168:
surface of the material within the penetration depth. This dimension is dependent on the laser wavelength and the index of refraction of the target material at the applied laser wavelength and is typically in the region of 10 nm for most materials. The strong electrical field generated by the laser light is sufficiently strong to remove the electrons from the bulk material of the penetrated volume. This process occurs within 10 ps of a ns laser pulse and is caused by non-linear processes such as multiphoton ionization which are enhanced by microscopic cracks at the surface, voids, and nodules, which increase the electric field. The free electrons oscillate within the electromagnetic field of the laser light and can collide with the atoms of the bulk material thus transferring some of their energy to the lattice of the target material within the surface region. The surface of the target is then heated up and the material is vaporized.
389:(RF, magnetron, and ion beam). The history of laser-assisted film growth started soon after the technical realization of the first laser in 1960 by Maiman. Smith and Turner utilized a ruby laser to deposit the first thin films in 1965, three years after Breech and Cross studied the laser-vaporization and excitation of atoms from solid surfaces. However, the deposited films were still inferior to those obtained by other techniques such as chemical vapor deposition and molecular beam epitaxy. In the early 1980s, a few research groups (mainly in the former USSR) achieved remarkable results on manufacturing of thin film structures utilizing laser technology. The breakthrough came in 1987 when D. Dijkkamp, Xindi Wu and T. Venkatesan were able to laser deposit a thin film of YBa
29:
401:, a high temperature superconductive material, which was of superior quality to that of films deposited with alternative techniques. Since then, the technique of pulsed laser deposition has been utilized to fabricate high quality crystalline films, such as doped garnet thin films for use as planar waveguide lasers. The deposition of ceramic oxides, nitride films, ferromagnetic films, metallic multilayers and various superlattices has been demonstrated. In the 1990s the development of new laser technology, such as lasers with high repetition rate and short pulse durations, made PLD a very competitive tool for the growth of thin, well defined films with complex stoichiometry.
415:
313:
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292:– In this growth mode, islands nucleate on the surface until a critical island density is reached. As more material is added, the islands continue to grow until the islands begin to run into each other. This is known as coalescence. Once coalescence is reached, the surface has a large density of pits. When additional material is added to the surface the atoms diffuse into these pits to complete the layer. This process is repeated for each subsequent layer.
286:– All substrates have a miscut associated with the crystal. These miscuts give rise to atomic steps on the surface. In step-flow growth, atoms land on the surface and diffuse to a step edge before they have a chance to nucleated a surface island. The growing surface is viewed as steps traveling across the surface. This growth mode is obtained by deposition on a high miscut substrate, or depositing at elevated temperatures
17:
203:
film. The sputtered species from the substrate and the particles emitted from the target form a collision region, which serves as a source for condensation of particles. When the condensation rate is high enough, a thermal equilibrium can be reached and the film grows on the substrate surface at the expense of the direct flow of ablation particles and the thermal equilibrium obtained.
176:
In the second stage the material expands in a plasma parallel to the normal vector of the target surface towards the substrate due to
Coulomb repulsion and recoil from the target surface. The spatial distribution of the plume is dependent on the background pressure inside the PLD chamber. The density
479:
There are many different arrangements to build a deposition chamber for PLD. The target material which is evaporated by the laser is normally found as a rotating disc attached to a support. However, it can also be sintered into a cylindrical rod with rotational motion and a translational up and down
193:
The most important consequence of increasing the background pressure is the slowing down of the high energetic species in the expanding plasma plume. It has been shown that particles with kinetic energies around 50 eV can resputter the film already deposited on the substrate. This results in a lower
167:
The ablation of the target material upon laser irradiation and the creation of plasma are very complex processes. The removal of atoms from the bulk material is done by vaporization of the bulk at the surface region in a state of non-equilibrium. In this the incident laser pulse penetrates into the
202:
The third stage is important to determine the quality of the deposited films. The high energetic species ablated from the target are bombarding the substrate surface and may cause damage to the surface by sputtering off atoms from the surface but also by causing defect formation in the deposited
298:– This mode is similar to the layer-by-layer growth, except that once an island is formed an additional island will nucleate on top of the 1st island. Therefore, the growth does not persist in a layer by layer fashion, and the surface roughens each time material is added.
1019:
Vispute, R. D.; Talyansky, V.; Trajanovic, Z.; Choopun, S.; Downes, M.; Sharma, R. P.; Venkatesan, T.; Woods, M. C.; Lareau, R. T. (1997-05-19). "High quality crystalline ZnO buffer layers on sapphire (001) by pulsed laser deposition for III–V nitrides".
188:
High pressure region where we find a more diffusion-like expansion of the ablated material. Naturally this scattering is also dependent on the mass of the background gas and can influence the stoichiometry of the deposited
184:
The intermediate region where a splitting of the high energetic ions from the less energetic species can be observed. The time-of-flight (TOF) data can be fitted to a shock wave model; however, other models could also be
480:
movement along its axis. This special configuration allows not only the utilization of a synchronized reactive gas pulse but also of a multicomponent target rod with which films of different multilayers can be created.
232:– The surface temperature has a large effect on the nucleation density. Generally, the nucleation density decreases as the temperature is increased. Heating of the surface can involve a heating plate or the use of a
158:, where it condenses and solidifies, building up one atomic layer at a time. The substrate is mounted on a heating plate, glowing red at a temperature of 650 °C, to improve the crystallinity of the alumina thin film.
252:– Common in oxide deposition, an oxygen background is needed to ensure stoichiometric transfer from the target to the film. If, for example, the oxygen background is too low, the film will grow off
1309:
Pérez
Taborda, Jaime Andrés; Caicedo, J.C.; Grisales, M.; Saldarriaga, W.; Riascos, H. (2015). "Deposition pressure effect on chemical, morphological and optical properties of binary Al-nitrides".
732:
Koster, Gertjan; Kropman, Boike L.; Rijnders, Guus J. H. M.; Blank, Dave H. A.; Rogalla, Horst (1998). "Quasi-ideal strontium titanate crystal surfaces through formation of strontium hydroxide".
118:
plume with high energetic ions, electrons as well as neutrals and the crystalline growth of the film itself on the heated substrate. The process of PLD can generally be divided into four stages:
976:
Koinuma, Hideomi; Nagata, Hirotoshi; Tsukahara, Tadashi; Gonda, Satoshi; Yoshimoto, Mamoru (1991-05-06). "Ceramic layer epitaxy by pulsed laser deposition in an ultrahigh vacuum system".
74:
below). When the laser pulse is absorbed by the target, energy is first converted to electronic excitation and then into thermal, chemical and mechanical energy resulting in evaporation,
146:
Thin films of oxides are deposited with atomic layer precision using pulsed laser deposition. In this picture, a high-intensity pulsed laser shoots a rotating white disk of Al
177:
of the plume can be described by a cos(x) law with a shape similar to a
Gaussian curve. The dependency of the plume shape on the pressure can be described in three stages:
246:– The nucleation and growth can be affected by the surface preparation (such as chemical etching), the miscut of the substrate, as well as the roughness of the substrate.
154:(alumina). The laser pulse creates a plasma explosion, visible as the purple cloud. The plasma cloud from the alumina expands towards the square substrate, made of SrTiO
70:
While the basic setup is simple relative to many other deposition techniques, the physical phenomena of laser-target interaction and film growth are quite complex (see
535:
Vaziri, M R R (2010). "Microscopic description of the thermalization process during pulsed laser deposition of aluminium in the presence of argon background gas".
613:
Ferguson, J. D.; Arikan, G.; Dale, D. S.; Woll, A. R.; Brock, J. D. (2009). "Measurements of
Surface Diffusivity and Coarsening during Pulsed Laser Deposition".
55:
chamber to strike a target of the material that is to be deposited. This material is vaporized from the target (in a plasma plume) which deposits it as a
1209:
Grant-Jacob, James A.; Beecher, Stephen J.; Riris, Haris; Yu, Anthony W.; Shepherd, David P.; Eason, Robert W.; Mackenzie, Jacob I. (23 October 2017).
1063:
Yoshitake, Tsuyoshi; Nakagauchi, Dai; Nagayama, Kunihito (2003-07-15). "Ferromagnetic Iron
Silicide Thin Films Prepared by Pulsed-Laser Deposition".
871:
Grant-Jacob, James A.; Beecher, Stephen J.; Parsonage, Tina L.; Hua, Ping; Mackenzie, Jacob I.; Shepherd, David P.; Eason, Robert W. (2016-01-01).
925:
Beecher, Stephen J.; Grant-Jacob, James A.; Hua, Ping; Prentice, Jake J.; Eason, Robert W.; Shepherd, David P.; Mackenzie, Jacob I. (2017-05-01).
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Shen, J.; Gai, Zheng; Kirschner, J. (February 2004). "Growth and magnetism of metallic thin films and multilayers by pulsed-laser deposition".
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342:
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or in the presence of a background gas, such as oxygen which is commonly used when depositing oxides to fully oxygenate the deposited films.
222:– several factors such as the laser fluence , laser energy, and ionization degree of the ablated material will affect the film quality, the
1297:
676:"Design and performance of a ZnSe tetra-prism for homogeneous substrate heating using a CO2 laser for pulsed laser deposition experiments"
264:
occurs on the substrate during the pulse duration. The pulse lasts around 10–40 microseconds depending on the laser parameters. This high
1176:
Grant-Jacob, James A.; Beecher, Stephen J.; Prentice, Jake J.; Shepherd, David P.; Mackenzie, Jacob I.; Eason, Robert W. (June 2018).
1702:
578:
Ohnishi, Tsuyoshi; Shibuya, Keisuke; Yamamoto, Takahisa; Lippmaa, Mikk (2008). "Defects and transport in complex oxide thin films".
1633:
1252:
Scharf, T.; Krebs, H.U. (1 November 2002). "Influence of inert gas pressure on deposition rate during pulsed laser deposition".
181:
The vacuum stage, where the plume is very narrow and forward directed; almost no scattering occurs with the background gases.
86:. The ejected species expand into the surrounding vacuum in the form of a plume containing many energetic species including
823:
518:
Pulsed Laser
Deposition of Thin Films, edited by Douglas B. Chrisey and Graham K. Hubler, John Wiley & Sons, 1994
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466:
364:
437:
335:
1372:
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Lippmaa, M.; Nakagawa, N.; Kawasaki, M.; Ohashi, S.; Koinuma, H. (2000). "Growth mode mapping of SrTiO epitaxy".
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1707:
1345:
226:, and the deposition flux. Generally, the nucleation density increases when the deposition flux is increased.
110:
The detailed mechanisms of PLD are very complex including the ablation process of the target material by the
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Laser absorption on the target surface and laser ablation of the target material and creation of a plasma
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1215:
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325:
44:
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767:
Ohtomo, A.; Hwang, H. Y. (2007). "Growth mode control of the free carrier density in SrTiO films".
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423:
377:
Pulsed laser deposition is only one of many thin film deposition techniques. Other methods include
329:
321:
1141:
Lunney, James G. (February 1995). "Pulsed laser deposition of metal and metal multilayer films".
102:, clusters, particulates and molten globules, before depositing on the typically hot substrate.
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1178:"Pulsed laser deposition of crystalline garnet waveguides at a growth rate of 20 μm per hour"
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deposition rate and can furthermore result in a change in the stoichiometry of the film.
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process and growth kinetics of the film depend on several growth parameters including:
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deposition. This nucleation density increases the smoothness of the deposited film.
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927:"Ytterbium-doped-garnet crystal waveguide lasers grown by pulsed laser deposition"
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873:"An 115 W Yb:YAG planar waveguide laser fabricated via pulsed laser deposition"
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May-Smith, T. C.; Muir, A. C.; Darby, M. S. B.; Eason, R. W. (2008-04-10).
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causes a very large nucleation density on the surface as compared to
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Each of these steps is crucial for the crystallinity, uniformity and
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Laser ablation of the target material and creation of a plasma
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Laser-MBE: Pulsed Laser
Deposition under Ultra-High Vacuum
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which will affect the nucleation density and film quality.
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Nucleation and growth of the film on the substrate surface
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Nucleation and growth of the film on the substrate surface
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Type of gas and pressure in chamber (oxygen, argon, etc.)
673:
32:
One possible configuration of a PLD deposition chamber.
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1254:
Applied
Physics A: Materials Science & Processing
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Deposition of the ablation material on the substrate
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Deposition of the ablation material on the substrate
1346:A Brief Overview of Pulse Laser Deposition System
483:Some factors that influence the deposition rate:
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436:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
334:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
63:facing the target). This process can occur in
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279:In PLD, three growth modes are possible:
47:(PVD) technique where a high-power pulsed
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467:Learn how and when to remove this message
365:Learn how and when to remove this message
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27:
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1634:Multiple-prism grating laser oscillator
1300:Introduction to Pulsed laser deposition
1298:Introduction to Pulsed Laser Deposition
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24:target during pulsed laser deposition.
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537:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
1698:Physical vapor deposition techniques
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1065:Japanese Journal of Applied Physics
13:
114:irradiation, the development of a
59:on a substrate (such as a silicon
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826:Mat. Res. Soc. Proc. 967E, (2006)
499:Distance from target to substrate
1703:Semiconductor device fabrication
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1182:Surface and Coatings Technology
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1543:Amplified spontaneous emission
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645:10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.256103
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1311:Optics & Laser Technology
1128:10.1016/j.surfrep.2003.10.001
1071:(Part 2, No. 7B): L849–L851.
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1163:10.1016/0169-4332(94)00368-8
496:Temperature of the substrate
493:Repetition rate of the laser
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20:A plume ejected from a SrRuO
7:
1599:Chirped pulse amplification
10:
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1403:List of laser applications
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769:Journal of Applied Physics
580:Journal of Applied Physics
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1274:10.1007/s00339-002-1442-4
1216:Optical Materials Express
932:Optical Materials Express
881:Optical Materials Express
383:chemical vapor deposition
51:beam is focused inside a
45:physical vapor deposition
422:This section includes a
320:This section includes a
139:of the resulting film.
1143:Applied Surface Science
1116:Surface Science Reports
1022:Applied Physics Letters
978:Applied Physics Letters
838:Applied Physics Letters
734:Applied Physics Letters
615:Physical Review Letters
586:(10): 103703–103703–6.
451:more precise citations.
349:more precise citations.
37:Pulsed laser deposition
1393:List of laser articles
775:(8): 083704–083704–6.
379:molecular beam epitaxy
270:molecular beam epitaxy
159:
33:
25:
490:Pulse energy of laser
290:Layer-by-layer growth
172:Dynamic of the plasma
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125:Dynamic of the plasma
31:
19:
1708:Thin film deposition
1568:Population inversion
1238:10.1364/OME.7.004073
1085:10.1143/JJAP.42.L849
954:10.1364/OME.7.001628
903:10.1364/ome.6.000091
703:10.1364/AO.47.001767
1619:Laser beam profiler
1538:Active laser medium
1478:Free-electron laser
1398:List of laser types
1323:2015OptLT..69...92P
1266:2002ApPhA..75..551S
1229:2017OMExp...7.4073G
1155:1995ApSS...86...79L
1077:2003JaJAP..42L.849Y
1034:1997ApPhL..70.2735V
990:1991ApPhL..58.2027K
945:2017OMExp...7.1628B
894:2016OMExp...6...91G
850:2000ApPhL..76.2439L
791:2007JAP...102h3704O
746:1998ApPhL..73.2920K
695:2008ApOpt..47.1767M
637:2009PhRvL.103y6103F
592:2008JAP...103j3703O
549:2010JPhD...43P5205R
250:Background pressure
230:Surface temperature
82:formation and even
1718:Laser applications
424:list of references
387:sputter deposition
322:list of references
160:
34:
26:
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1639:Optical amplifier
1488:Solid-state laser
1028:(20): 2735–2737.
984:(18): 2027–2029.
799:10.1063/1.2798385
689:(11): 1767–1780.
600:10.1063/1.2921972
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405:Technical aspects
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244:Substrate surface
65:ultra high vacuum
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1649:Optical isolator
1614:Injection seeder
1594:Beam homogenizer
1573:Ultrashort pulse
1563:Lasing threshold
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284:Step-flow growth
260:In PLD, a large
220:Laser parameters
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1629:Mode locking
1582:Laser optics
1339:10261/129916
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1223:(11): 4073.
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443:Please help
435:
376:
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341:Please help
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35:
1659:Q-switching
1520:X-ray laser
1513:Ti-sapphire
1483:Laser diode
1461:Helium–neon
939:(5): 1628.
449:introducing
347:introducing
84:exfoliation
1692:Categories
1317:: 92–103.
507:References
274:sputtering
213:nucleation
1624:M squared
1446:Gas laser
1429:Dye laser
1101:119738424
1093:0021-4922
1050:0003-6951
1006:0003-6951
963:2159-3930
912:2159-3930
888:(1): 91.
807:118558366
711:1539-4522
628:0910.3601
565:120309363
296:3D growth
185:possible.
96:electrons
92:molecules
57:thin film
1677:Category
1471:Nitrogen
1282:93176756
1188:: 7–10.
719:18404174
661:11210950
653:20366266
457:May 2016
355:May 2016
76:ablation
1456:Excimer
1319:Bibcode
1262:Bibcode
1225:Bibcode
1151:Bibcode
1073:Bibcode
1030:Bibcode
986:Bibcode
941:Bibcode
890:Bibcode
846:Bibcode
787:Bibcode
742:Bibcode
691:Bibcode
633:Bibcode
588:Bibcode
545:Bibcode
445:improve
385:(CVD),
381:(MBE),
343:improve
303:History
106:Process
72:Process
43:) is a
1498:Nd:YAG
1493:Er:YAG
1434:Bubble
1382:Lasers
1280:
1099:
1091:
1048:
1004:
961:
910:
821:et al.
805:
717:
709:
659:
651:
563:
522:
116:plasma
80:plasma
53:vacuum
1503:Raman
1278:S2CID
1097:S2CID
876:(PDF)
803:S2CID
777:arXiv
679:(PDF)
657:S2CID
623:arXiv
561:S2CID
430:, or
328:, or
238:laser
189:film.
112:laser
88:atoms
61:wafer
49:laser
1508:Ruby
1089:ISSN
1046:ISSN
1002:ISSN
959:ISSN
908:ISSN
715:PMID
707:ISSN
649:PMID
520:ISBN
211:The
100:ions
1466:Ion
1335:hdl
1327:doi
1270:doi
1233:doi
1190:doi
1186:343
1159:doi
1124:doi
1081:doi
1038:doi
994:doi
949:doi
898:doi
854:doi
795:doi
773:102
750:doi
699:doi
641:doi
619:103
596:doi
584:103
553:doi
272:or
41:PLD
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234:CO
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