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419:, the son of Moise Jacques Cohen, an electrical engineer, and his wife Hattie Alberta née Mackay, a school teacher. He was named Robert after his maternal great uncle Robert Wood, and Frederick after Frederick Alexander Christy, the second husband of his maternal grandmother. He had an older brother, John, who was born in 1913. Moise changed the family surname to Christy by
2899:
301:
756:. When he encountered Teller, who had testified against Oppenheimer, at Los Alamos in 1954, Christy publicly refused to shake Teller's hand. "I viewed Oppenheimer as a god", he later recalled, "and I was sure that he was not a treasonable person." Asked about his relationship with Teller in 2006, Christy said:
406:
in 1967. In the 1980s and 1990s
Christy participated in the National Research Council's Committee on Dosimetry, an extended effort to better understand the actual radiation exposure due to the bombs dropped on Japan, and on the basis of that learning, better understand the medical risks of radiation
736:
then approached
Christy with an offer of a full-time position at Caltech at $ 5,400 per annum, and Christy accepted. He remained at Caltech for the rest of his academic career. The drawback to working at Caltech was that neither Lauritsen nor Fowler was a theoretical physicist, so a heavy workload
397:
After the war, Christy briefly joined the
University of Chicago Physics department before being recruited to join the Caltech faculty in 1946 when Oppenheimer decided it was not practical for him to resume his academic activities. He stayed at Caltech for his academic career, serving as Department
845:
to allow (or perhaps to compel—undergrads were required to take 25% of their units in "humanities") students to broaden their education. He had David
Morrisroe appointed as vice president for Financial Affairs, and they steered Caltech through the financially stringent 1970s. The first women were
536:(IIT). In May 1941, he married Dagmar von Lieven. They had two sons: Thomas Edward (Ted), born in 1944, and Peter Robert, born in 1946. IIT paid Christy $ 200 per month to teach 27 hours per week for 11 months per annum. To keep abreast of developments in physics, he attended seminars at the
468:, who led the most active school of theoretical physics in the United States at that time. This inspired Christy to apply to the University of California as well. He was accepted, and was awarded a fellowship for his first year. At Berkeley he shared an apartment with Volkoff,
712:
at the
University of Chicago, at a salary of $ 5,000 per annum, twice what he had been making before the war. He moved back to Chicago in February 1946, but suitable housing was hard to find in the immediate post-war period, and Christy and his family shared a mansion with
657:'s T-1 Group, which studied the theory of implosion. He suggested the possibility of using a solid plutonium core that would form a critical mass when compressed. This was an ultra-conservative design that solved the problem of jets by brute force. It became known as the "
1655:
I ran into not long afterward. We were both at Los Alamos—this was in the summertime. I remember that the Fuller Lodge was where they had an eating establishment. It was a fine, beautiful old log building. And there I was, eating. And I happened to see Edward Teller.
644:
was required, but studies indicated that this would be extremely difficult to achieve. By August 1944, the calculations had been made of how an ideal spherical implosion would work; the problem was how to make it work in the real world where
629:, a figure he subsequently revised to 575 grams (20.3 oz). When the reactor went critical on May 9, 1944, with 565 grams (19.9 oz), the accuracy of Christy's figures raised the laboratory's confidence in T Division's calculations.
728:, each year to continue studying with Oppenheimer. After the war, Oppenheimer decided that with his additional responsibilities he could no longer continue this arrangement. The head of the W. K. Kellogg Radiation Laboratory at Caltech,
864:, a fellow physicist 26 years his junior. He divorced Dagmar in early 1971, and married Juliana on August 4, 1973. They had two daughters, Illia Juliana Lilly Christy, born in 1974, and Alexandra Roberta (Alexa) Christy, born in 1976.
764:. I have disagreed with him, but I have not argued with him publicly, because Teller operates at a much different level than I do. He’s a confidant of presidents; I’m not. As I say, I merely disagree privately, and that’s the way it is.
398:
Chair, Provost and Acting
President. In 1960 Christy turned his attention to astrophysics, creating some of the first practical computation models of stellar oscillations. For this work Christy was awarded the
857:, Christy pressed for the case to be settled and La Belle to be given tenure. The EEOC ruled against Caltech in 1977, adding that she had been paid less than male colleagues. La Belle received tenure in 1979.
386:
in 1943, Christy was one of the early recruits to join the Theory Group. Christy is generally credited with the insight that a solid sub-critical mass of plutonium could be explosively compressed into
2738:
878:
Christy died on
October 3, 2012. He was survived by his wife Juliana, their two daughters, Illia and Alexa, and his two sons, Peter and Ted. He was buried at Mountain View Cemetery in
528:
Christy could have graduated in 1940, but could not then be a teaching assistant, and this would have left him jobless and without income. In 1941, Oppenheimer found him a post at the
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2995:
601:, the head of T (Theoretical) Division, detailed his physicists to assist with the projects at the laboratory. With his knowledge of reactors, Christy's assignment was to help
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2800:
3000:
661:" or "Christy gadget", "gadget" being the laboratory euphemism for a bomb. However the solid pit was intrinsically less efficient than a hollow pit, and it required a
1648:
He was on a pedestal, and I looked up to him. And I was sure that he was not a treasonable person. I knew he had leftist contacts; that was well known to everyone.
1039:
390:, a great simplification of earlier concepts of implosion requiring hollow shells. For this insight the solid-core plutonium model is often referred to as the "
861:
760:
I’ve seen him from time to time. Our relationship has remained cool. Since that time, I have disagreed with him in a number of areas. For example, the
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1298:
3010:
493:
427:
surgery in 1926. Christy and his brother were then cared for by Robert Wood, their grandmother
Alberta Mackay, and their great aunt Maud Mackay.
732:
therefore asked
Oppenheimer for the name of a theoretical physicist that he would recommend as a replacement. Oppenheimer recommended Christy.
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2009:
2318:
2180:
562:
arrived at the
University of Chicago in January 1942 as part of an effort to concentrate the Manhattan Project's reactor work at the new
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768:
In 1956, Christy was one of a number of scientists from Caltech who publicly called for a ban on atmospheric nuclear testing. The 1963
2645:
446:(UBC). At the award dinner he met the second-place winner, Dagmar Elizabeth von Lieven, whom he dated while at UBC. He received his
875:
became president in 1978. He became Institute Professor of Theoretical Physics in 1983, and Institute Professor Emeritus in 1986.
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1492:
544:, who hired him for the same money that IIT was paying him but as a full-time research assistant, commencing in January 1942.
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1826:
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It just wasn't right. And I was very upset by it. I still am. I felt, therefore, that it as really improper, it was wrong. …
359:, the leading theoretical physicist in the United States at that time. Christy received his doctorate in 1941 and joined the
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439:
202:
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1961:
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77:
2019:
1969:
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352:
337:
250:
171:
54:
1519:"Interview with Robert F. Christy, Christy, Robert F. (1998) Interview with Robert F. Christy. [Oral History]"
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1921:
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The episode during which " Christy publicly refused to shake Teller's hand" is recounted in more detail (including
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2002:
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I believe he approached me with his hand out to shake my hand. And I very deliberately refused to shake his hand. …
533:
364:
235:
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1005:
769:
1046:
521:
443:
382:, having been recommended as a theory resource by Oppenheimer. When Oppenheimer formed the Manhattan Project's
344:
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But I felt that it was just the wrong thing to do, for an honorable physicist to testify against Oppenheimer.
641:
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And it was recognized by everyone else for what it was—that I refused to have a direct association with him.
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761:
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1995:
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1987:
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t was a very deliberate action on my part—impulse, of course, because I didn't have time to plan this.
819:
682:
669:, Paul Stein and Hans Bethe to develop a suitable initiator design, which became known as an "urchin".
403:
2927:
2915:
2748:
2743:
2113:
460:, a friend of Christy who was a year ahead of him at UBC, was accepted as a graduate student at the
454:(MA) degree in 1937, writing a thesis on "Electron attachment and negative ion formation in oxygen".
89:
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2363:
2222:
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and video interviews in which he discussed his role in the Manhattan Project and latter interests.
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at the University of Chicago. Construction began on November 6, 1942, and Christy was present when
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240:
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on August 31, 1918. On November 4, Moise was accidentally electrocuted at work. Hattie died after
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of implosion gained at Los Alamos during the war to explain this phenomenon. This earned him the
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473:
442:, and, importantly in view of his family's limited ability to pay, free tuition to attend the
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590:
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383:
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321:
245:
1847:
Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945
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dissolved in water. Christy estimated that it would require 600 grams (21 oz) of pure
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8:
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724:(Caltech). Christy was one of Oppenheimer's Berkeley students who made the trip down to
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2403:
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2313:
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1840:
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1402:
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283:
1944:
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that Christy advocated put an end to one of his most unusual projects. He worked with
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2189:
1979:
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Lippincott, Sara (December 2006). "A Conversation with Robert F. Christy – Part II".
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Lippincott, Sara (September 2006). "A Conversation with Robert F. Christy – Part I".
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911:
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Christy briefly became acting President of Caltech in 1977 when Brown left to become
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329:
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2131:
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1700:
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1110:
850:
814:. At the time it was a mystery as to why they varied. He used the knowledge of the
803:
791:
737:
fell on Christy. This was recognised by a pay raise to $ 10,000 per annum in 1954.
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566:. Fermi arranged with Wigner for Christy to join his group, which was building a
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450:(BA) degree in mathematics and physics with first class honors in 1935, and his
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and McKenzie's wife Lynn McKenzie. For his thesis, Oppenheimer had him look at
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348:
325:
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900:
434:, and graduated in 1932 with the highest examination score in the province of
300:
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2434:
2323:
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2242:
1947:
Caltech Oral Histories, Caltech Archives, California Institute of Technology.
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853:, who had been hired in 1969 but refused tenure in 1974, filed suit with the
815:
773:
745:
741:
714:
637:
610:
541:
516:
469:
1900:
1866:
1413:
1118:
915:
748:, a detailed 1951 study on how Western Europe could be defended against the
700:
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2717:
2574:
2519:
2499:
2484:
2388:
2212:
1608:
1170:
1114:
749:
689:
555:
375:
333:
480:, subatomic particles called muons today, that had recently been found in
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2408:
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2017:
783:
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2712:
2449:
2439:
2368:
1311:
838:
670:
598:
481:
1296:
Fermi, E. (1946). "The Development of the First Chain Reaction Pile".
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2444:
2247:
1819:
Achieving the Rare: Robert F. Christy's Journey in Physics and Beyond
842:
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Before the war, Oppenheimer had spent part of each year teaching at
32:
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as a fuel, and the first to use liquid fuel in the form of soluble
485:
477:
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I think he was somewhat hurt. … I've seen him from time to time .
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678:
222:
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424:
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who was one of the last surviving people to have worked on the
260:
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650:
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2257:
1350:"Robert F. Christy dies at 96; Manhattan Project physicist"
1219:
1217:
983:
500:. He published two papers on mesotrons with Kusaka in the
1915:
1983 Audio Interview with Robert Christy by Martin Sherwin
1749:
1734:
1549:
1525:
1185:"Cosmic-ray burst production and the spin of the mesotron"
1040:"Electron attachment and negative ion formation in oxygen"
484:. They were so-called because they were more massive than
2976:
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
2033:
1265:
347:(UBC) in the 1930s where he studied physics, he followed
320:(May 14, 1916 – October 3, 2012) was a Canadian-American
2996:
University of British Columbia Faculty of Science alumni
1724:
1722:
1537:
1330:
1229:
1214:
902:
Cosmic-ray burst production and the spin of the mesotron
780:, the design of a spacecraft propelled by atomic bombs.
267:
Cosmic-ray burst production and the spin of the mesotron
1068:
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826:
for contributions to theoretical astrophysics in 1967.
688:
Later in life, Christy agreed to give a number of both
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1241:
704:
An artist's conception of the Project Orion spacecraft
2875:
1719:
1318:
1277:
1253:
1202:
959:
496:
he performed detailed calculations of the particle's
2981:
Presidents of the California Institute of Technology
752:. Christy was distraught at the outcome of the 1954
415:
Robert Frederick Cohen was born on May 14, 1916, in
971:
1878:
1844:
1574:
899:
891:
665:to start the chain reaction. Christy worked with
3001:UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science alumni
1299:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
636:'s group in April and May 1944 of high levels of
355:, where he was accepted as a graduate student by
2947:
833:of Caltech in 1970. Under Christy and President
744:, who joined the faculty at Caltech in 1949, in
605:'s Water Boiler group. The Water Boiler was an
203:Academic Medal of the Governor-General of Canada
370:In 1942 he joined the Manhattan Project at the
2174:
2003:
1139:
1086:
860:In 1970 he became romantically involved with
640:in reactor-produced plutonium meant that an
1575:Goldstein, David; Goldstein, Judith (2013).
740:Christy joined Oppenheimer, Lauritsen and
609:intended as a laboratory instrument to test
589:In early 1943, Christy joined Oppenheimer's
933:
931:
929:
802:in 1960, Christy began an investigation of
617:materials. It was the first reactor to use
336:. He briefly served as acting president of
2181:
2167:
2010:
1996:
1682:
1617:"Christy's Gadget: Reflections on a death"
1376:
1089:"The Interaction of γ-Rays with Mesotrons"
31:
2077:
1157:(5). American Physical Society: 414–421.
1140:Christy, R. F.; Kusaka, S. (March 1941).
1101:(5). American Physical Society: 405–414.
1087:Christy, R. F.; Kusaka, S. (March 1941).
1000:
998:
846:admitted as undergraduates in Fall 1970.
829:Christy was appointed vice president and
794:star. Christy explained why they pulsate.
708:After the war ended, Christy accepted an
3006:Fellows of the American Physical Society
2145:# denotes an acting or interim president
1851:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
1793:"Noted Physicist Robert F. Christy Dies"
1006:"Noted Physicist Robert F. Christy Dies"
926:
782:
699:
546:
515:
3011:Canadian emigrants to the United States
1839:; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.;
1816:
1779:
1767:
1755:
1743:
1728:
1614:
1555:
1543:
1531:
1493:"Constructing the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb"
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1324:
1283:
1259:
1247:
1235:
1223:
1208:
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1026:
989:
977:
965:
897:
855:Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
613:calculations and the effect of various
540:. This brought him to the attention of
16:Canadian-American physicist (1916–2012)
2948:
1873:
1644:I told you earlier that in some sense
1570:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1271:
995:
570:, which Fermi called a "pile", in the
378:to join the effort to build the first
351:, who was a year ahead of him, to the
2188:
2162:
1991:
1922:"Robert Christy tells his life story"
1295:
871:. Christy returned to teaching after
504:, which formed the basis of his 1941
511:
1668:Our relationship has remained cool.
1561:
13:
2646:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
2021:California Institute of Technology
1970:California Institute of Technology
1885:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
1623:from the original on July 18, 2023
1189:University of California, Berkeley
908:University of California, Berkeley
722:California Institute of Technology
653:were a problem. Christy worked in
593:in New Mexico, where he became an
462:University of California, Berkeley
353:University of California, Berkeley
338:California Institute of Technology
251:California Institute of Technology
172:University of California, Berkeley
55:California Institute of Technology
14:
3022:
2971:20th-century American astronomers
1908:
440:Governor General's Academic Medal
2933:
2921:
2909:
2897:
2885:
2862:
2861:
1945:Interview with Robert F. Christy
1605:a 3-paragraph "block quote" from
534:Illinois Institute of Technology
365:Illinois Institute of Technology
299:
236:Illinois Institute of Technology
1917:Voices of the Manhattan Project
1821:. Singapore: World Scientific.
1785:
1676:
1597:
1511:
1485:
1370:
1342:
1289:
1177:
1142:"Burst Production by Mesotrons"
1133:
1080:
770:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
1646:I viewed Oppenheimer as a god.
1047:University of British Columbia
1032:
444:University of British Columbia
345:University of British Columbia
167:University of British Columbia
1:
2991:University of Chicago faculty
1881:The Making of the Atomic Bomb
1810:
1642:my feelings were very strong.
1611:" interview of Christy) here:
1577:"Robert F. Christy 1916—2012"
695:
642:implosion-type nuclear weapon
410:
38:
2806:Oppenheimer security hearing
1817:Christy, I.-Juliana (2013).
1584:National Academy of Sciences
798:During a sabbatical year at
762:Strategic Defense Initiative
754:Oppenheimer security hearing
374:, where he was recruited by
53:Acting President of the
7:
898:Christy, Robert F. (1941).
663:modulated neutron initiator
607:aqueous homogeneous reactor
417:Vancouver, British Columbia
122:Vancouver, British Columbia
10:
3027:
1795:. CalTech. October 3, 2012
1008:. Caltech. October 3, 2012
820:Royal Astronomical Society
683:atomic bombing of Nagasaki
404:Royal Astronomical Society
2859:
2749:Bismuth phosphate process
2744:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
2731:
2700:
2633:
2422:
2291:
2205:
2196:
2085:
2076:
2072:
2042:
2032:
2028:
1976:
1966:
1958:
1953:
1705:10.1007/s00016-006-0269-3
1399:10.1007/s00016-006-0270-x
520:Robert Christy's wartime
311:
307:
298:
293:
289:
277:
259:
228:
218:
211:
190:
180:
159:
155:
145:
128:
104:
99:
95:
90:Marvin Leonard Goldberger
83:
71:
60:
52:
48:
30:
23:
2986:Manhattan Project people
2966:American astrophysicists
1968:Acting President of the
1619:. Restricted data blog.
885:
564:Metallurgical Laboratory
551:A model of a Christy pit
430:Christy was educated at
318:Robert Frederick Christy
241:Metallurgical Laboratory
25:Robert Frederick Christy
2826:S-1 Executive Committee
2774:Einstein–Szilard letter
710:assistant professorship
2268:Salt Wells Pilot Plant
1841:Westfall, Catherine L.
1685:Physics in Perspective
1671:
1379:Physics in Perspective
1171:10.1103/PhysRev.59.414
1115:10.1103/PhysRev.59.405
810:, classes of luminous
795:
766:
705:
552:
525:
488:but less massive than
109:Robert Frederick Cohen
2846:X-10 Graphite Reactor
2801:Nobel Prize laureates
2671:509th Composite Group
2079:Presidents of Caltech
1634:
992:, pp. 11–12, 16.
837:Caltech expanded its
786:
758:
703:
591:Los Alamos Laboratory
550:
538:University of Chicago
519:
438:. He was awarded the
384:Los Alamos Laboratory
372:University of Chicago
322:theoretical physicist
246:Los Alamos Laboratory
2754:British contribution
2656:Operation Peppermint
2651:Operation Crossroads
2510:Maria Goeppert Mayer
2035:Early Throop leaders
1480:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1468:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1456:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1444:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1432:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1420:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1056:on February 27, 2014
880:Altadena, California
873:Marvin L. Goldberger
869:Secretary of Defense
862:Inge-Juliana Sackman
800:Princeton University
726:Pasadena, California
675:Trinity nuclear test
506:Doctor of Philosophy
139:Pasadena, California
2515:George Kistiakowsky
2470:Charles Critchfield
1758:, pp. 202–206.
1746:, pp. 177–185.
1697:2006PhP.....8..408L
1615:Wellerstein, Alex.
1558:, pp. 135–138.
1534:, pp. 134–135.
1499:on October 10, 2014
1458:, pp. 307–308.
1446:, pp. 228–229.
1434:, pp. 199–203.
1391:2006PhP.....8..282L
1274:, pp. 399–400.
1163:1941PhRv...59..414C
1121:on February 8, 2023
1107:1941PhRv...59..405C
944:The Daily Telegraph
685:used Christy pits.
560:Columbia University
492:. With the help of
2928:Nuclear technology
2916:History of science
2580:Henry DeWolf Smyth
2359:Robert Oppenheimer
2314:Priscilla Duffield
2018:Presidents of the
808:RR Lyrae variables
796:
706:
558:and his team from
553:
530:physics department
526:
466:Robert Oppenheimer
361:physics department
357:Robert Oppenheimer
343:A graduate of the
284:Robert Oppenheimer
37:Robert F. Christy
2873:
2872:
2795:Los Alamos Primer
2784:Interim Committee
2739:African Americans
2691:The Great Artiste
2550:Isidor Isaac Rabi
2545:Norman Ramsey Jr.
2344:Franklin Matthias
2283:Heavy water sites
2190:Manhattan Project
2156:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2114:Marvin Goldberger
2068:
2067:
1986:
1985:
1980:Marvin Goldberger
1977:Succeeded by
1954:Academic offices
1892:978-0-684-81378-3
1837:Hoddeson, Lillian
1828:978-981-4460-24-8
1546:, pp. 32–33.
1358:. October 5, 2012
1355:Los Angeles Times
1339:, pp. 70–71.
1238:, pp. 36–37.
1226:, pp. 47–48.
1077:, pp. 24–25.
1029:, pp. 14–15.
947:. October 8, 2012
804:Cepheid variables
730:Charles Lauritsen
632:The discovery by
597:in 1943 or 1944.
512:Manhattan Project
432:Magee High School
330:Manhattan Project
315:
314:
213:Scientific career
3018:
2938:
2937:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2881:
2865:
2864:
2816:Quebec Agreement
2600:John von Neumann
2540:George B. Pegram
2349:Dorothy McKibbin
2183:
2176:
2169:
2160:
2159:
2138:Thomas Rosenbaum
2132:Jean-Lou Chameau
2074:
2073:
2037:(before Caltech)
2030:
2029:
2022:
2012:
2005:
1998:
1989:
1988:
1959:Preceded by
1951:
1950:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1932:on March 2, 2014
1928:. Archived from
1904:
1884:
1870:
1850:
1832:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1741:
1732:
1726:
1717:
1716:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1630:
1628:
1607:a 1994 Caltech "
1601:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1590:
1581:
1572:
1559:
1553:
1547:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1495:. Archived from
1489:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1374:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1293:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1269:
1263:
1257:
1251:
1245:
1239:
1233:
1227:
1221:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1197:
1195:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1146:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1117:. Archived from
1084:
1078:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1061:
1055:
1049:. Archived from
1044:
1036:
1030:
1024:
1018:
1017:
1015:
1013:
1002:
993:
987:
981:
975:
969:
963:
957:
956:
954:
952:
939:"Robert Christy"
935:
924:
923:
905:
895:
851:Jenijoy La Belle
806:and the smaller
792:Cepheid variable
717:and his family.
619:enriched uranium
595:American citizen
448:Bachelor of Arts
436:British Columbia
388:supercriticality
303:
279:Doctoral advisor
273:
207:
199:
135:
118:
116:
100:Personal details
86:
74:
65:
43:
40:
35:
21:
20:
3026:
3025:
3021:
3020:
3019:
3017:
3016:
3015:
2946:
2945:
2944:
2932:
2922:
2920:
2910:
2908:
2898:
2896:
2886:
2884:
2876:
2874:
2869:
2855:
2821:RaLa Experiment
2727:
2696:
2661:Project Alberta
2629:
2625:Chien-Shiung Wu
2555:James Rainwater
2490:Richard Feynman
2480:John R. Dunning
2455:Norris Bradbury
2418:
2404:Stafford Warren
2374:William Purnell
2354:Kenneth Nichols
2334:Ernest Lawrence
2309:James B. Conant
2287:
2201:
2192:
2187:
2157:
2148:
2126:David Baltimore
2120:Thomas Everhart
2090:Robert Millikan
2081:
2064:
2038:
2024:
2020:
2016:
1982:
1973:
1964:
1935:
1933:
1920:
1911:
1893:
1875:Rhodes, Richard
1859:
1829:
1813:
1808:
1798:
1796:
1791:
1790:
1786:
1778:
1774:
1766:
1762:
1754:
1750:
1742:
1735:
1727:
1720:
1681:
1677:
1661:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1639:
1633:
1626:
1624:
1613:
1612:
1602:
1598:
1588:
1586:
1579:
1573:
1562:
1554:
1550:
1542:
1538:
1530:
1526:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1502:
1500:
1491:
1490:
1486:
1478:
1474:
1466:
1462:
1454:
1450:
1442:
1438:
1430:
1426:
1418:
1414:
1375:
1371:
1361:
1359:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1323:
1319:
1294:
1290:
1282:
1278:
1270:
1266:
1258:
1254:
1246:
1242:
1234:
1230:
1222:
1215:
1207:
1203:
1193:
1191:
1183:
1182:
1178:
1150:Physical Review
1144:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1122:
1094:Physical Review
1085:
1081:
1073:
1069:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1033:
1025:
1021:
1011:
1009:
1004:
1003:
996:
988:
984:
976:
972:
968:, pp. 1–5.
964:
960:
950:
948:
937:
936:
927:
896:
892:
888:
824:Eddington Medal
698:
623:uranium sulfate
603:Donald W. Kerst
586:on December 2.
568:nuclear reactor
514:
502:Physical Review
413:
400:Eddington Medal
380:nuclear reactor
271:
255:
205:
200:
197:
195:Eddington Medal
176:
160:Alma mater
150:
137:
133:
132:October 3, 2012
120:
114:
112:
111:
110:
84:
72:
66:
61:
44:
41:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3024:
3014:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2943:
2942:
2930:
2918:
2906:
2894:
2871:
2870:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2764:Chicago Pile-1
2761:
2759:Calutron Girls
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2735:
2733:
2732:Related topics
2729:
2728:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2687:
2680:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2637:
2635:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2595:Stanisław Ulam
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2530:Edwin McMillan
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2475:Harry Daghlian
2472:
2467:
2465:John Cockcroft
2462:
2460:James Chadwick
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2384:Charles Thomas
2381:
2379:Frank Spedding
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2339:James Marshall
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2319:Thomas Farrell
2316:
2311:
2306:
2304:Arthur Compton
2301:
2295:
2293:
2292:Administrators
2289:
2288:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2220:
2215:
2209:
2207:
2203:
2202:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2186:
2185:
2178:
2171:
2163:
2154:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2142:
2141:
2140:(2014–present)
2135:
2129:
2123:
2117:
2111:
2108:Robert Christy
2105:
2099:
2093:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2062:
2056:
2053:Walter Edwards
2050:
2043:
2040:
2039:
2026:
2025:
2015:
2014:
2007:
2000:
1992:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1975:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1942:
1926:Web of Stories
1918:
1910:
1909:External links
1907:
1906:
1905:
1891:
1871:
1857:
1833:
1827:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1806:
1784:
1782:, p. 236.
1772:
1770:, p. 227.
1760:
1748:
1733:
1718:
1691:(4): 408–450.
1675:
1596:
1560:
1548:
1536:
1524:
1510:
1484:
1482:, p. 317.
1472:
1470:, p. 293.
1460:
1448:
1436:
1424:
1412:
1385:(3): 282–317.
1369:
1341:
1329:
1317:
1288:
1276:
1264:
1252:
1250:, p. 135.
1240:
1228:
1213:
1201:
1176:
1132:
1079:
1067:
1031:
1019:
994:
982:
970:
958:
925:
889:
887:
884:
812:variable stars
697:
694:
655:Rudolf Peierls
580:Chicago Pile-1
524:security badge
513:
510:
508:(PhD) thesis
494:Shuichi Kusaka
458:George Volkoff
452:Master of Arts
412:
409:
349:George Volkoff
326:astrophysicist
313:
312:
309:
308:
305:
304:
296:
295:
291:
290:
287:
286:
281:
275:
274:
263:
257:
256:
254:
253:
248:
243:
238:
232:
230:
226:
225:
220:
216:
215:
209:
208:
192:
188:
187:
182:
181:Known for
178:
177:
175:
174:
169:
163:
161:
157:
156:
153:
152:
147:
143:
142:
136:(aged 96)
130:
126:
125:
108:
106:
102:
101:
97:
96:
93:
92:
87:
81:
80:
75:
69:
68:
58:
57:
50:
49:
46:
45:
36:
28:
27:
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3023:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2951:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2929:
2919:
2917:
2907:
2905:
2895:
2893:
2883:
2882:
2879:
2868:
2858:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2779:Franck Report
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2730:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2699:
2693:
2692:
2688:
2686:
2685:
2681:
2679:
2678:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2641:Alsos Mission
2639:
2638:
2636:
2632:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2615:Robert Wilson
2613:
2611:
2610:Eugene Wigner
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2590:Edward Teller
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2565:Glenn Seaborg
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2535:Mark Oliphant
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2525:Willard Libby
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2435:Robert Bacher
2433:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2421:
2415:
2414:Roscoe Wilson
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2329:John Lansdale
2327:
2325:
2324:Leslie Groves
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2299:Vannevar Bush
2297:
2296:
2294:
2290:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2228:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2195:
2191:
2184:
2179:
2177:
2172:
2170:
2165:
2164:
2161:
2147:
2146:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2110:# (1977–1978)
2109:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2084:
2080:
2075:
2071:
2060:
2059:James Scherer
2057:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2047:Charles Keyes
2045:
2044:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2013:
2008:
2006:
2001:
1999:
1994:
1993:
1990:
1981:
1972:
1971:
1963:
1957:
1952:
1946:
1943:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1888:
1883:
1882:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1858:0-521-44132-3
1854:
1849:
1848:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1824:
1820:
1815:
1814:
1794:
1788:
1781:
1776:
1769:
1764:
1757:
1752:
1745:
1740:
1738:
1731:, p. 45.
1730:
1725:
1723:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1679:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1627:September 18,
1622:
1618:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1585:
1578:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1557:
1552:
1545:
1540:
1533:
1528:
1520:
1514:
1498:
1494:
1488:
1481:
1476:
1469:
1464:
1457:
1452:
1445:
1440:
1433:
1428:
1422:, p. 77.
1421:
1416:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1373:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1345:
1338:
1333:
1327:, p. 56.
1326:
1321:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1300:
1292:
1286:, p. 53.
1285:
1280:
1273:
1268:
1262:, p. 52.
1261:
1256:
1249:
1244:
1237:
1232:
1225:
1220:
1218:
1211:, p. 32.
1210:
1205:
1190:
1186:
1180:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1151:
1143:
1136:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1095:
1090:
1083:
1076:
1071:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1035:
1028:
1023:
1007:
1001:
999:
991:
986:
979:
974:
967:
962:
946:
945:
940:
934:
932:
930:
921:
917:
913:
909:
904:
903:
894:
890:
883:
881:
876:
874:
870:
865:
863:
858:
856:
852:
847:
844:
840:
836:
832:
827:
825:
821:
817:
816:hydrodynamics
813:
809:
805:
801:
793:
789:
785:
781:
779:
778:Project Orion
775:
774:Freeman Dyson
771:
765:
763:
757:
755:
751:
747:
746:Project Vista
743:
742:Robert Bacher
738:
735:
731:
727:
723:
718:
716:
715:Edward Teller
711:
702:
693:
691:
686:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
643:
639:
638:plutonium-240
635:
630:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
611:critical mass
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
587:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
549:
545:
543:
542:Eugene Wigner
539:
535:
531:
523:
518:
509:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
470:Robert Cornog
467:
463:
459:
455:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
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34:
29:
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19:
2851:Y-12 Project
2836:Smyth Report
2831:S-50 Project
2793:
2789:K-25 Project
2718:Pumpkin bomb
2689:
2682:
2675:
2605:John Wheeler
2575:Louis Slotin
2570:Emilio Segrè
2520:George Koval
2500:James Franck
2485:Enrico Fermi
2430:Luis Alvarez
2389:Paul Tibbets
2364:Deak Parsons
2144:
2143:
2107:
2102:Harold Brown
2096:Lee DuBridge
2078:
2034:
1974:1977 – 1978
1967:
1962:Harold Brown
1936:February 23,
1934:. Retrieved
1930:the original
1880:
1846:
1818:
1797:. Retrieved
1787:
1780:Christy 2013
1775:
1768:Christy 2013
1763:
1756:Christy 2013
1751:
1744:Christy 2013
1729:Christy 2013
1688:
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1678:
1667:
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1657:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1635:
1632:
1625:. Retrieved
1609:oral history
1604:
1599:
1589:February 26,
1587:. Retrieved
1556:Christy 2013
1551:
1544:Christy 2013
1539:
1532:Christy 2013
1527:
1513:
1501:. Retrieved
1497:the original
1487:
1475:
1463:
1451:
1439:
1427:
1415:
1382:
1378:
1372:
1362:February 26,
1360:. Retrieved
1353:
1344:
1337:Christy 2013
1332:
1325:Christy 2013
1320:
1306:(1): 20–24.
1303:
1297:
1291:
1284:Christy 2013
1279:
1267:
1260:Christy 2013
1255:
1248:Christy 2013
1243:
1236:Christy 2013
1231:
1224:Christy 2013
1209:Christy 2013
1204:
1194:February 23,
1192:. Retrieved
1179:
1154:
1148:
1135:
1123:. Retrieved
1119:the original
1098:
1092:
1082:
1075:Christy 2013
1070:
1060:February 23,
1058:. Retrieved
1051:the original
1034:
1027:Christy 2013
1022:
1012:February 23,
1010:. Retrieved
990:Christy 2013
985:
980:, p. 9.
978:Christy 2013
973:
966:Christy 2013
961:
951:February 23,
949:. Retrieved
942:
918:– via
901:
893:
877:
866:
859:
848:
835:Harold Brown
828:
797:
767:
759:
750:Soviet Union
739:
734:Willy Fowler
719:
707:
690:oral history
687:
681:used in the
673:used in the
634:Emilio Segrè
631:
588:
574:court under
556:Enrico Fermi
554:
527:
474:Ken McKenzie
456:
429:
414:
396:
376:Enrico Fermi
369:
342:
334:World War II
317:
316:
265:
229:Institutions
212:
185:Christy pits
134:(2012-10-03)
119:May 14, 1916
85:Succeeded by
78:Harold Brown
62:
18:
2961:2012 deaths
2956:1916 births
2666:Silverplate
2620:Leona Woods
2585:Leo Szilard
2560:Bruno Rossi
2505:Klaus Fuchs
2409:Ed Westcott
2399:Harold Urey
2134:(2006–2013)
2128:(1997–2006)
2122:(1987–1997)
2116:(1978–1987)
2104:(1969–1977)
2098:(1946–1969)
2092:(1921–1946)
2061:(1908–1920)
2055:(1897–1907)
2049:(1891–1896)
1799:January 29,
1272:Rhodes 1986
667:Klaus Fuchs
659:Christy pit
627:uranium-235
576:Stagg Field
482:cosmic rays
392:Christy pit
340:(Caltech).
146:Citizenship
73:Preceded by
42: 1959
2950:Categories
2769:Demon core
2713:Little Boy
2634:Operations
2450:Niels Bohr
2440:Hans Bethe
2423:Scientists
2369:Boris Pash
2248:Los Alamos
1811:References
1503:October 7,
841:and added
839:humanities
696:Later life
671:The Gadget
599:Hans Bethe
522:Los Alamos
411:Early life
407:exposure.
324:and later
115:1916-05-14
2904:Biography
2892:Astronomy
2811:Plutonium
2677:Enola Gay
2495:Val Fitch
2445:Aage Bohr
2394:Bud Uanna
2263:Oak Ridge
1713:119947124
1407:195339268
1125:March 27,
906:(Ph.D.).
843:economics
788:RS Puppis
486:electrons
478:mesotrons
421:deed poll
294:Signature
67:1977–1978
63:In office
2867:Category
2723:Thin Man
2684:Bockscar
2278:Wendover
2258:New York
2253:Montreal
2243:Inyokern
2218:Berkeley
2199:Timeline
1901:13793436
1877:(1986).
1867:26764320
1843:(1993).
1621:Archived
920:ProQuest
916:25395034
677:and the
651:spalling
584:critical
151:American
149:Canadian
124:, Canada
2940:Physics
2878:Portals
2841:Uranium
2708:Fat Man
2701:Weapons
2273:Trinity
2238:Hanford
2223:Chicago
1693:Bibcode
1521:. 1998.
1387:Bibcode
1312:3301034
1159:Bibcode
1103:Bibcode
831:Provost
679:Fat Man
490:protons
402:of the
332:during
223:Physics
201:Bronze
2233:Dayton
2227:Site A
1899:
1889:
1865:
1855:
1825:
1711:
1640:Well,
1405:
1310:
914:
615:tamper
572:squash
425:goitre
272:(1941)
270:
261:Thesis
219:Fields
206:(1932)
198:(1967)
191:Awards
141:, U.S.
2206:Sites
1709:S2CID
1580:(PDF)
1403:S2CID
1308:JSTOR
1145:(PDF)
1054:(PDF)
1043:(PDF)
886:Notes
849:When
582:went
464:, by
2213:Ames
1938:2014
1897:OCLC
1887:ISBN
1863:OCLC
1853:ISBN
1823:ISBN
1801:2023
1629:2024
1591:2014
1505:2014
1364:2014
1196:2014
1127:2022
1062:2014
1014:2014
953:2014
912:OCLC
790:, a
649:and
647:jets
498:spin
129:Died
105:Born
1701:doi
1395:doi
1167:doi
1111:doi
822:'s
776:on
532:at
394:".
363:of
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