. This, combined with the cost of importing

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Lengths of monochrome and lacework glass were fused together to create vivid striped designs, a technique that developed from the lace pattern technique during the last decades of the 1st century AD.

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of the glass plate during melting. However, by using spiral and circular patterns of alternating colours producers were also able to deliberately imitate the appearance of natural stones such as

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together, and then wound round a glass rod whilst still hot to produce a spiral pattern. Cross-sections of this were also cut, and could be fused together to form a plate or fused to plain glass.

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Guidetti, Giulia; Zanini, Roberta; Franceschin, Giulia; Moglianetti, Mauro; Kim, Taehoon; Cohan, Nathaniel; Chan, Lisa; Treadgold, John; Traviglia, Arianna; Omenetto, Fiorenzo G. (2023-09-18).

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Guidetti, Giulia; Zanini, Roberta; Franceschin, Giulia; Moglianetti, Mauro; Kim, Taehoon; Cohan, Nathaniel; Chan, Lisa; Treadgold, John; Traviglia, Arianna; Omenetto, Fiorenzo G. (2023-09-18).

2642: 838:, were being produced specifically for use in mosaics. These were usually in shades of yellow, blue or green, and were predominantly used in mosaics laid under fountains or as highlights. 690:

The glass sheets used for slumping could be produced of plain or multicoloured glass, or even formed of 'mosaic' pieces. The production of these objects later developed into the modern

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Shards of broken glass or glass rods were being used in mosaics from the Augustan period onwards, but by the beginning of the 1st century small glass tiles, known as

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There is only limited evidence for local glass making, and only in context of window glass. The development of this large-scale industry is not fully understood, but

143:, at the beginning of the 1st century AD there was still no Latin word for it in the Roman world. However, glass was being produced in Roman contexts using primarily 2208:

Meredith, H. G., 2015. Word becomes Image: Open-Work Vessels as a Reflection of Late Antique Transformation. Archaeopress Archaeology Series. Oxford: Archaeopres.

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Dussart, O., B. Velde, et al., 2004. Glass from Qal'at Sem'an (Northern Syria): The reworking of glass during the transition from Roman to Islamic compositions.

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Dussart, O., B. Velde, et al., 2004. Glass from Qal'at Sem'an (Northern Syria): The reworking of glass during the transition from Roman to Islamic compositions.

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These colours formed the basis of all Roman glass, and although some of them required high technical ability and knowledge, a degree of uniformity was achieved.

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by pressing them into the mortar. The great majority are 4th century, extending into the 5th century. Most are Christian, but many pagan and a few Jewish; their

2984: 425:. This facilitated the trade in the raw colourless or naturally coloured glass which they produced, which reached glass-working sites across the Roman empire. 1130:

Precipitation of lead pyroantimonate creates an opaque yellow. Yellow rarely appears alone in Roman glass, but was used for the mosaic and polychrome pieces.

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Silvestri, A., G. Molin, et al., 2005. Roman and medieval glass from the Italian area: Bulk characterization and relationships with production technologies.

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Amrein, H.,2001, L'atelier de verriers d'Avenches. L'artisanat du verre au milieu du 1er siècle après J.-C., Cahiers d'archéologie romande 87, Lausanne 2001.

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Degryse, P.; Gonzalez, S.N.; Vanhaecke, F.; Dillis, S.; Van Ham-Meert, A. (2024). "The rise and fall of antimony: Sourcing the "colourless" in Roman glass".

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Sulfur is likely to have entered the glass as a contaminant of natron, producing a green tinge. Formation of iron-sulfur compounds produces an amber colour.

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required to imitate precious stones, ceramics, or metal, or whether the shift to colourless glass indicated an attempt to mimic highly prized rock crystal.

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was used primarily for the production of vessels, although mosaic tiles and window glass were also produced. Roman glass production developed from

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are characterised by relatively thick walls, bright colours and zigzagging patterns of contrasting colours, and were limited in size to small

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These techniques, which were to dominate the Roman glass working industry after the late 1st century AD, are discussed in detail on the

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result it is thought that glass-making workshops during the Roman period may have been confined to near-coastal regions of the eastern

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Price, J., 1990. A survey of the Hellenistic and early Roman vessel glass found on the Unexplored Mansion Site at Knossos in Crete.

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in the western provinces did much to prevent any downturn there. By the mid-4th century mould-blowing was in use only sporadically.

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for the production of raw glass, contributed to the limited use of glass and its position as an expensive and high-status material.

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for mosaics in the mid-1st century in Rome, and by the 5th century these had become the standard background for religious mosaics.

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Antimony reacts with the lime in the glass matrix to precipitate calcium antimonite crystals creating a white with high opacity.

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or scent containers. This early technique continued in popularity during the 1st century BC, despite the earlier introduction of

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Velde, B., Year. Observations on the chemical compositions of several types of Gallo-Roman and Frankish glass production. In:

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Velde, B., Year. Observations on the chemical compositions of several types of Gallo-Roman and Frankish glass production. In:

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glass network, or incorporated in a later stade in the altered glass (buried in the soil or exposed to ambient air) by a slow

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constituted by hundred of nanolayers of silica crystallised at the surface of the altered glass is responsible for a typical

895:'Aqua', a pale blue-green colour, is the common natural colour of untreated glass. Many early Roman vessels are this colour. 4795: 4670: 3823: 2818: 1836:, 1990. A survey of the Hellenistic and early Roman vessel glass found on the Unexplored Mansion Site at Knossos in Crete. 845:

into a wooden frame on top of a layer of sand or stone, but from the late 3rd century onwards window glass was made by the

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Majérus, Odile; Lehuédé, Patrice; Biron, Isabelle; Alloteau, Fanny; Narayanasamy, Sathya; Caurant, Daniel (2020-08-27).

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Jás Elsner (2007). "The Changing Nature of Roman Art and the Art Historical Problem of Style," in Eva R. Hoffman (ed),

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around a relatively small number of workshops, where glass was produced on a large scale and then broken into chunks.

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Archaeological evidence for glass making during the Roman period is scarce, but by drawing comparisons with the later

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The production of multicoloured vessels declined after the mid-1st century, but remained in use for some time after.

256: 2615: 2408:"A review of glass corrosion: the unique contribution of studying ancient glass to validate glass alteration models" 2173:

Freestone, I. C., 2006. Glass production in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic period: a geochemical perspective.

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Degryse, P., 2014. Glass Making in the Greco-Roman World, Results of the ARCHGLASS Project, Leuven University Press.

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periods, by the middle to late 1st century AD earlier techniques had been largely abandoned in favour of blowing.

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period, to which the glass belongs, 52–125 AD (although there is some scholarly debate about the precise dating).

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Facchini, G. M., 1990. Roman glass in an excavational context: Angere (VA). Annales du 11e Congres. Amsterdam.

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However, during the 1st century AD the industry underwent rapid technical growth that saw the introduction of

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In addition to this a major new technique in glass production had been introduced during the 1st century AD.

2373:"Alteration of medieval stained glass windows in atmospheric medium: review and simplified alteration model" 4086: 3690: 3142: 2857: 2787: 752: 357:, a naturally occurring salt found in dry lake beds. The main source of natron during the Roman period was 76:

technical traditions, initially concentrating on the production of intensely coloured cast glass vessels.

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Freestone, I. C., M. Ponting, Hughes, M.J., 2002. Origins of Byzantine glass from Maroni Petrera, Cyprus.

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Grose, D. F., 1991. Early Imperial Roman cast glass: The translucent coloured and colourless fine wares.

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Freestone, I. C., M. Ponting, Hughes, M.J.,2002. Origins of Byzantine glass from Maroni Petrera, Cyprus.

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Grose, D. F., 1991. Early Imperial Roman cast glass: The translucent coloured and colourless fine wares.

592:, artisans were able to produce a variety of small containers from blocks of raw glass or thick moulded 4745: 4409: 4301: 4071: 3843: 3665: 3573: 3438: 3381: 2602: 841:

Around the same time the first window panes are thought to have been produced. The earliest panes were

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Wood, J.R. (2022): Approaches to interrogate the erased histories of recycled archaeological objects.

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techniques, but is noticeably different. Six primary patterns of 'mosaic' glass have been identified:

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Some of these patterns are clearly formed through the distortion of the original pattern during the

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necessary to take the pressure of extensive cutting and polishing associated with crystal working.

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Ancient glass covered by a patina responsible of their iridescent hues of blue, green, and orange

4780: 4770: 4720: 4700: 4514: 4489: 4454: 4336: 4061: 3708: 3470: 3001: 353:) was used exclusively in glass production. During this period, the primary source of soda was 228: 179:

that followed the decades of civil war, and the stabilisation of the state that occurred under

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Jackson, C. M., H. E. M. Cool, Wager, E.C.W., 1998. The manufacture of glass in Roman York.

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Jackson, C. M., H. E. M. Cool, Wager, E.C.W., 1998. The manufacture of glass in Roman York.

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Baxter, M. J., H. E. M. Cool, Jackson, C.M., 2006. Comparing glass compositional analyses.

336: 204: 4404: 1462:, 79–94. Edited by Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. 757: 8: 4690: 4539: 4341: 4211: 4161: 3480: 3077: 2406:

Zanini, Roberta; Franceschin, Giulia; Cattaruzza, Elti; Traviglia, Arianna (2023-05-20).

1277: 1272: 1264: 1237: 785: 604:(still thought by most scholars to have been decorated by cutting, despite some debate). 268: 2487: 2452: 2166:

Freestone, I. C., 2005. The provenance of ancient glass through compositional analysis.

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Freestone, I. C., 2005. The provenance of ancient glass through compositional analysis.

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Gudenrath, W., 2006. Enameled Glass Vessels, 1425 BC – 1800: The decorating Process.

2028: 1951: 1909: 1888: 1790: 1484: 1463: 1424: 1229: 798: 793: 670: 162: 2236:. Rome, Italy: L'Erma di Bretschneider in association with the Toledo Museum of Art. 2093:

Baxter, M. J., H. E. M. Cool, et al., 2006. Comparing glass compositional analyses.

4439: 4399: 4331: 4266: 4191: 4186: 3958: 3881: 3828: 3623: 3618: 3507: 3366: 3315: 3275: 3245: 3240: 3235: 3225: 3147: 3094: 3087: 3072: 3067: 2991: 2919: 2838: 2702: 2589: 2482: 2464: 2429: 2419: 2384: 2348: 2036: 2018: 1974: 1947: 1778: 1745: 1734:"Approaches to interrogate the erased histories of recycled archaeological objects" 1583:. Rome, Italy, L'Erma di Fretshneidur in association with the Toledo Museum of Art. 1282: 1064: 350: 148: 136: 2281:

Wood, J.R. and Hsu, Y-T. (2020): Recycling Roman glass to glaze Parthian pottery.

2156:. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. 1766: 1733: 1394:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. 19: 4534: 4346: 4326: 4286: 4221: 4171: 4166: 4041: 3991: 3899: 3733: 3713: 3633: 3082: 2907: 2833: 2828: 2765: 2729: 1978: 1221: 1217: 1201:

Glass alteration can also induce the formation of rhythmic bands of crystallised

905: 849:, where a blown cylinder was cut laterally and flattened out to produce a sheet. 819: 401: 332: 216: 188: 104: 100: 1958: 323:: The major component of the glass is silica, which during the Roman period was 4589: 4231: 3966: 3914: 3886: 3833: 3818: 3798: 3613: 3588: 3545: 3535: 3361: 3335: 3265: 3250: 3215: 3175: 2936: 2777: 2424: 2407: 2389: 2372: 2353: 2336: 2145:

Facchini, G. M., 1990. Roman glass in an excavational context: Angere (VA). In

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equipment. Although earlier techniques dominated during the early Augustan and

152: 43: 542: 4810: 4121: 4091: 4006: 3540: 3517: 3330: 3185: 3170: 3117: 2924: 2808: 2760: 2724: 2498:"Ancient Roman "wow glass" has photonic crystal patina forged over centuries" 2478: 2443: 2398: 2362: 2058:"Ancient Roman "wow glass" has photonic crystal patina forged over centuries" 2032: 1198:, other processes of pure physical nature can also affect the glass colour. 1050: 643: 616:

page. Mould-blown glass appears in the second quarter of the 1st century AD.

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Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road

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A number of other techniques were in use during the Roman period, including

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Rutti, B., 1991. Early Enamelled Glass. In M. Newby and K. Painter (eds.)

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Not all the colours of ancient glass are necessarily produced by chemical

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of the silica to form glass. Analysis of Roman glass has shown that soda (

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Jackson, Caroline (2005). "Making colourless glass in the Roman period".

1233: 802: 770: 691: 633: 597: 593: 551: 515: 441: 236: 196: 116: 2278:. M. Newby and K. Painter. London: Society of Antiquaries of London.(UK) 92: 4619: 4559: 4524: 4316: 4251: 4241: 4136: 4021: 3909: 3492: 3460: 3205: 3132: 2964: 2959: 2813: 1782: 1750: 1720:

Glass Making in the Greco-Roman World, Results of the ARCHGLASS Project

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By adding lead, the green colour produced by copper could be darkened.

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Caldera de Castro, M. d. P., 1990. Roman glass in southwest Spain. In

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This technique is related to the origin of glass as a substitute for

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Caldera de Castro, M. d. P., 1990. Roman glass in southwest Spain.

1191: 1167: 1117: 1096: 932: 924: 835: 807: 717: 713: 683: 679: 638: 628: 601: 585: 569: 307: 240: 183:' rule. Still, Roman glasswares were already making their way from 180: 65: 23: 2100:

Biek, L. and J. Bayley, 1979. Glass and other Vitreous Materials.

1162:, well known for their characteristic colours, or less frequently 624:

A number of other techniques were in use during the Roman period:

4629: 4624: 4614: 4579: 4574: 4564: 4509: 4494: 4311: 4306: 4291: 4261: 4216: 4196: 4176: 4131: 3863: 3718: 3497: 3305: 3300: 3190: 2264:, Nancy, France: Editions du Centre de Publications de L'A.I.H.V. 2138:

Evison, V. I., 1990. Red marbled glass, Roman to Carolingian. In

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particles in the beach sand, rather than as a separate component.

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Evison, V. I., 1990. "Red marbled glass, Roman to Carolingian".

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rejuvenated the Eastern glass industry, and the presence of the

46:

is exemplary of luxury Roman glassware, c. late 1st century BC.

4639: 4519: 4449: 4389: 4384: 4351: 4111: 4096: 4046: 4026: 3448: 3325: 3220: 2175:

Geomaterials in Cultural Heritage: Geological Society of London

1908:, pp. 25–26, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 2nd edn. 1979, 1244: 1209: 1159: 1147: 1070: 1032: 995: 949: 354: 335:. Alumina contents vary, peaking around 3% in glasses from the 248:

trade, from which a number of forms and techniques were drawn.

239:

XVI.2). This growth also saw the production of the first glass

156: 112: 2246:

Stern, E. M., 1999. Roman Glassblowing in a Cultural Context.

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with a design between two fused layers of glass, developed in

607: 339:, and remaining notably lower in glasses from the Middle East. 4424: 4146: 3873: 3165: 1887:, 11–18. Oxford, Malden & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing. 1458:

An, Jiayao. (2002). "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in

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invention first noted in the Imperial period; prior to this,

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Ribbed bowl of mosaic glass in the Metropolitan Museum of Art

449: 302: 200: 69: 4634: 4201: 4141: 3723: 3099: 2334: 1241: 1121: 1074: 1015: 945: 324: 167: 2087:. Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire, Shire Publications. 1543:. Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire, Shire Publications. 481:

Engraved glass bowl from Colonia Agrippina, 3rd century AD

3195: 1625:

and the Early Islamic period: a geochemical perspective.

311:

Close-up of beach sand, the main component of Roman glass

235:

drinking cup could be bought for a copper coin" (Strabo,

2453:"Photonic crystals built by time in ancient Roman glass" 2253:

Stern, W. B., 1990. The composition of Roman glass. In:

2007:"Photonic crystals built by time in ancient Roman glass" 361:, Egypt, although there may have been a source in Italy. 2239:

Stern, E. M., 1991. Early Exports Beyond the Empire.

2121:

Caron, B., 1993. A Roman Figure-Engraved Glass Bowl.

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9e Congres International d'Etude Historique du Verre

1694:

9e Congres International d'Etude Historique du Verre

1595:

Stern, W. B., 1990. The composition of Roman glass.

1254: 788:

or gold glass was a technique for fixing a layer of

1885:

Late Antique and Medieval Art of the Medieval World

2267:Whitehouse, D., 1990. Late Roman cameo glass. In: 2771:Conservation and restoration of Pompeian frescoes 1767:"Recycling Roman glass to glaze Parthian pottery" 1423:, 2nd edition, London & New York: Routledge, 4808: 2457:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2276:Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention 2241:Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention 2220:Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention 2189:Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention 2011:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1565:Roman Glass: two centuries of art and invention 537: 506:Glass vessel from the 2nd century AD, found in 2418:(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 2383:(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 2347:(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 1617: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1609: 1607: 1605: 1224:process of the glass, likely occurring in the 813: 686:, lit from behind, with a modern foot and rim. 619: 558: 2865: 2530: 2049: 1632: 1421:Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire 1410: 2307: 1998: 1803:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1621:Freestone, I. C., 2006. Glass production in 829: 765:medallion with a portrait of a family, from 2222:. London: Society of Antiquaries of London. 2154:Roman Glass; reflections on cultural change 1852: 1850: 1848: 1846: 1811: 1672: 1670: 1602: 1392:Roman Glass; reflections on cultural change 1190:responsible for the typical blue colour of 608:Glass blowing: free and mould blown vessels 195:in Afghanistan and India and as far as the 30:, dated to the mid-4th century. Collection 2872: 2858: 2537: 2523: 1967:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 1866: 1864: 1862: 1764: 1656: 1654: 1652: 1650: 1648: 1591: 1589: 1535: 1533: 1531: 1529: 1527: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1481:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 1386: 1384: 1382: 1380: 1378: 1376: 1374: 1372: 1370: 1368: 1366: 1364: 1362: 1360: 1358: 1356: 1354: 1352: 1350: 1348: 1346: 1344: 1342: 1340: 1338: 1336: 1334: 1332: 1330: 1328: 1326: 1324: 1322: 1150:, or impurities, initially present in the 2495: 2486: 2468: 2433: 2423: 2388: 2352: 2168:Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology 7 2055: 2040: 2022: 1819:Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology 7 1749: 1575: 1573: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1505: 1503: 1501: 1499: 1497: 1483:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1441: 1439: 1437: 1320: 1318: 1316: 1314: 1312: 1310: 1308: 1306: 1304: 1302: 1843: 1829: 1827: 1688: 1686: 1667: 852: 756: 703:Floral (millefiori) and spiral patterns: 669: 661: 649: 588:. By borrowing techniques for stone and 541: 501: 476: 436: 392:, dated between 1st and 3rd centuries AD 383: 345:: This ingredient was used to lower the 306: 267:Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an 262: 250: 161: 99: 91: 37: 18: 2879: 1937: 1859: 1699: 1645: 1586: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1549: 60:objects have been recovered across the 4809: 2104:11, Early Chemical Technology/1, 1–25. 1985: 1918: 1570: 1494: 1434: 1397: 1299: 1141: 654: 137:glass working in the Hellenistic World 2853: 2751:Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum 2518: 1824: 1683: 1158:-controlled process. Beside metallic 2544: 2111:. New York, Corning Museum of Glass. 1731: 1709:. New York, Corning Museum of Glass. 1546: 1178:), or the trisulfide cyclic species 2643:Art of Diocletian and the tetrarchy 2274:Whitehouse, D., 1991. Cameo Glass. 2177:. Special publication 257: 201–216. 579: 13: 2496:Ouellette, Jennifer (2023-09-18). 2301: 2296:https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12756 2287:https://doi.org/10.1017/irq.2020.9 2109:Chemical Analyses of Early Glasses 2056:Ouellette, Jennifer (2023-09-18). 1707:Chemical Analyses of Early Glasses 175:end of the Republican period, the 139:and the growing place of glass in 88:Growth of the Roman glass industry 14: 4838: 2313:"Roman glass in Northern Britain" 1906:Early Christian and Byzantine Art 1627:Geomaterials in Cultural Heritage 127:during the contemporaneous Roman 2326: 1952:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2005.00231.x 1257: 1232:of the outer glass surface. The 472: 205:first Roman glass found in China 96:Roman glass from the 2nd century 2567:Augustan and Julio-Claudian art 2248:American Journal of Archaeology 2161:Studies in ancient technology V 2077: 1931: 1926:Studies in ancient technology V 1898: 1877: 1758: 1725: 1712: 1405:American Journal of Archaeology 379: 1765:Wood, J.R., Hsu, Y-T. (2020). 1473: 1452: 1220:produced by a slow rhythmic re 331:(typically 2.5%) and up to 8% 327:(quartz), which contains some 296: 1: 1895:, p. 17, Figure 1.3 on p. 18. 1293: 1063:Opaque red to brown (Pliny's 740: 710:Marbled and dappled patterns: 291: 170:from Syria, c. 4th century AD 119:, which was once part of the 3444:Frontiers and fortifications 1979:10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104344 1216:glass. These bands resemble 1085:centuries on the continent. 753:List of gold-glass portraits 600:in two or more colours, and 538:Vessel production techniques 432: 259:, found in Varpelev, Denmark 209:an early 1st-century BC tomb 64:in domestic, industrial and 7: 3503:Decorations and punishments 2630:Art in the age of Gallienus 2123:Metropolitan Museum Journal 1250: 814:Other decorative techniques 620:Other production techniques 559:Core and rod formed vessels 147:techniques and styles (see 10: 4843: 4410:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2985:historiography of the fall 2611:Art in the age of Commodus 2425:10.1038/s41529-023-00355-4 2390:10.1038/s41529-023-00367-0 2354:10.1038/s41529-020-00130-9 1722:, Leuven University Press. 1236:of light by the so-formed 1129: 1105: 1083: 1056: 1039: 1021: 1002: 959: 921: 894: 750: 744: 300: 32:Staatliche Antikensammlung 4791:External wars and battles 4658: 4552: 4365: 3957: 3950: 3872: 3784: 3689: 3564: 3516: 3394: 3344: 3283: 3274: 3156: 3108: 3028: 2945: 2915: 2906: 2888: 2796: 2743: 2685: 2598:Art of the early Antonini 2553: 2412:npj Materials Degradation 2377:npj Materials Degradation 2341:npj Materials Degradation 1928:. Editors: Leiden, Brill. 1479:Ebrey, Patricia. (1999). 1208:(neoformed nanolayers of 877: 874: 830:Tesserae and window glass 497: 4827:Ancient Roman technology 2203:Journal of Glass Studies 2196:Journal of Glass Studies 2133:Journal of Glass Studies 1662:Journal of Glass Studies 1447:Journal of Glass Studies 1212:) at the surface of the 871: 868: 866: 4822:Ancient Roman glassware 4786:Roman–Iranian relations 3261:Optimates and populares 2797:Art in related cultures 2470:10.1073/pnas.2311583120 2234:Roman Mould-blown Glass 2024:10.1073/pnas.2311583120 1581:Roman Mould-blown Glass 1390:Fleming, S. J. (1999). 1125:(such as bindheimite). 452:, early 1st century AD. 444:plaque with the infant 415:Pliny's Natural History 166:A double-handled glass 123:, but was ruled by the 4796:Civil wars and revolts 4062:Sextus Pompeius Festus 3709:Conflict of the Orders 3068:Legislative assemblies 2269:Annales du 11e Congres 2255:Annales du 11e Congres 2213:Annales du 11e Congres 2152:Fleming, S. J., 1999. 2147:Annales du 11e Congres 2140:Annales du 11e Congres 2116:Annales du 11e Congres 2085:Roman Glass in Britain 1993:Annales du 11e Congres 1872:Annales du 11e Congres 1838:Annales du 11e Congres 1597:Annales du 11e Congres 1541:Roman Glass in Britain 1166:such as the red-brown 782: 687: 667: 634:Cameo glass production 555: 510: 482: 453: 393: 312: 276: 260: 171: 135:Despite the growth of 132: 121:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 97: 54: 35: 4505:Simplicius of Cilicia 4257:Quintus Curtius Rufus 3486:Siege in Ancient Rome 3095:Executive magistrates 2756:Fayum mummy portraits 2309:Charlesworth, Dorothy 2285:82, p. 259–270. 2159:Forbes, R. J., 1966. 1924:Forbes, R. J., 1966. 853:Chemistry and colours 779:Museo di Santa Giulia 760: 751:Further information: 673: 665: 650:Decorative techniques 545: 505: 480: 440: 387: 310: 266: 255:"Circus beaker" from 254: 215:, ostensibly via the 165: 103: 95: 41: 22: 4515:Stephanus Byzantinus 4420:Eusebius of Caesaria 4282:Sidonius Apollinaris 3972:Ammianus Marcellinus 3311:Tribune of the plebs 2561:Roman Republican art 2317:Archaeologia Aeliana 2107:Brill, R. H., 1999. 1705:Brill, R. H., 1999. 1579:Stern, E. M., 1995. 1228:layer formed by the 1040:Intense colouration 773:), 3rd–4th century ( 4691:Distinguished women 4342:Velleius Paterculus 4182:Nicolaus Damascenus 4162:Marcellus Empiricus 3551:Republican currency 2819:Early Christian art 1732:Wood, J.R. (2022). 1718:Degryse, P., 2014. 1278:Diffraction grating 1273:Ancient glass trade 1265:Ancient Rome portal 1142:Physics and colours 1100:(such as stibnite) 1029:Royal blue to navy 878:Furnace conditions 859:modern glass colors 786:Gold sandwich glass 629:Cage cup production 269:Eastern Han Dynasty 4465:Phlegon of Tralles 4272:Seneca the Younger 3746:Naming conventions 3476:Personal equipment 3009:Later Roman Empire 2698:Roman funerary art 2693:Roman architecture 1783:10.1017/irq.2020.9 1751:10.1111/arcm.12756 1288:Speyer wine bottle 1088:Strongly reducing 783: 688: 682:(colour-changing) 668: 556: 550:, 5–25 AD(?) 511: 483: 456:The Roman writers 454: 394: 388:Roman blown-glass 313: 277: 271:(25–220 AD) tomb, 261: 172: 133: 98: 55: 48:Walters Art Museum 36: 4804: 4803: 4766:Pontifices maximi 4548: 4547: 4405:Diogenes Laërtius 4227:Pliny the Younger 3982:Asconius Pedianus 3942:Romance languages 3814:Civil engineering 3556:Imperial currency 3429:Political control 3390: 3389: 3024: 3023: 2847: 2846: 2804:Ancient Greek art 2735:Roman portraiture 2656:Constantinian art 2554:Roman art periods 2102:World Archaeology 2083:Allen, D., 1998. 1893:978-1-4051-2071-5 1539:Allen, D., 1998. 1429:978-0-415-72078-6 1136: 1135: 799:Catacombs of Rome 794:Hellenistic glass 731:Striped patterns: 4834: 4817:History of glass 4756:Magistri equitum 4671:Cities and towns 4664: 4590:Constantinopolis 4400:Diodorus Siculus 4332:Valerius Maximus 4267:Seneca the Elder 4187:Nonius Marcellus 3955: 3954: 3508:Hippika gymnasia 3471:Infantry tactics 3377:Consular tribune 3367:Magister equitum 3316:Military tribune 3281: 3280: 3241:Pontifex maximus 3236:Princeps senatus 3226:Magister militum 2992:Byzantine Empire 2913: 2912: 2874: 2867: 2860: 2851: 2850: 2839:Late Antique art 2703:Roman sarcophagi 2677: 2664: 2651: 2638: 2619: 2606: 2593: 2563:(509 BC - 27 BC) 2539: 2532: 2525: 2516: 2515: 2511: 2509: 2508: 2492: 2490: 2472: 2447: 2437: 2427: 2402: 2392: 2366: 2356: 2331: 2330: 2324: 2163:. Leiden, Brill. 2072: 2071: 2069: 2068: 2053: 2047: 2046: 2044: 2026: 2002: 1996: 1989: 1983: 1982: 1962: 1956: 1955: 1935: 1929: 1922: 1916: 1904:Beckwith, John, 1902: 1896: 1881: 1875: 1868: 1857: 1854: 1841: 1831: 1822: 1815: 1809: 1808: 1802: 1794: 1762: 1756: 1755: 1753: 1729: 1723: 1716: 1710: 1703: 1697: 1690: 1681: 1674: 1665: 1658: 1643: 1636: 1630: 1619: 1600: 1593: 1584: 1577: 1568: 1561: 1544: 1537: 1492: 1477: 1471: 1456: 1450: 1443: 1432: 1414: 1408: 1401: 1395: 1388: 1283:Photonic crystal 1267: 1262: 1261: 1260: 1207: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1177: 1173: 864: 863: 580:Cold-cut vessels 351:sodium carbonate 141:material culture 4842: 4841: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4833: 4832: 4831: 4807: 4806: 4805: 4800: 4662: 4660: 4654: 4544: 4380:Aëtius of Amida 4361: 4347:Verrius Flaccus 4327:Valerius Antias 4287:Silius Italicus 4222:Pliny the Elder 4167:Marcus Aurelius 4042:Cornelius Nepos 3992:Aurelius Victor 3946: 3868: 3780: 3714:Secessio plebis 3685: 3560: 3512: 3386: 3340: 3270: 3152: 3104: 3020: 2941: 2902: 2884: 2878: 2848: 2843: 2834:Hellenistic art 2829:Gallo-Roman art 2792: 2766:Pompeian Styles 2739: 2730:Roman sculpture 2681: 2671: 2658: 2645: 2632: 2613: 2600: 2587: 2569:(44 BC - 69 AD) 2549: 2543: 2506: 2504: 2325: 2304: 2302:Further reading 2250:103/3, 441–484. 2080: 2075: 2066: 2064: 2054: 2050: 2003: 1999: 1990: 1986: 1963: 1959: 1936: 1932: 1923: 1919: 1903: 1899: 1882: 1878: 1869: 1860: 1855: 1844: 1832: 1825: 1816: 1812: 1796: 1795: 1763: 1759: 1730: 1726: 1717: 1713: 1704: 1700: 1691: 1684: 1675: 1668: 1659: 1646: 1637: 1633: 1620: 1603: 1594: 1587: 1578: 1571: 1562: 1547: 1538: 1495: 1478: 1474: 1457: 1453: 1444: 1435: 1415: 1411: 1407:103/3, 441–484. 1402: 1398: 1389: 1300: 1296: 1263: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1222:crystallisation 1218:Liesegang rings 1206: 1202: 1185: 1182: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1144: 1124: 1099: 1080: 992:Blue and green 974: 956: 916: 912: 908: 906:Iron(III) oxide 889: 855: 832: 820:enamelled glass 816: 755: 749: 743: 660: 652: 622: 610: 582: 561: 540: 530:Natural History 500: 475: 435: 382: 305: 299: 294: 217:South China Sea 189:Parthian Empire 105:Enamelled glass 90: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4840: 4830: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4667: 4665: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4556: 4554: 4550: 4549: 4546: 4545: 4543: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4371: 4369: 4363: 4362: 4360: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4232:Pomponius Mela 4229: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3967:Aelius Donatus 3963: 3961: 3952: 3948: 3947: 3945: 3944: 3939: 3938: 3937: 3935:Ecclesiastical 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3889: 3884: 3878: 3876: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3790: 3788: 3782: 3781: 3779: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3748: 3743: 3738: 3737: 3736: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3695: 3693: 3687: 3686: 3684: 3683: 3678: 3676:Toys and games 3673: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3648: 3647: 3646: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3570: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3559: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3522: 3520: 3514: 3513: 3511: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3490: 3489: 3488: 3483: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3458: 3453: 3452: 3451: 3441: 3436: 3431: 3426: 3421: 3416: 3411: 3406: 3400: 3398: 3392: 3391: 3388: 3387: 3385: 3384: 3379: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3348: 3346: 3342: 3341: 3339: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3323: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3293: 3287: 3285: 3278: 3272: 3271: 3269: 3268: 3263: 3258: 3253: 3248: 3243: 3238: 3233: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3216:Vigintisexviri 3213: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3178: 3176:Cursus honorum 3173: 3168: 3162: 3160: 3154: 3153: 3151: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3135: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3114: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3103: 3102: 3097: 3092: 3091: 3090: 3085: 3080: 3075: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3045: 3040: 3034: 3032: 3026: 3025: 3022: 3021: 3019: 3018: 3017: 3016: 3006: 3005: 3004: 2999: 2989: 2988: 2987: 2982: 2975:Western Empire 2972: 2967: 2962: 2957: 2951: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2939: 2934: 2933: 2932: 2922: 2916: 2910: 2904: 2903: 2901: 2900: 2895: 2889: 2886: 2885: 2877: 2876: 2869: 2862: 2854: 2845: 2844: 2842: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2806: 2800: 2798: 2794: 2793: 2791: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2778:Roman graffiti 2775: 2774: 2773: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2747: 2745: 2744:Related topics 2741: 2740: 2738: 2737: 2732: 2727: 2722: 2720:Roman painting 2717: 2712: 2707: 2706: 2705: 2695: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2682: 2680: 2679: 2669:Theodosian art 2666: 2653: 2640: 2627: 2621: 2608: 2595: 2582: 2576: 2570: 2564: 2557: 2555: 2551: 2550: 2542: 2541: 2534: 2527: 2519: 2513: 2512: 2493: 2448: 2403: 2367: 2332: 2303: 2300: 2299: 2298: 2289: 2279: 2272: 2265: 2258: 2251: 2244: 2237: 2232:Stern, E. M., 2230: 2229:47/4, 797–816. 2223: 2216: 2209: 2206: 2199: 2192: 2185: 2178: 2171: 2164: 2157: 2150: 2143: 2136: 2129: 2126: 2119: 2112: 2105: 2098: 2097:48/3, 399–414. 2091: 2088: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2073: 2048: 1997: 1984: 1957: 1946:(4): 763–780. 1930: 1917: 1897: 1876: 1858: 1842: 1823: 1810: 1757: 1724: 1711: 1698: 1682: 1680:48/3, 399–414. 1666: 1644: 1631: 1623:Late Antiquity 1601: 1585: 1569: 1545: 1493: 1472: 1451: 1433: 1409: 1396: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1269: 1268: 1252: 1249: 1204: 1143: 1140: 1134: 1133: 1131: 1128: 1126: 1115: 1111: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1094: 1090: 1089: 1086: 1082: 1077: 1068: 1060: 1059: 1057: 1055: 1053: 1048: 1044: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1035: 1030: 1026: 1025: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1013: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1001: 998: 993: 989: 988: 985: 983: 980: 969: 965: 964: 961: 958: 953: 943: 939: 938: 936: 920: 918: 914: 910: 903: 899: 898: 896: 893: 891: 887:Iron(II) oxide 884: 880: 879: 876: 873: 870: 867: 854: 851: 831: 828: 824:engraved glass 815: 812: 745:Main article: 742: 739: 735: 734: 728: 724:Lace patterns: 721: 707: 659: 653: 651: 648: 647: 646: 641: 636: 631: 621: 618: 609: 606: 581: 578: 560: 557: 539: 536: 499: 496: 474: 471: 434: 431: 381: 378: 373: 372: 362: 359:Wadi El Natrun 340: 337:western Empire 301:Main article: 298: 295: 293: 290: 286:Roman military 282:Constantinople 257:Roman Iron Age 229:Julio-Claudian 151:) by the late 149:glass, history 89: 86: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4839: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4814: 4812: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4668: 4666: 4657: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4557: 4555: 4551: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4372: 4370: 4368: 4364: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4268: 4265: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4122:Julius Paulus 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4057:Fabius Pictor 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3956: 3953: 3949: 3943: 3940: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3880: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3871: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3795: 3794:Amphitheatres 3792: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3783: 3777: 3774: 3772: 3769: 3767: 3764: 3762: 3759: 3757: 3754: 3752: 3749: 3747: 3744: 3742: 3739: 3735: 3732: 3731: 3730: 3727: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3679: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3654: 3652: 3649: 3645: 3642: 3641: 3640: 3637: 3635: 3632: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3622: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3595: 3592: 3590: 3587: 3585: 3582: 3580: 3577: 3575: 3572: 3571: 3569: 3567: 3563: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3539: 3537: 3534: 3532: 3531:Deforestation 3529: 3527: 3524: 3523: 3521: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3496: 3494: 3491: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3481:Siege engines 3479: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3464: 3463: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3454: 3450: 3447: 3446: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3432: 3430: 3427: 3425: 3422: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3414:Establishment 3412: 3410: 3407: 3405: 3402: 3401: 3399: 3397: 3393: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3350: 3349: 3347: 3345:Extraordinary 3343: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3331:Promagistrate 3329: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3294: 3292: 3289: 3288: 3286: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3273: 3267: 3264: 3262: 3259: 3257: 3254: 3252: 3249: 3247: 3244: 3242: 3239: 3237: 3234: 3232: 3229: 3227: 3224: 3222: 3219: 3217: 3214: 3212: 3209: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3199: 3197: 3194: 3192: 3189: 3187: 3184: 3182: 3179: 3177: 3174: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3163: 3161: 3159: 3155: 3149: 3146: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3136: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3126: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3118:Twelve Tables 3116: 3115: 3113: 3111: 3107: 3101: 3098: 3096: 3093: 3089: 3086: 3084: 3081: 3079: 3076: 3074: 3071: 3070: 3069: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3056: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3039: 3036: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3027: 3015: 3012: 3011: 3010: 3007: 3003: 3000: 2998: 2995: 2994: 2993: 2990: 2986: 2983: 2981: 2978: 2977: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2958: 2956: 2953: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2944: 2938: 2935: 2931: 2928: 2927: 2926: 2923: 2921: 2918: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2905: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2891: 2890: 2887: 2882: 2875: 2870: 2868: 2863: 2861: 2856: 2855: 2852: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2810: 2809:Byzantine art 2807: 2805: 2802: 2801: 2799: 2795: 2789: 2788:Tintinnabulum 2786: 2784: 2781: 2779: 2776: 2772: 2769: 2768: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2761:Neoclassicism 2759: 2757: 2754: 2752: 2749: 2748: 2746: 2742: 2736: 2733: 2731: 2728: 2726: 2725:Roman pottery 2723: 2721: 2718: 2716: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2704: 2701: 2700: 2699: 2696: 2694: 2691: 2690: 2688: 2684: 2675: 2670: 2667: 2662: 2657: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2628: 2625: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2585:Hadrianic art 2583: 2580: 2577: 2574: 2571: 2568: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2558: 2556: 2552: 2547: 2540: 2535: 2533: 2528: 2526: 2521: 2520: 2517: 2503: 2499: 2494: 2489: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2436: 2435:10278/5021581 2431: 2426: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2391: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2333: 2329: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2305: 2297: 2294: 2290: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2277: 2273: 2270: 2266: 2263: 2259: 2256: 2252: 2249: 2245: 2242: 2238: 2235: 2231: 2228: 2224: 2221: 2217: 2214: 2210: 2207: 2204: 2200: 2197: 2193: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2179: 2176: 2172: 2169: 2165: 2162: 2158: 2155: 2151: 2148: 2144: 2141: 2137: 2134: 2130: 2127: 2124: 2120: 2117: 2113: 2110: 2106: 2103: 2099: 2096: 2092: 2089: 2086: 2082: 2081: 2063: 2059: 2052: 2043: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2025: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2001: 1994: 1988: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1961: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1934: 1927: 1921: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1901: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1880: 1873: 1867: 1865: 1863: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1847: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1828: 1820: 1814: 1806: 1800: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1761: 1752: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1728: 1721: 1715: 1708: 1702: 1695: 1689: 1687: 1679: 1673: 1671: 1663: 1657: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1649: 1641: 1635: 1628: 1624: 1618: 1616: 1614: 1612: 1610: 1608: 1606: 1598: 1592: 1590: 1582: 1576: 1574: 1566: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1550: 1542: 1536: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1528: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1506: 1504: 1502: 1500: 1498: 1490: 1489:0-521-66991-X 1486: 1482: 1476: 1470:. Page 83-84. 1469: 1468:2-503-52178-9 1465: 1461: 1455: 1448: 1442: 1440: 1438: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1413: 1406: 1400: 1393: 1387: 1385: 1383: 1381: 1379: 1377: 1375: 1373: 1371: 1369: 1367: 1365: 1363: 1361: 1359: 1357: 1355: 1353: 1351: 1349: 1347: 1345: 1343: 1341: 1339: 1337: 1335: 1333: 1331: 1329: 1327: 1325: 1323: 1321: 1319: 1317: 1315: 1313: 1311: 1309: 1307: 1305: 1303: 1298: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1270: 1266: 1255: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1199: 1197: 1193: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1139: 1132: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1108: 1102: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1091: 1087: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1062: 1061: 1058: 1054: 1052: 1051:Egyptian blue 1049: 1046: 1045: 1042: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1028: 1027: 1024: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1011: 1010: 1006: 999: 997: 994: 991: 990: 986: 984: 981: 978: 973: 970: 967: 966: 962: 954: 951: 947: 944: 941: 940: 937: 934: 930: 926: 919: 907: 904: 901: 900: 897: 892: 888: 885: 882: 881: 865: 862: 860: 850: 848: 844: 839: 837: 827: 825: 821: 811: 809: 804: 800: 795: 791: 787: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 759: 754: 748: 738: 732: 729: 725: 722: 719: 715: 711: 708: 704: 701: 700: 699: 697: 693: 685: 681: 677: 672: 664: 657: 645: 642: 640: 637: 635: 632: 630: 627: 626: 625: 617: 615: 614:glass blowing 605: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 577: 575: 571: 567: 553: 549: 548:Portland Vase 544: 535: 532: 531: 523: 519: 517: 509: 508:Bosanski Novi 504: 495: 491: 487: 479: 473:Glass working 470: 466: 463: 459: 451: 447: 443: 439: 430: 426: 424: 423:Mediterranean 418: 416: 411: 408: 403: 399: 391: 386: 377: 370: 366: 363: 360: 356: 352: 348: 347:melting point 344: 341: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 319: 318: 317: 309: 304: 289: 287: 283: 274: 270: 265: 258: 253: 249: 247: 242: 238: 232: 230: 225: 220: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 193:Kushan Empire 190: 186: 182: 178: 169: 164: 160: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 130: 126: 125:Kushan Empire 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 94: 85: 82: 81:glass blowing 77: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 53: 49: 45: 40: 33: 29: 25: 21: 4736:Institutions 4600:Leptis Magna 4553:Major cities 4460:Philostratus 4247:Quadrigarius 4067:Rufus Festus 3930:Contemporary 3651:Romanization 3574:Architecture 3181:Collegiality 3030:Constitution 2881:Ancient Rome 2824:Etruscan art 2715:Roman mosaic 2709: 2579:Trajanic art 2505:. Retrieved 2502:Ars Technica 2501: 2460: 2456: 2415: 2411: 2380: 2376: 2344: 2340: 2320: 2319:, Series 4, 2316: 2293:Archaeometry 2292: 2282: 2275: 2271:. Amsterdam. 2268: 2261: 2257:. Amsterdam. 2254: 2247: 2240: 2233: 2227:Archaeometry 2226: 2219: 2215:. Amsterdam. 2212: 2202: 2195: 2188: 2184:44, 257–272. 2182:Archaeometry 2181: 2174: 2167: 2160: 2153: 2149:. Amsterdam. 2146: 2142:. Amsterdam. 2139: 2132: 2122: 2118:. Amsterdam. 2115: 2108: 2101: 2095:Archaeometry 2094: 2084: 2078:Bibliography 2065:. Retrieved 2062:Ars Technica 2061: 2051: 2014: 2010: 2000: 1995:. Amsterdam. 1992: 1987: 1970: 1966: 1960: 1943: 1940:Archaeometry 1939: 1933: 1925: 1920: 1905: 1900: 1884: 1879: 1874:. Amsterdam. 1871: 1840:. Amsterdam. 1837: 1818: 1813: 1799:cite journal 1774: 1770: 1760: 1741: 1738:Archaeometry 1737: 1727: 1719: 1714: 1706: 1701: 1693: 1678:Archaeometry 1677: 1661: 1642:44, 257–272. 1640:Archaeometry 1639: 1634: 1626: 1599:. Amsterdam. 1596: 1580: 1564: 1540: 1480: 1475: 1459: 1454: 1446: 1420: 1417:Warwick Ball 1412: 1404: 1399: 1391: 1200: 1196:lapis lazuli 1145: 1137: 1081:1% – 20% Pb 1047:Powder blue 856: 847:muff process 840: 833: 817: 784: 761:Detail of a 736: 730: 723: 709: 702: 689: 676:Lycurgus Cup 655: 623: 611: 596:, including 583: 562: 529: 524: 520: 512: 492: 488: 484: 467: 455: 427: 419: 412: 407:Bet She'arim 395: 390:cinerary urn 380:Glass making 374: 364: 342: 320: 314: 278: 233: 224:Glassblowing 221: 185:Western Asia 173: 134: 107:depicting a 78: 62:Roman Empire 57: 56: 4731:Geographers 4415:Dioscorides 4395:Cassius Dio 4017:Cassiodorus 3920:Renaissance 3526:Agriculture 3498:Auxiliaries 3439:Engineering 3276:Magistrates 3128:Citizenship 3123:Mos maiorum 3058:Late Empire 2783:Roman music 2710:Roman glass 2678:(379 - 395) 2672: [ 2665:(312 - 337) 2659: [ 2652:(284 - 312) 2646: [ 2639:(253 - 268) 2633: [ 2626:(193 - 253) 2624:Severan art 2614: [ 2607:(138 - 180) 2601: [ 2594:(117 - 138) 2588: [ 2573:Flavian art 1777:: 259–270. 1744:: 187–205. 1234:diffraction 1012:Dark green 955:0.2%-1.4% S 902:Colourless 803:iconography 771:Roman Egypt 692:caneworking 598:cameo glass 590:carved gems 552:cameo glass 516:cobalt blue 442:Cameo glass 297:Composition 237:Geographica 145:Hellenistic 117:Afghanistan 111:, found at 74:Hellenistic 58:Roman glass 4811:Categories 4620:Mediolanum 4560:Alexandria 4525:Themistius 4490:Porphyrius 4317:Tertullian 4252:Quintilian 4242:Propertius 4137:Lactantius 4087:Fulgentius 4022:Censorinus 3844:Sanitation 3829:Metallurgy 3786:Technology 3751:Demography 3699:Patricians 3666:Spectacles 3624:Literature 3619:Hairstyles 3456:Technology 3206:Praefectus 3158:Government 3148:Litigation 3133:Auctoritas 3078:Centuriate 2965:Principate 2960:Pax Romana 2920:Foundation 2814:Coptic art 2620:(180 -192) 2581:(98 - 117) 2507:2023-09-19 2205:40, 55–61. 2135:46, 67–83. 2125:28, 47–55. 2067:2023-09-19 1973:: 104344. 1914:0140560335 1664:40, 55–61. 1491:. Page 70. 1449:46, 67–83. 1294:References 1109:Oxidising 1079:>10% Cu 1065:haematinum 1007:Oxidising 987:Oxidising 982:Around 3% 977:pyrolusite 952:compounds 869:Colourant 843:rough cast 767:Alexandria 763:gold glass 747:Gold glass 741:Gold glass 696:millefiori 656:Cast glass 369:calcareous 365:Stabiliser 292:Production 207:came from 197:Han Empire 187:(i.e. the 177:Pax Romana 153:Republican 129:Principate 68:contexts. 4776:Quaestors 4706:Empresses 4696:Dynasties 4686:Dictators 4661:and other 4650:Volubilis 4645:Vindobona 4605:Londinium 4530:Theodoret 4500:Procopius 4480:Polyaenus 4455:Pausanias 4357:Vitruvius 4302:Symmachus 4297:Suetonius 4207:Petronius 4192:Obsequens 4157:Macrobius 4152:Lucretius 4077:Frontinus 4052:Eutropius 4037:Columella 3987:Augustine 3977:Appuleius 3925:Neo-Latin 3900:Classical 3891:Versions 3799:Aqueducts 3741:Patronage 3661:Sexuality 3634:Mythology 3609:Education 3599:Cosmetics 3424:Campaigns 3419:Structure 3372:Decemviri 3231:Imperator 2930:overthrow 2575:(69 - 96) 2546:Roman art 2479:0027-8424 2444:2397-2106 2399:2397-2106 2363:2397-2106 2033:0027-8424 1834:Price, J. 1791:229305135 1431:, p. 153. 1230:hydration 1226:silicagel 1214:weathered 1156:diffusion 1152:amorphous 975:(such as 972:Manganese 963:Reducing 931:and its 875:Comments 857:See also 790:gold leaf 602:cage cups 586:gemstones 576:vessels. 433:Recycling 402:Byzantine 213:Guangzhou 191:) to the 109:gladiator 52:Baltimore 4781:Tribunes 4771:Praetors 4721:Generals 4701:Emperors 4610:Lugdunum 4595:Eboracum 4585:Carthage 4570:Aquileia 4485:Polybius 4475:Plutarch 4445:Libanius 4435:Josephus 4430:Herodian 4322:Tibullus 4237:Priscian 4212:Phaedrus 4172:Manilius 4117:Jordanes 4102:Hydatius 4032:Claudian 4012:Catullus 4002:Boëthius 3997:Ausonius 3915:Medieval 3887:Alphabet 3859:Theatres 3834:Numerals 3819:Concrete 3809:Circuses 3776:Bagaudae 3766:Adoption 3761:Marriage 3734:Assembly 3639:Religion 3614:Folklore 3594:Clothing 3589:Calendar 3546:Currency 3536:Commerce 3434:Strategy 3396:Military 3382:Triumvir 3362:Dictator 3357:Interrex 3336:Governor 3321:Quaestor 3284:Ordinary 3266:Province 3256:Tetrarch 3246:Augustus 3211:Vicarius 3201:Officium 3138:Imperium 3088:Plebeian 3048:Republic 2970:Dominate 2937:Republic 2898:Timeline 2488:10523479 2311:(1959), 2042:10523479 1419:(2016), 1251:See also 1192:lazurite 1168:selenide 1118:Antimony 1097:Antimony 957:0.3% Fe 933:stibnite 925:antimony 872:Content 836:tesserae 808:tesserae 718:sardonyx 714:slumping 684:cage cup 680:dichroic 658:patterns 639:Slumping 528:Pliny's 241:tesserae 181:Augustus 66:funerary 34:, Munich 24:Cage cup 4751:Legions 4711:Fiction 4681:Consuls 4676:Climate 4630:Ravenna 4625:Pompeii 4615:Lutetia 4580:Bononia 4575:Berytus 4565:Antioch 4540:Zosimus 4535:Zonaras 4510:Sozomen 4495:Priscus 4470:Photius 4312:Terence 4307:Tacitus 4292:Statius 4277:Servius 4262:Sallust 4217:Plautus 4197:Orosius 4177:Martial 4132:Juvenal 4107:Hyginus 4092:Gellius 3951:Writers 3882:History 3864:Thermae 3854:Temples 3804:Bridges 3771:Slavery 3719:Equites 3691:Society 3671:Theatre 3644:Deities 3604:Cuisine 3584:Bathing 3566:Culture 3541:Finance 3518:Economy 3409:Borders 3404:History 3306:Tribune 3301:Praetor 3191:Legatus 3186:Emperor 3073:Curiate 3043:Kingdom 3038:History 3014:History 2997:decline 2955:History 2925:Kingdom 2908:History 2893:Outline 2323:: 33–58 2198:48, 23. 1238:grating 1170:anion ( 1160:cations 1148:dopants 1114:Yellow 1004:green. 1000:2%–13% 968:Purple 883:'Aqua' 775:Brescia 644:Casting 570:slumped 566:unguent 462:Martial 458:Statius 446:Bacchus 398:Islamic 329:alumina 275:, China 273:Guangxi 246:ceramic 28:Cologne 4761:Nomina 4746:Legacy 4726:Gentes 4663:topics 4659:Lists 4640:Smyrna 4520:Strabo 4450:Lucian 4440:Julian 4390:Arrian 4385:Appian 4375:Aelian 4352:Vergil 4127:Justin 4112:Jerome 4097:Horace 4082:Fronto 4072:Florus 4047:Ennius 4027:Cicero 4007:Caesar 3905:Vulgar 3729:Tribes 3656:Romans 3466:Legion 3449:castra 3326:Aedile 3296:Censor 3291:Consul 3251:Caesar 3221:Lictor 3143:Status 3083:Tribal 3063:Senate 3053:Empire 2947:Empire 2883:topics 2548:topics 2485: 2477: 2463:(39). 2442: 2397: 2361: 2039: 2031: 2017:(39). 1912: 1891: 1789: 1487: 1466: 1427: 1245:patina 1242:golden 1210:silica 1164:anions 1103:1–10% 1093:White 1071:Copper 1033:Cobalt 996:Copper 950:sulfur 942:Amber 890:(FeO) 594:blanks 498:Styles 448:and a 355:natron 321:Former 203:. 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