141:, a scheme to assemble an elite unit for winter operations in Norway, Romania and the Italian Alps. He had been considering the problem of how to protect seaborne landings and Atlantic convoys out of reach of aircraft cover. The problem was that steel and aluminium were in short supply, and were required for other purposes. Pyke decided that the answer was ice, which could be manufactured for just 1% of the energy needed to make an equivalent mass of steel. He proposed that an iceberg, natural or artificial, be levelled to provide a runway and hollowed out to shelter aircraft.
22:
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hangars would be made blast proof against 1,000 kg bombs. Bernal considered that no one could say whether the larger
Habakkuk II was a practical proposition until a large-scale model could be completed and tested in Canada in the spring of 1944. He had no doubts about the suitability of pykrete as a material, but said that constructional and navigational difficulties remained to be overcome.
440:. Mountbatten entered the project meeting with two blocks and placed them on the ground. One was a normal ice block and the other was pykrete. He then drew his service pistol and shot at the first block. It shattered and splintered. Next he fired at the pykrete to give an idea of the resistance of that kind of ice to projectiles. The bullet ricocheted off the block, grazing the trouser leg of
453:'s diaries support this account, telling how Mountbatten brought two blocks, one of ice and one of pykrete. After first shooting at the ice, with a warning to beware of splinters, Mountbatten said "I shall fire at the block on the right to show you the difference". Brooke reported that "the bullet rebounded out of the block and buzzed round our legs like an angry bee".
474:, who was provided by Perutz with rods of ice and pykrete packed with dry ice in thermos flasks and large blocks of ice and pykrete. Grant demonstrated the comparative strength of ice and pykrete by firing bullets into both blocks: the ice shattered, but the bullet rebounded from the pykrete and hit the
320:
had become serious and it was obvious that more steel reinforcement would be needed, as well as a more effective insulating skin around the vessel's hull. This caused the cost estimate to grow to £2.5 million. In addition, the
Canadians had decided that it was impractical to attempt the project "this
312:
Meanwhile Perutz had determined via his experiments at
Smithfield Market that the optimum structural properties were given by a mixture of 14 per cent wood pulp and 86 per cent water. He wrote to Pyke in early April 1943 and pointed out that if certain tests were not completed in May, there would be
240:
to determine whether an icefloe large enough to withstand
Atlantic conditions could be built up fast enough. Perutz pointed out that natural icebergs have too small a surface above water for an airstrip, and are prone to suddenly rolling over. The project would have been abandoned if it had not been
621:
and bailing the water with a hand pump, 10 minutes later
Hyneman determined that the boat was taking on more water than the pump could remove and they headed back to shore, trailing sloughed portions of newspaper in their wake. They later inferred that it is possible to build a boat out of pykrete,
616:
out of a modified version of pykrete, using whole sheets of wet newspaper instead of wood pulp. They successfully piloted the boat in
Alaskan waters at a speed of 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), but it began to leak through the melting pykrete in 20 minutes. After attempting to flash freeze leaks
184:
in official documents. This may have been Pyke's error. At least one early unsigned document (apparently written by him) spells it
Habbakuk. However, post-war publications by people concerned with the project, such as Perutz and Goodeve, all restore the proper spelling, with one "b" and three "k"s.
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decided that heavy bombers should be able to take off from it, which meant that the deck had to be 2,000 ft (610 m) long. Steering also raised problems; it was initially projected that the ship would be steered by varying the speed of the motors on either side, but the Royal Navy decided
586:
insulation, thousands of miles of steel tubing for brine circulation and four power stations, but that for all those resources (some of which could be used to manufacture conventional ships of more effective fighting power) Habakkuk would be capable of travelling at only 6 knots (11 km/h) of
565:
engineers evaluated the viability of
Habakkuk. He concluded: "The U.S. Navy finally decided that Habakkuk was a false prophet. One reason was the enormous amount of steel needed for the refrigeration plant that was to freeze the pykrete was greater than that needed to build the entire carrier of
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who did alternative service of various kinds instead of military service. They were never told what they were building. Bernal informed COHQ that the
Canadians were building a 1,000-ton model, and that it was expected to take eight men fourteen days to build it. The Chief of Combined Operations
397:
asked about potential bomb damage to
Habakkuk III, and Bernal suggested that a certain amount of deck covering might be ripped off, but could be repaired by some kind of flexible matting. It would be more difficult to deal with bomb holes in the centre portion, though the roof over the aircraft
494:
because of the cold Canadian winters and Canadians' prior familiarity with ice physics. The small prototype built in 1944 on Patricia Lake near Jasper, Alberta, confirmed the researchers' forecast that the full-size vessel would cost more money and machinery than a whole fleet of conventional
334:
and engineers continued to work on Habakkuk with Bernal and Perutz during the summer of 1943. The requirements for the vessel became more demanding: it had to have a range of 7,000 miles (11,000 km) and be able to withstand the largest waves recorded, and the Admiralty wanted it to be
155:
Pyke was not the first to suggest a floating mid-ocean stopping point for aircraft, nor even the first to suggest that such a floating island could be made of ice. A German scientist, A. Gerke from Waldenburg, had proposed the idea and carried out some preliminary experiments on
302:(CCO) responded that Churchill had invited the Chiefs of Staff Committee to arrange for an order to be placed for one complete ship at once, with the highest priority, and that further ships were to be ordered immediately if it appeared that the scheme was certain of success.
256:
Pykrete could be machined like wood and cast into shapes like metal, and when immersed in water formed an insulating shell of wet wood pulp on its surface that protected its interior from further melting. However, Perutz found a problem: ice flows slowly, in what is known as
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and that pykrete lived up to its purported properties of being bullet-proof, stronger and taking longer to melt than ice. However, they expressed doubt that an aircraft carrier made of pykrete could have survived for long. The conclusion was "Plausible, but ludicrous."
534:
The final meeting of the Habakkuk board took place in December 1943. It was officially concluded that "The large Habbakuk II made of pykrete has been found to be impractical because of the enormous production resources required and technical difficulties involved."
578:, Assistant Controller of Research and Development for the Admiralty during the Second World War. In an article published after the war Goodeve pointed out the large amount of wood pulp that would be required was enough to affect
245:, a mixture of water and woodpulp that when frozen was stronger than plain ice, was slower-melting and would not sink. Developed by his government group and named after Pyke, it has been suggested that Pyke was inspired by
67:, which were beyond the flight range of land-based planes at that time. The plan was to create what would have been the largest ship ever at 600 metres (1,969 ft) long, which would have been much bigger than even
355:
Habakkuk II was closest to the COHQ model and would have been a very large, slow, self-propelled vessel made of pykrete with steel reinforcement. The size would have been a length of 2000 feet and a width of 300
265:
unless it was cooled to −16 °C (3 °F). To accomplish this the ship's surface would have to be protected by insulation, and it would need a refrigeration plant and a complicated system of ducts.
647:. The hull immediately started to leak because of the holes that had been cut in its rear to mount an outboard motor; the weight of the motor itself caused these holes to drop below the waterline.
409:(normal, internal ship engines would have generated too much heat for an ice craft). Its armament would have included 40 dual-barrelled 4.5" DP (dual-purpose) turrets and numerous light
324:
Pyke was excluded from the planning for Habakkuk in an effort to secure American participation, a decision that Bernal supported. Pyke's earlier disagreements with American personnel on
405:, as it was called, a displacement of 2.2 million tons. Steam turbogenerators were to supply 33,000 hp (25,000 kW) for 26 electric motors mounted in separate external
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1203:
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later said British promoters of Habakkuk were so intimidated by Prime Minister Churchill that they kept this information from him until Mackenzie's next visit to Britain.
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The Canadians were confident about constructing a vessel for 1944. The necessary materials were available to them in the form of 300,000 tons of wood pulp, 25,000 tons of
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in Canada to examine insulation and refrigeration techniques, and to see how pykrete would stand up to artillery and explosives. Large ice blocks were constructed at
471:
1329:
94:, Canada, the project was shelved due to rising costs, added requirements, and the availability of longer-range aircraft and escort carriers which closed the
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348:
Naval architects produced three alternative versions of Pyke's original concept, which were discussed at a meeting with the Chiefs of Staff in August 1943:
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Behold ye among the heathen, and regard, and wonder marvellously: for I will work a work in your days, which ye will not believe, though it be told you.
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1607:
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1412:"A Description of the Iceberg Aircraft Carrier and the Bearing of the Mechanical Properties of Frozen Wood Pulp upon Some Problems of Glacier Flow"
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that a rudder was essential. However, the problem of mounting and controlling a rudder over 100 ft (30 m) high was never solved.
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to COHQ, with a label forbidding anyone apart from Mountbatten from opening the package. Mountbatten in turn passed Pyke's proposal on to
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297:, measuring 60 by 30 feet (18 metres by 9 metres), weighing 1,000 tons and kept frozen by a one-horsepower motor. The work was done by
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steel, but the crucial argument was that the rapidly increasing range of land-based aircraft rendered floating islands unnecessary."
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Perutz proceeded to conduct experiments on the viability of pykrete and its optimum composition in a secret location underneath
168:, who circulated a memorandum that gathered ever more caustic comments. The document was retrieved just before it reached the
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speed. His article also contained extensive derisive comments about the properties of ice as used for ship construction.
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130:. Pyke worked at Combined Operations Headquarters (COHQ) alongside Bernal and was regarded as a genius by Mountbatten.
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sleds reinforced with moss. This is probably apocryphal, as the material was originally described in a paper by
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Mountbatten later listed several reasons why the special boat's construction would be expensive and not needed:
277:. The research took place in a refrigerated meat locker behind a protective screen of frozen animal carcasses.
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aircraft carriers. (The sunken remains of the metal parts of the boat remain there to this day.) NRC President
1314:
520:
The introduction of long-range fuel tanks allowed British-based aircraft extra patrol time over the Atlantic
1193:
Susan B.M. Langley, 'Project Habbakuk: World War II Prototype Vessel' in "Scientia Canadensis" #31 (1986).
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coming season". Bernal and Pyke were forced to conclude that no Habakkuk vessel would be ready in 1944.
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Churchill mentioned the Habakkuk project in his history of the Second World War series (Vol 5, p. 76)
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the Habakkuk project had won the support of both Churchill and Mountbatten, and was assigned to the
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in 1930. The idea was a recurring one: in 1940 an idea for an ice island was circulated around the
133:
Pyke conceived the idea of Habakkuk while he was in the United States organising the production of
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Admiralty brief: the story of inventions that contributed to victory in the Battle of the Atlantic
838:
Admiralty Brief: The Story of Inventions that Contributed to Victory in the Battle of the Atlantic
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also attempted to recreate a pykrete boat. A rough hull using 5,000 kilograms (11,000 lb) of
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insulation, 35,000 tons of timber and 10,000 tons of steel. The cost was estimated at £700,000.
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210:
and was misspelled by Pyke's Canadian secretary. However, the word does not actually appear in
119:
335:
torpedo-proof, which meant that the hull had to be at least 40 ft (12 m) thick. The
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410:
290:
25:
Conceptual design of Project Habakkuk aircraft carrier with 600-metre (1,969 ft) runway
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guns, and it would have housed an airstrip and up to 150 twin-engined bombers or fighters.
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87:
8:
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The use of ice had actually been falling out of favour before that, and other ideas for "
328:, which had caused his removal from that project, were the main factor in this decision.
317:
262:
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74:, the largest naval vessel ever, at 342 metres (1,122 ft) long. The idea came from
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production significantly. He also claimed that each ship would require 40,000 tons of
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554:). It took three hot summers to completely melt the prototype constructed in Canada.
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The Canadian Habbakuk Project: a Project of the National Research Council of Canada
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along to demonstrate its potential to the admirals and generals who accompanied
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Alanbrooke, Field Marshal Lord (2001), Danchev, Alex; Todman, Daniel (eds.),
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I Wish I'd Made You Angry Earlier: Essays on Science, Scientists and Humanity
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82:. After promising scale tests and the creation of a prototype on
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1468:. British Columbia, Canada: Heritage House Publishing Co Ltd.
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In addition, Mountbatten himself withdrew from the project.
1330:"Pictures of the day: 30 September 2010 (images 3 & 4)"
1237:(paperback ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 94.
1150:(paperback ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 84.
632:
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fibre pykrete was frozen in a coldstore, then launched in
517:, which facilitated the hunting of U-boats in the Atlantic
359:
Habakkuk III was a smaller, faster version of Habakkuk II.
933:
Ramaseshan, S (10 March 2002). "Max Perutz (1914–2002)".
574:
The Habakkuk design received criticism, notably from Sir
352:
Habakkuk I (soon discarded) would have been made of wood.
185:
The name is a reference to the project's ambitious goal:
53:
1498:. Some notes on the article by Perutz referenced above.
384:
Cross section, showing 40 ft (12 m) thick walls made of
261:, and his tests showed that a pykrete ship would slowly
682:
36:(spelling varies) was a plan by the British during the
1449:. Cambridge, UK: International Glaciological Society.
285:
The decision was made to build a large-scale model at
180:
The project's code name was often incorrectly spelled
1583:
World War II aircraft carriers of the United Kingdom
1057:
1257:
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164:, but was treated as a joke by officers, including
1371:"Shiver me timbers: The coolest warship ever made"
1313:
868:The History of Imperial College, London, 1907–2007
506:Demand for steel for other purposes was too great.
459:gave an account of a similar incident in his book
313:no chance of delivering a completed ship in 1944.
1593:Abandoned military projects of the United Kingdom
1569:
16:British planned aircraft carrier made of pykrete
1578:Buildings and structures made of snow or ice
763:(published October 1932), 27 February 2008,
1204:"Adm. Noble's reports on Habakkuk/Tentacle"
1120:, Phoenix Press, entry for 19 August 1943,
1086:"Memorandum by the British Chiefs of Staff"
686:J.D. Bernal: A Life in Science and Politics
293:, and a small prototype was constructed at
1113:
1058:Adelman, Robert H.; George Walton (2004).
997:
966:
964:
932:
683:Swann, Brenda; Francis Aprahamian (1999).
463:. A demonstration of pykrete was given at
98:that the project was intended to address.
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1368:
909:
401:The final design of Habakkuk II gave the
175:
144:From New York Pyke sent the proposal via
1608:Artificial islands of the United Kingdom
1134:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1000:"War Ship, Ice Blocks and Mennonite COs"
843:
712:
710:
708:
706:
612:built a small flat-bottomed boat dubbed
236:In early 1942 Pyke and Bernal called in
227:
200:, states that the name was derived from
20:
1369:Battersby, Stephen (22 December 2012).
1356:
1297:
1251:
1051:
970:
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941:. Indian Academy of Sciences: 586–590.
891:
871:. Imperial College Press. p. 273.
678:
676:
542:" had been considered, such as welding
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1409:
1227:
1140:
1009:. Vol. 29, no. 3. p. 4.
998:Giesbrecht, Donovan (September 2003).
716:
1463:
1258:Sir Charles Goodeve (19 April 1951).
1181:"Operation Habbakuk at Patricia Lake"
1026:
1013:
752:"Ice Island in Mid-Atlantic Proposed"
703:
590:
1507:, Royal Naval Museum, archived from
1444:
673:
625:In September 2010 the BBC programme
416:
1489:
1466:Habbakuk: A Secret Ship Made of Ice
1298:Bloxham, Andy (30 September 2010).
864:
492:National Research Council of Canada
421:According to some accounts, at the
13:
1528:"Strange Story of H.M.S. Habbakuk"
1403:
789:"Ocean Airports of Artificial Ice"
509:Permission had been received from
214:, so this is probably inaccurate.
106:
14:
1624:
1556:Venture across America and Canada
1483:
481:
478:Sir Alan Brooke in the shoulder.
152:, who was enthusiastic about it.
1613:Proposed ships of the Royal Navy
1030:J.D. Bernal: The Sage of Science
892:Gratzer, Walter (5 March 2002).
465:Combined Operations Headquarters
377:
365:
80:Combined Operations Headquarters
1536:, 12 April 1946, archived from
1322:
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1270:
1234:I Wish I Made You Angry Earlier
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1187:
1173:
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1147:I Wish I Made You Angry Earlier
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557:Perutz wrote that he stayed in
476:Chief of Imperial General Staff
461:I Wish I Made You Angry Earlier
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885:
858:
830:
812:, p. 33, September 1932,
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639:for a planned trip across the
280:
1:
1395:10.1016/S0262-4079(12)63270-9
1349:
1095:. 18 August 1943. p. 188
911:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)00727-3
840:. London: Harrap, 1958, p. 27
804:, vol. 121, no. 3,
569:
447:, and ended up in the wall.
253:and Hohenstein in Brooklyn.
118:and had been recommended to
7:
1208:www.nationalarchives.gov.uk
650:
467:(COHQ) by a naval officer,
343:
10:
1629:
1588:Proposed aircraft carriers
372:Aircraft carrier drawings.
221:
217:
196:David Lampe, in his book,
126:, by the cabinet minister
101:
1437:10.1017/S0022143000007796
1416:The Journal of Glaciology
1064:. Naval Institute Press.
423:Quebec Conference in 1943
894:"Max Perutz (1914–2002)"
667:
513:to use airfields in the
486:By the time of the 1943
395:Air Chief Marshal Portal
198:Pyke, the Unknown Genius
1300:"Ice boat sinks at sea"
1035:Oxford University Press
728:Oxford University Press
299:conscientious objectors
1410:Perutz, M. F. (1948).
1027:Brown, Andrew (2005).
971:Collins, Paul (2002).
426:Lord Louis Mountbatten
316:By May the problem of
295:Patricia Lake, Alberta
271:Smithfield Meat Market
233:
194:
176:Code name and spelling
120:Lord Louis Mountbatten
26:
1260:"The Ice Ship Fiasco"
1117:War Diaries 1939–1945
973:"The Floating Island"
597:15 April 2009 episode
527:were being increased.
472:Douglas Adshead-Grant
438:Franklin D. Roosevelt
241:for the invention of
231:
187:
114:was an old friend of
24:
1512:(information sheets)
1342:. 30 September 2010.
1287:. Episode 116. 2009.
865:Gay, Hannah (2007).
657:Mobile offshore base
628:Bang Goes the Theory
599:of the U.S. TV show
469:Lieutenant Commander
291:Lake Louise, Alberta
287:Jasper National Park
88:Jasper National Park
1533:The War Illustrated
1464:Cross, L D (2012).
1428:1948JGlac...1...95P
1387:2012NewSc.216...63B
1335:The Daily Telegraph
1318:on 8 February 2020.
1305:The Daily Telegraph
1093:Quadrant Conference
1061:The Devil's Brigade
1007:Mennonite Historian
810:Bonnier Corporation
428:brought a block of
124:Combined Operations
1540:on 15 October 2016
1445:Gold, L W (1993).
1279:Alaskan Special II
730:. pp. 86–87.
637:Portsmouth Harbour
591:Recent recreations
576:Charles F. Goodeve
234:
232:A block of pykrete
56:, for use against
27:
1598:Military projects
1475:978-1-927051-47-4
878:978-1-86094-708-7
836:Terrell, Edward,
619:fire extinguisher
488:Quebec Conference
434:Winston Churchill
417:Shooting incident
78:, who worked for
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1603:Floating islands
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1312:. Archived from
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1264:Evening Standard
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977:Cabinet Magazine
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904:(5): R152–R154.
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855:at gutenberg.org
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614:Yesterday's News
552:Project TENTACLE
540:floating islands
381:
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332:Naval architects
96:Mid-Atlantic gap
42:aircraft carrier
40:to construct an
38:Second World War
30:Project Habakkuk
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1514:on 12 July 2019
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1404:Further reading
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1358:Terrell, Edward
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559:Washington D.C.
525:escort carriers
523:The numbers of
497:C. J. Mackenzie
484:
451:Sir Alan Brooke
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107:Initial concept
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48:, a mixture of
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1538:the original
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1509:the original
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1315:the original
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116:J. D. Bernal
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1496:, GoodeveCA
1284:MythBusters
1229:Perutz, Max
1142:Perutz, Max
850:Voltaire's
792:(Online at
774:18 February
610:Adam Savage
602:MythBusters
445:Ernest King
281:Scale model
166:Nevil Shute
158:Lake Zurich
135:M29 Weasels
122:, Chief of
63:in the mid-
1572:Categories
1553:"Modern",
1350:References
983:12 January
550:together (
457:Max Perutz
307:fibreboard
238:Max Perutz
172:'s inbox.
71:Enterprise
1364:. Harrap.
1266:. London.
955:0011-3891
818:0161-7370
769:0025-6587
689:. Verso.
570:Criticism
563:U.S. Navy
318:cold flow
162:Admiralty
150:Churchill
50:wood pulp
1562:, U-Haul
1518:27 April
1504:Habbakuk
1493:Bergship
1360:(1958).
1231:(2002).
1213:18 March
1144:(2002).
947:2289/728
920:30263181
808:, U.S.:
755:(Weblog)
720:(2002).
651:See also
511:Portugal
407:nacelles
403:bergship
344:Variants
202:Voltaire
182:Habbakuk
65:Atlantic
34:Habbakuk
1544:4 March
1424:Bibcode
1383:Bibcode
852:Candide
823:3 March
617:with a
595:In the
442:Admiral
430:pykrete
387:pykrete
273:in the
243:pykrete
224:Pykrete
218:Pykrete
212:Candide
207:Candide
102:History
92:Alberta
61:U-boats
46:pykrete
44:out of
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641:Solent
561:while
515:Azores
58:German
1099:3 May
1089:(PDF)
1003:(PDF)
916:S2CID
668:Notes
662:F.P.1
645:Cowes
580:paper
356:feet.
247:Inuit
90:, in
1546:2008
1520:2006
1470:ISBN
1451:ISBN
1239:ISBN
1215:2018
1152:ISBN
1122:ISBN
1101:2024
1066:ISBN
1039:ISBN
985:2008
951:ISSN
873:ISBN
825:2019
814:ISSN
776:2009
765:ISSN
732:ISBN
691:ISBN
633:hemp
608:and
584:cork
436:and
251:Mark
137:for
69:USS
52:and
1432:doi
1391:doi
1379:216
1281:".
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546:or
263:sag
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