604:. It was essentially a political organ that was designed to spread the government's ideas to the public and mobilize economic and military support for the Provisional Government and Japan. The New People's Society was not a mass organization with millions of members but a small tight-knit group that included many smaller sub-organizations. Among their activities ranged from training future civil servants, sending students to Japan, giving medical services to remote villages, providing disaster relief, establish free tea houses, promoting Chinese art and pilgrimages to Confucian temples, as well as discussing political events in their radio stations and official newspaper, the New People's Daily. The core values emphasized were Confucian virtues, familial piety, respect for authority, and devotion to scholarship. In the end, however, the organization failed to rally mass public support for the Provisional Government and Japan, being countered by the Communist Party's propaganda.
1715:
313:
112:
342:
1776:
330:
557:(whose members were appointed by the Executive) merely rubber stamp its decisions. The Executive supervised five ministries, which did not include either a foreign affairs or military ministry, most notably (although there was a ministry of public security). The Provisional Government never made any serious attempt to secure international recognition, not even from Japan. Some representatives had been sent to Tokyo but these were more "ambassadors of goodwill" rather than officially accredited diplomats. No formal treaties or other agreements were concluded by the Provisional Government, with all negotiations done directly with the authorities of the Japanese
1679:
53:
1763:
1800:
1788:
1946:
1934:
1922:
1910:
1898:
1886:
1874:
1861:
1848:
1836:
1824:
1703:
1691:
1631:
288:
1812:
274:
810:
1667:
1739:
1751:
1619:
1727:
1655:
1643:
786:
1519:
709:
764:
636:
729:
100:
687:
658:
839:
currency. The
Provisional Government declared that the Chinese national currency used by the Nationalists could only remain in circulation for one year before its own Federal Reserve Bank notes would become the primary currency of the region. It allowed the regime to offset its lack of ability to collect tax revenues from its nominal territory, for a time.
1001:
numbered some 26,000 men, which were increased to 41,000 due to a recruitment drive, organized into 22 regiments along with eight independent and training regiments. Local police forces numbered some 135,000 while local militia were around 200,000, but the latter were regarded as completely unreliable by the
Japanese due to lack of training and weapons.
101:
102:
914:(NCOs) began six months of training in February 1939 and the army officially formed in September 1939. At first the Army had to fill most of the officer and NCO slots with former Nationalist officers until the newly trained officers could take charge. The army's target strength was to consist of 13,200 men in eight
1000:
After the formation of the
Nanjing Nationalist Government under Wang Jingwei, the troops that had formerly been under the Provisional Government effectively remained under the authority of the North China Political Council led by Wang Kemin. By 1940, it was reported that the local army in north China
878:
that was under the
Japanese military's control, or major Japanese firms. However, there was little Japanese or Chinese capital attracted to such ventures in north China, and as the war went on Japan's primary emphasis was placed on resource extraction for its war effort, rather than such projects as
873:
with the intent of being used to resolve disputes over economic matters, in the end the final decisions regarding the economy were still made in Tokyo. Industries such as resource production (iron, coal, electricity, etc.) as well as communications and transportation had been placed in the hands of
488:
who had some national fame in China. But neither one took up the post because their price for collaboration was too high. In the end, the
Provisional Government leadership did not include anyone of renown or fame. Many of its members were older bureaucrats whose careers spanned the early republican
868:
also played a major role in the financial activities of the
Japanese military in north China. A so-called "Opium Prohibition Bureau" had been established, but it actually had the task of bringing the narcotics trade under the control of the authorities rather than suppressing it. Most of the major
838:
In March 1938 the
Japanese had the Provisional Government establish a "Federal Reserve Bank" with the primary intent of severing north China's financial structures from the rest of Kuomintang-controlled China, as well as to shatter the finances of the Kuomintang government by destabilizing its
1590:
445:. However, the regime's real influence was largely limited to where Japanese military control extended permanently, which meant its jurisdiction was in larger cities and railways. The authority of the Provisional Government was further limited by the existence of the
1583:
99:
392:
area. Both essentially served as a local organ of the
Japanese military authorities, due to the presence and extensive powers of Japanese advisors within the Provisional Government over native Chinese bureaucrats, and because it never made any attempt to secure
842:
However, it was not long before mass inflation began and neither
Chinese merchants nor Japanese businessmen decided to accept the new bank notes. The Kuomintang currency remained in use everywhere outside of the Japanese military's immediate reach, while
1576:
425:. But plans were drawn up throughout 1937 to unite all of these smaller regimes into one that would serve as a future central government of China. The Provisional Government united these smaller local councils and nominally controlled the provinces of
98:
595:
The
Education Ministry and the "New People's Society" were in charge of spreading these aforementioned ideas through the usage of propaganda. The latter group had been established as the brainchild of Major General Seiichi Kita, modeled on the
500:. The failure of the Japanese to give any real authority to the Provisional Government discredited it in the eyes of the local inhabitants, and made its existence of only limited propaganda utility to the Japanese authorities.
568:, and it condemned the Kuomintang and Chiang Kai-shek for destroying China with their policies. The Provisional Government took the view that the Kuomintang took unnecessarily hostile actions towards Japan, allied with the
493:. Some had picked the wrong side during the warlord era and thus were bitterly anti-Kuomintang. The difficulty that Kita and other Japanese faced in recruiting members for the puppet regime caused a delay of its formation.
905:
The security of the Provisional Government was at first based around a 5,000-man police force. The Provisional Government Army began to be organized in May 1938 with the organization of a Japanese-run military academy in
1523:
111:
476:, the head of the local Japanese special services and foremost "puppeteer" in north China on whose initiative the Provisional Government would be formed, wanted the head of state to be either
525:) until the end of the war. Many of the same members of the Provisional Government continued to serve the Japanese in north China throughout the 1940s in their original capacities.
737:
516:
929:
with a Japanese advisor. In addition, a 400-man-strong bodyguard was formed to protect government officials after all of Wang Kemin's Japanese bodyguards were assassinated.
576:, and thus ended up damaging China. The ideas of Confucianism, such as the "kingly way," were considered by the government to be antidotes to the social damage caused by
869:
industries in north China had been placed under the control of Japanese businesses, and while a Sino-Japanese Economic Council had been established in March 1938 in
512:
541:, but in practice there was little division of power between the different branches, which were the four yuan: Executive, Legislative, Control, and Judicial (the
533:
The main source of its sovereignty was a constitution written by an unelected committee. The internal structure of the Provisional Government was similar to the
122:
52:
2040:
341:
2045:
2010:
2020:
1816:
847:
guerrillas operating in north China declared it illegal to possess Federal Reserve Bank notes. Also, foreign businesses operating in the port of
1568:
2015:
861:
The Federal Reserve Notes continued to be one of three separate currencies in the Japanese-occupied areas of China until the Japan's defeat.
329:
2050:
2025:
1828:
1707:
1010:
504:
385:
851:
refused to accept the new currency. The circulation of Japanese military scrips for the purchases of local goods and the introduction of
673:
70:
1938:
1926:
900:
584:. As it sought to distance itself from the Chinese Nationalist principles this later brought contention with the other collaborator
2000:
589:
237:
1964:
1995:
1865:
1493:
1297:
1228:
380:. Thus the Provisional Government had nominal authority in Japanese occupied zones in north China, while to the south the
1840:
1659:
1647:
888:
553:
was given great powers at the expense of the other branches, however, such as deciding all legislation and having the
2035:
1950:
1470:
1447:
1409:
1371:
497:
414:
354:
2030:
2005:
1890:
1878:
1635:
875:
825:
422:
381:
293:
279:
1598:
1428:
1390:
1071:
1038:
581:
1852:
1079:
1046:
410:
1969:
1914:
742:
421:. Initially, this resulted in the creation of local and provincial autonomous administrations, such as the
89:
1902:
1804:
515:
on 30 March 1940, but in practical terms actually remained virtually independent under the name of the "
1768:
1289:
907:
213:
59:
394:
472:, who served as chairman of the Legislative Yuan and Minister of Education. Initially Major General
1731:
1106:
911:
844:
365:
573:
75:
1535:
369:
597:
558:
1683:
1461:
Secret War in Shanghai: An Untold Story of Espionage, Intrigue, and Treason in World War II
8:
1719:
1555:
588:
when negotiations occurred to bring the Provisional Government under the fold of his new
306:
891:
was established to manage all railway and bus services in the government's territories.
622:
1792:
1489:
1482:
1466:
1459:
1443:
1424:
1405:
1386:
1367:
1293:
1097:
1780:
962:
887:
In 1938 the Provisional Government nationalised railway and bus companies, and the
554:
542:
496:
Its activities were carefully prescribed and overseen by advisors provided by the
452:
The Provisional Government of the Republic of China was officially inaugurated by
1600:
538:
361:
199:
130:
1743:
1281:
779:
550:
406:
1421:
The Opium Empire: Japanese Imperialism and Drug Trafficking in Asia, 1895-1945
809:
449:
and the continued resistance of the East Hebei Government to fully integrate.
1989:
1286:
The Collapse of Nationalist China: How Chiang Kai-shek Lost China's Civil War
926:
852:
678:
417:
to establish an autonomous buffer zone between China and Japanese-controlled
389:
413:
authorized the creation of a collaborationist regime as part of its overall
1604:
592:
in 1940, which portrayed itself as the legitimate heirs of the Kuomintang.
585:
569:
565:
546:
508:
490:
473:
357:
161:
126:
1974:
803:
757:
702:
577:
485:
373:
334:
722:
629:
534:
457:
453:
185:
345:
Signs on Tiananmen Gate hailing the founding of the government in 1937
1755:
1671:
1623:
651:
601:
469:
446:
418:
918:
915:
816:
481:
461:
430:
376:, before securing approval from Japanese government authorities in
986:
971:
952:
937:
922:
870:
848:
792:
785:
750:
549:
was abolished not long after the government was established. The
477:
465:
442:
143:
1383:
China and Japan at War, 1937-1945; The Politics of Collaboration
921:
of 1,650 men each. Six of the regiments were organized in three
1518:
1087:
1054:
434:
763:
708:
993:
925:
of two regiments each and put under the command of a Chinese
865:
728:
635:
438:
426:
377:
1511:
686:
657:
545:'s powers had been given to the ministry of education). The
1524:
Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937-1940)
1480:
Li, Lillian M.; Dray-Novey, Alison J.; Kong, Haili (2007).
901:
Collaborationist Chinese Army § Provisional Government
1599:
States and territories in the sphere of influence of the
1264:
1262:
932:
The order of battle as of September 1939 was as follows:
874:
either the China Development Company, an offshoot of the
855:
1306:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1163:
1161:
1333:
1323:
1321:
1259:
1247:
1111:
1192:
1173:
1158:
1134:
1318:
1235:
1146:
1481:
1458:
1204:
368:. It had been formed largely on the initiative of
1216:
464:banker, on 14 December 1937, with its capital at
1987:
1546:Provisional Government of the Republic of China
1479:
503:The Provisional Government was, along with the
351:Provisional Government of the Republic of China
1556:Wang Jingwei's reorganized National Government
1484:Beijing: From Imperial Capital to Olympic City
2041:States and territories disestablished in 1940
1584:
1402:Chronological History of US Foreign Relations
520:
489:era (1910s and 1920s) and even the preceding
1011:Reformed Government of the Republic of China
505:Reformed Government of the Republic of China
386:Reformed Government of the Republic of China
16:Chinese puppet state of the Empire of Japan
2046:States and territories established in 1937
1591:
1577:
364:that existed from 1937 to 1940 during the
110:
2011:Chinese collaborators with Imperial Japan
1512:Biographical Dictionary of Occupied China
1456:
1720:Reorganized National Government of China
1418:
1140:
590:Reorganized National Government of China
340:
328:
307:Reorganized National Government of China
2021:Former countries of the interwar period
879:in improving the local infrastructure.
611:
333:The sign of the government unveiled in
1988:
1965:Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
1672:Mengjiang United Autonomous Government
1442:. Vol. 1. Helion & Co., Ltd.
1437:
1339:
1327:
1227:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFLi2007 (
1572:
1399:
1380:
1361:
1312:
1280:
1268:
1253:
1241:
1210:
1198:
1186:
1167:
1152:
614:
447:Inner Mongolian autonomous government
2016:Client states of the Empire of Japan
1756:Provisional Government of Free India
1488:. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
1274:
388:in 1938, which had authority in the
2051:Government of the Republic of China
2026:Former countries in Chinese history
1029:Modified version used in 1921–1928.
858:notes also added to the confusion.
692:President of the Judiciary Council
663:President of the Discussion Council
13:
1660:South Chahar Autonomous Government
1648:North Shanxi Autonomous Government
1222:
889:North China Transportation Company
641:President of the Executive Council
168:President of the Executive Council
14:
2062:
1504:
1364:World War Two: A Military History
1060:Xíngzhèng Wěiyuánhuì Wěiyuánzhǎng
882:
498:Japanese Northern China Area Army
1944:
1932:
1920:
1908:
1896:
1884:
1872:
1859:
1846:
1834:
1822:
1810:
1798:
1786:
1774:
1761:
1749:
1737:
1725:
1713:
1701:
1689:
1677:
1665:
1653:
1641:
1636:East Hebei Autonomous Government
1629:
1617:
1517:
876:South Manchurian Railway Company
808:
784:
762:
727:
707:
685:
656:
634:
423:East Hebei Autonomous Government
382:Central China Expeditionary Army
311:
294:East Hebei Autonomous Government
286:
272:
96:
51:
2001:1940 disestablishments in China
1696:Provisional Government of China
513:reorganized national government
337:in Beijing on December 14, 1937
238:Reorganized National Government
60:Five Races Under One Union Flag
1093:Zhōnghuá Mínguó Línshí Zhèngfǔ
1092:
1083:
1075:
1065:
1059:
1050:
1042:
1032:
1023:
582:Three Principles of the People
521:
226:• Government established
33:Zhōnghuá Mínguó Línshí Zhèngfǔ
1:
1684:Shanghai Great Way Government
1385:. Stanford University Press.
1122:
738:North China Pacification Army
717:Minister of Interior Affairs
517:North China Political Council
411:Imperial General Headquarters
1996:1937 establishments in China
1970:Greater East Asia Conference
1708:Reformed Government of China
1127:
955:' (Maj. Gen. Huang Nanbeng)
822:Minister of Interior Affairs
607:
90:Song to the Auspicious Cloud
7:
1769:Republic of the Philippines
1457:Wasserman, Bernard (1999).
1438:Jowett, Phillip S. (2004).
1112:
1004:
974:' (Maj. Gen. Lu Zhensheng)
894:
772:Minister of Foreign Affairs
643:Minister of Administration
528:
10:
2067:
1829:Occupied Dutch East Indies
1349:
1290:Cambridge University Press
1288:. Cambridge New York, NY:
992:8th Independent Regiment '
985:7th Independent Regiment '
940:' (Maj. Gen. Liu Fengzhi)
898:
833:
736:Commander-in-chief of the
564:Its official ideology was
400:
214:Marco Polo Bridge Incident
1960:
1611:
1551:
1544:
1532:
1400:Brune, Lester H. (2002).
1113:Chūka Minkoku Rinji Seifu
1101:
912:Non-commissioned officers
714:Minister of the Interior
484:, former warlords of the
395:international recognition
251:
247:
234:
224:
209:
205:
195:
191:
179:
175:
167:
157:
149:
136:
118:
109:
83:
66:
48:
43:
37:Chūka Minkoku Rinji Seifu
21:
2036:Second Sino-Japanese War
1939:Occupied Solomon Islands
1927:Occupied Gilbert Islands
1817:Kingdom of Luang Prabang
1016:
460:Minister of Finance and
366:Second Sino-Japanese War
25:of the Republic of China
2031:Provisional governments
2006:Anti-communism in China
1866:Occupied British Borneo
1419:Jennings, John (1997).
1381:Boyle, John H. (1972).
980:6th Regiment (Tangshan)
946:2nd Regiment (Tongzhou)
486:early republican period
468:. Wang was assisted by
1440:Rays of the Rising Sun
1362:Black, Jeremy (2002).
977:5th Regiment (Kaiping)
958:3rd Regiment (Baoding)
943:1st Regiment (Beijing)
749:Military Inspector of
665:Minister of Education
405:After the conquest of
370:Imperial Japanese Army
346:
338:
23:Provisional Government
1841:Occupied West Sumatra
989:' (Col. Sun Zhizhang)
769:Minister of Industry
598:Concordia Association
559:North China Area Army
344:
332:
150:Common languages
1805:Kingdom of Kampuchea
1526:at Wikimedia Commons
1465:. Houghton Mifflin.
774:Minister of Justice
734:Minister of Security
697:Minister of Finance
668:Minister of Finance
646:Minister of Finance
1951:Occupied New Guinea
1732:Kingdom of Thailand
1536:National Government
1315:, pp. 100–103.
1072:traditional Chinese
1039:traditional Chinese
864:The trafficking of
798:Infantry Commander
695:Minister of Justice
621:Former Post in the
397:, even from Japan.
236:• Merged into
1891:Occupied Singapore
1879:Occupied Hong Kong
1080:simplified Chinese
1047:simplified Chinese
996:' (Col. Ma Wenzhi)
623:Beiyang Government
574:Chinese Communists
347:
339:
123:Unrecognized state
1983:
1982:
1793:Empire of Vietnam
1567:
1566:
1552:Succeeded by
1522:Media related to
1495:978-0-230-60527-5
1342:, pp. 85–87.
1299:978-1-009-29761-5
1271:, pp. 97–99.
1256:, pp. 92–95.
1201:, pp. 88–89.
1189:, pp. 90–91.
1170:, pp. 83–85.
1110:
831:
830:
511:'s Nanjing-based
327:
326:
323:
322:
319:
318:
299:
298:
280:Republic of China
181:• 1937–1940
103:
2058:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1901:
1900:
1899:
1889:
1888:
1887:
1877:
1876:
1875:
1864:
1863:
1862:
1851:
1850:
1849:
1839:
1838:
1837:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1803:
1802:
1801:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1781:French Indochina
1779:
1778:
1777:
1767:
1765:
1764:
1754:
1753:
1752:
1742:
1741:
1740:
1730:
1729:
1728:
1718:
1717:
1716:
1706:
1705:
1704:
1694:
1693:
1692:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1670:
1669:
1668:
1658:
1657:
1656:
1646:
1645:
1644:
1634:
1633:
1632:
1622:
1621:
1620:
1593:
1586:
1579:
1570:
1569:
1562:
1561:
1541:
1533:Preceded by
1530:
1529:
1521:
1499:
1487:
1476:
1464:
1453:
1434:
1415:
1396:
1377:
1343:
1337:
1331:
1325:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1278:
1272:
1266:
1257:
1251:
1245:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1220:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1171:
1165:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1116:
1115:
1105:
1103:
1094:
1085:
1077:
1069:
1063:
1061:
1052:
1044:
1036:
1030:
1027:
812:
788:
766:
746:
731:
711:
689:
682:
660:
638:
612:
555:Legislative Yuan
543:Examination Yuan
524:
523:
384:established the
315:
314:
303:
302:
290:
289:
276:
275:
269:
268:
253:
252:
230:14 December 1937
216:
139:and largest city
114:
105:
104:
79:
55:
30:
19:
18:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2055:
1986:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1956:
1955:
1945:
1943:
1933:
1931:
1921:
1919:
1909:
1907:
1897:
1895:
1885:
1883:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1860:
1858:
1853:Occupied Malaya
1847:
1845:
1835:
1833:
1823:
1821:
1811:
1809:
1799:
1797:
1787:
1785:
1775:
1773:
1762:
1760:
1750:
1748:
1738:
1736:
1726:
1724:
1714:
1712:
1702:
1700:
1690:
1688:
1678:
1676:
1666:
1664:
1654:
1652:
1642:
1640:
1630:
1628:
1618:
1616:
1607:
1601:Empire of Japan
1597:
1563:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1548:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1507:
1502:
1496:
1473:
1450:
1431:
1412:
1393:
1374:
1352:
1347:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1326:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1300:
1282:Coble, Parks M.
1279:
1275:
1267:
1260:
1252:
1248:
1244:, pp. 105.
1240:
1236:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1209:
1205:
1197:
1193:
1185:
1174:
1166:
1159:
1151:
1147:
1141:Jennings (1997)
1139:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1119:
1070:
1066:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1007:
903:
897:
885:
836:
823:
773:
740:
735:
696:
676:
664:
642:
610:
600:in neighboring
539:Chiang Kai-shek
531:
403:
362:Empire of Japan
312:
287:
273:
240:
227:
217:
212:
200:Interwar period
182:
140:
131:Empire of Japan
125:
97:
95:
93:
73:
62:
57:
56:
39:
35:
31:
28:
26:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2064:
2054:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1961:
1958:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1941:
1929:
1917:
1915:Occupied Nauru
1905:
1893:
1881:
1869:
1857:
1855:
1843:
1831:
1819:
1807:
1795:
1783:
1771:
1758:
1746:
1744:State of Burma
1734:
1722:
1710:
1698:
1686:
1674:
1662:
1650:
1638:
1626:
1613:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1596:
1595:
1588:
1581:
1573:
1565:
1564:
1553:
1550:
1543:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1515:
1506:
1505:External links
1503:
1501:
1500:
1494:
1477:
1471:
1454:
1448:
1435:
1429:
1416:
1410:
1397:
1391:
1378:
1372:
1366:. Routeledge.
1358:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1332:
1317:
1305:
1298:
1273:
1258:
1246:
1234:
1225:, p. 166.
1215:
1203:
1191:
1172:
1157:
1155:, p. 521.
1145:
1132:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1117:
1064:
1031:
1021:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1013:
1006:
1003:
998:
997:
990:
983:
982:
981:
978:
968:
967:
966:
961:4th Regiment (
959:
949:
948:
947:
944:
899:Main article:
896:
893:
884:
883:Transportation
881:
835:
832:
829:
828:
820:
813:
806:
800:
799:
796:
789:
782:
780:Jiang Chaozong
776:
775:
770:
767:
760:
754:
753:
747:
732:
725:
719:
718:
715:
712:
705:
699:
698:
693:
690:
683:
670:
669:
666:
661:
654:
648:
647:
644:
639:
632:
626:
625:
619:
616:
609:
606:
551:Executive Yuan
537:government of
530:
527:
507:, merged into
407:Northern China
402:
399:
372:commanders in
325:
324:
321:
320:
317:
316:
309:
300:
297:
296:
291:
283:
282:
277:
265:
264:
259:
249:
248:
245:
244:
241:
235:
232:
231:
228:
225:
222:
221:
218:
210:
207:
206:
203:
202:
197:
196:Historical era
193:
192:
189:
188:
183:
180:
177:
176:
173:
172:
169:
165:
164:
159:
155:
154:
151:
147:
146:
141:
138:
134:
133:
120:
116:
115:
107:
106:
81:
80:
64:
63:
58:
50:
49:
46:
45:
41:
40:
27:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2063:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1959:
1952:
1942:
1940:
1930:
1928:
1918:
1916:
1906:
1904:
1903:Occupied Guam
1894:
1892:
1882:
1880:
1870:
1867:
1856:
1854:
1844:
1842:
1832:
1830:
1820:
1818:
1808:
1806:
1796:
1794:
1784:
1782:
1772:
1770:
1759:
1757:
1747:
1745:
1735:
1733:
1723:
1721:
1711:
1709:
1699:
1697:
1687:
1685:
1675:
1673:
1663:
1661:
1651:
1649:
1639:
1637:
1627:
1625:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1594:
1589:
1587:
1582:
1580:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1557:
1547:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1508:
1497:
1491:
1486:
1485:
1478:
1474:
1472:0-395-98537-4
1468:
1463:
1462:
1455:
1451:
1449:1-874622-21-3
1445:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1413:
1411:0-415-93916-X
1407:
1404:. Routledge.
1403:
1398:
1394:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1373:0-415-30535-7
1369:
1365:
1360:
1359:
1354:
1353:
1341:
1340:Jowett (2004)
1336:
1330:, p. 44.
1329:
1328:Jowett (2004)
1324:
1322:
1314:
1309:
1301:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1270:
1265:
1263:
1255:
1250:
1243:
1238:
1230:
1224:
1219:
1213:, p. 34.
1212:
1207:
1200:
1195:
1188:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1169:
1164:
1162:
1154:
1149:
1143:, p. 92.
1142:
1137:
1133:
1114:
1108:
1099:
1095:
1089:
1081:
1073:
1068:
1062:
1056:
1048:
1040:
1035:
1026:
1022:
1012:
1009:
1008:
1002:
995:
991:
988:
984:
979:
976:
975:
973:
970:3rd Brigade '
969:
964:
960:
957:
956:
954:
951:2nd Brigade '
950:
945:
942:
941:
939:
936:1st Brigade '
935:
934:
933:
930:
928:
927:Major General
924:
920:
917:
913:
909:
902:
892:
890:
880:
877:
872:
867:
862:
859:
857:
854:
853:Bank of Japan
850:
846:
840:
827:
821:
819:Special City
818:
815:Mayor of the
814:
811:
807:
805:
802:
801:
797:
795:Special City
794:
791:Mayor of the
790:
787:
783:
781:
778:
777:
771:
768:
765:
761:
759:
756:
755:
752:
748:
744:
739:
733:
730:
726:
724:
721:
720:
716:
713:
710:
706:
704:
701:
700:
694:
691:
688:
684:
680:
675:
672:
671:
667:
662:
659:
655:
653:
650:
649:
645:
640:
637:
633:
631:
628:
627:
624:
620:
617:
613:
605:
603:
599:
593:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
562:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
526:
518:
514:
510:
506:
501:
499:
494:
492:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
450:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
398:
396:
391:
390:Yangtze River
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
356:
352:
343:
336:
331:
310:
308:
305:
304:
301:
295:
292:
285:
284:
281:
278:
271:
270:
267:
266:
263:
260:
258:
255:
254:
250:
246:
243:30 March 1940
242:
239:
233:
229:
223:
219:
215:
208:
204:
201:
198:
194:
190:
187:
184:
178:
174:
170:
166:
163:
160:
156:
152:
148:
145:
142:
135:
132:
128:
124:
121:
117:
113:
108:
92:
91:
86:
82:
77:
72:
69:
65:
61:
54:
47:
42:
38:
34:
20:
1695:
1605:World War II
1545:
1510:
1483:
1460:
1439:
1420:
1401:
1382:
1363:
1335:
1313:Boyle (1972)
1308:
1285:
1276:
1269:Boyle (1972)
1254:Boyle (1972)
1249:
1242:Boyle (1972)
1237:
1218:
1211:Black (2002)
1206:
1199:Boyle (1972)
1194:
1187:Boyle (1972)
1168:Boyle (1972)
1153:Brune (2002)
1148:
1136:
1091:
1067:
1058:
1034:
1025:
999:
931:
904:
886:
863:
860:
841:
837:
594:
586:Wang Jingwei
570:Soviet Union
566:Confucianism
563:
547:Control Yuan
532:
509:Wang Jingwei
502:
495:
491:Qing dynasty
474:Seiichi Kita
451:
404:
358:puppet state
350:
348:
262:Succeeded by
261:
256:
162:Dictatorship
127:Puppet state
88:
84:
68:Motto:
67:
36:
32:
1975:Pacific War
1560:(1940–1945)
1540:(1927–1948)
1423:. Praeger.
804:Gao Lingwei
758:Wang Yintai
741: [
703:Wang Yitang
677: [
578:Sun Yat-sen
409:, Japanese
374:north China
335:Zhongnanhai
257:Preceded by
220:7 July 1937
94:(1937–1940)
74: [
1990:Categories
1549:1937–1940
1430:0275957594
1392:0804708002
1123:References
723:Qi Xieyuan
630:Wang Kemin
535:Kuomintang
458:Kuomintang
454:Wang Kemin
186:Wang Kemin
158:Government
1624:Manchukuo
1223:Li (2007)
1128:Citations
1107:romanized
963:Zhengding
919:regiments
845:Communist
674:Dong Kang
652:Tang Erho
615:Minister
608:Officials
602:Manchukuo
470:Tang Erho
456:, former
419:Manchukuo
71:Xinminism
44:1937–1940
1284:(2023).
1102:中華民国臨時政府
1098:Japanese
1084:中华民国临时政府
1076:中華民國臨時政府
1051:行政委员会委员长
1043:行政委員會委員長
1005:See also
923:brigades
916:infantry
908:Tongzhou
895:Military
817:Tianjing
572:and the
529:Politics
482:Wu Peifu
462:Shanghai
431:Shandong
415:strategy
29:中華民國臨時政府
1603:during
1350:Sources
1109::
987:Tianjin
972:Kaiping
953:Baoding
938:Beijing
871:Beijing
849:Tianjin
834:Economy
826:Premier
824:Acting
793:Beijing
751:Jiangsu
522:華北政務委員會
478:Cao Kun
466:Beijing
443:Jiangsu
401:History
360:of the
355:Chinese
211:•
153:Chinese
144:Beijing
137:Capital
129:of the
85:Anthem:
1766:
1492:
1469:
1446:
1427:
1408:
1389:
1370:
1296:
1090::
1088:pinyin
1082::
1074::
1057::
1055:pinyin
1049::
1041::
435:Shanxi
353:was a
171:
119:Status
87:
1355:Books
1096:, or
1017:Notes
994:Jinan
866:opium
745:]
681:]
618:Post
439:Henan
427:Hebei
378:Tokyo
78:]
1490:ISBN
1467:ISBN
1444:ISBN
1425:ISBN
1406:ISBN
1387:ISBN
1368:ISBN
1294:ISBN
1229:help
441:and
349:The
856:yen
580:'s
519:" (
480:or
1992::
1320:^
1292:.
1261:^
1175:^
1160:^
1104:,
1100::
1086:;
1078:;
1053:;
1045:;
910:.
743:zh
679:zh
561:.
437:,
433:,
429:,
76:ja
1592:e
1585:t
1578:v
1498:.
1475:.
1452:.
1433:.
1414:.
1395:.
1376:.
1302:.
1231:)
965:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
.svg)
_-_en.svg)
