243:"There is a simple job to be done. The task can be stated in concrete terms. The necessary techniques are known. The equipment can easily be provided. Nothing stands in the way except cultural inertia... We are on the threshold of an exciting and revolutionary period in which the scientific study of man will be put to work in man's best interests. Education must play its part. It must accept the fact that sweeping revision of educational practice is possible and inevitable...".
331:. This was based on the key activities which a trained person should be able to do. In educational work, deciding on the terminal test was not so securely grounded. One school of thought, probably the majority, decided to turn the rather vague statements of educational aims into full-fledged behavioural statements of the kind "At the end of this program, students should be able to do the following...". A pamphlet by
239:" in typical behaviourist manner. The programmed text of Skinner's theory of behaviorism is the most complete example of his ideas in action. Skinner's system was generally called "linear programming" because its activities were placed in otherwise continuous text. Skinner was a wonderful publicist for his own ideas, as can be seen from this passage:
247:
Both methods were originally presented in machines, and both were later presented in book form. Both systems were to an extent student centered. They were ways of teaching individual learners who worked at their own pace. Both systems (in different ways) used knowledge of results to promote learning.
129:
A few conclusions stood out from the research. First, films were great at giving overviews of a situation or an operation. However, they were less successful at getting over the details. Some general features of film (and, later, television) stand out. One is that a film goes at its own pace. Another
335:
was influential because it showed how to do this. This worked well with some subject matters, but had its limitations. In general, educators have reservations as to how far a list of behaviours captures what they are trying to teach. Subjects differ greatly in their basic aims, but where programmed
315:
The terms "programmed learning" and "programmed training" were interchangeable, because the principles and methods were almost identical. If the target audience was industrial or military, researchers used the term programmed training, because training budgets supported the work. But in schools and
64:
presents the material in a logical and tested sequence. The text is in small steps or larger chunks. After each step, learners are given a question to test their comprehension. Then immediately the correct answer is shown. This means the learner at all stages makes responses, and is given immediate
148:
The connections between this experiment and those of
Pressey were obvious. Active responses by learners and helpful feedback on the activities were now seen as critical elements in any successful system of learning. Pressey's work had been half forgotten, but it was now recognised as significant.
224:
men. Crowder's system was to set multiple choice questions in the text, and provide feedback for each of the alternatives. Examples of this method show that the alternatives offered in questions were chosen to cover mistakes which students were likely to make. Crowder's system, which he called
306:
programs, public schools, and private day care centers. There were three phases of testing: content evaluation, video evaluations, and content analysis. Their tests of the pilot, conducted throughout New York City with over 100 children aged from three to seven, showed that the attention and
248:
In both systems the content was pre-tested to identify problems and iron them out. Both systems emphasised clear learning objectives. Progress in learning was measured by pre- and post-tests of equivalent difficulty. Many practical tests showed the effectiveness of these methods.
145:, with correct answers given after students had responded (knowledge of results). This added significantly to the amount learnt from the film. Lumsdaine commented that showing the version with questions and answers was as effective as showing the film twice, and faster.
80:
If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by
319:
Many accounts used either or both terms according to which interest was paying for the work. Sometimes researchers used both terms as explicit alternatives. Some surveys standardised on using just one of the terms.
323:
Perhaps the only distinction was the way the "terminal behaviours" (the final test demonstrating what the learner had learnt) were arrived at. In training, the goals were decided by a process called
130:
is that no specific responses or activities are required from the viewer. A third is that the audience is varied, sometimes hugely varied. This gives clues to ways of improving instructional films.
285:. The use of developmental testing was absolutely characteristic of programmed learning. The division of the individual programs into small chunks is also a feature of programmed learning.
863:
Fisch, Shalom M. & Bernstein, Lewis 2001. Formative research revealed: methodological and process issues in formative research". In Fisch, Shalom M. & Truglio, Rosemarie T. (eds)
213:
978:
Hanson L.F. & Komoski P.K. School use of programmed instruction; and
Shoemaker H.A. & Holt H.O. The use of programmed instruction in industry. In Glaser R. (ed) 1965.
235:. Skinner made some very effective criticisms of traditional teaching methods. His scheme of programmed instruction was to present the material as part of a "schedule of
1344:
Emurian H.H; Holden H.K. & Abarbanel R.A. (2008), "Managing programmed instruction and collaborative peer tutoring in the classroom: applications in teaching Java",
98:
in 1926. "The first... was developed by Sidney L. Pressey... While originally developed as a self-scoring machine... demonstrated its ability to actually teach."
166:
control", by which is broadly meant the teaching material itself. Also, in programmed learning, a complete system was proposed which included these stages:
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Lumsdaine A.A; May M.A. & Hadsell R.S. 1958. Questions spliced into a film for motivational and pupil participation. In May M.A. & Lumsdaine A.A.
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If so much research had already been done on learning from films, what exactly did programmed learning add? The short answer is "
17:
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research team field tested every episode three times with children aged between two and six in preschool environments such as
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37:) is a research-based system which helps learners work successfully. The method is guided by research done by a variety of
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Adjusted from Unwin D. 1967. The changing concept of programmed material criteria for categorisation. In Tobin M.J. (ed)
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Lumsdaine A.A. 1962, published 1965. Experimental research on instructional devices and materials. In Glaser R. (ed)
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225:"intrinsic programming", was better known as "branching programming" on account of its multiple-choice alternatives.
523:
Hilgard E.R. 1966. Learning & the technology of instruction. Chapter 16 in
Hilgard E.R. & Bower G.H. 1966.
714:
Crowder Norman A. 1960. Automatic tutoring by intrinsic programming. In
Lumsdaine A.A & Glaser R. (eds) 1960.
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as a group training method. Research on the effectiveness of training films was done extensively. In one account,
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Lumsdaine A.A. 1964. Educational technology, programmed learning and instructional science. In
Hilgard E.R. (ed)
353:, a math programme, are specific implementations of programmed instruction which have an emphasis on repetition.
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663:. Washington D.C. Department of Audiovisual Instruction, National Education Association of the United States.
393:
Recently, the application of programmed instruction principles was applied to training in computer programs.
361:
1267:"Programmed instruction for teaching Java: consideration of learn unit frequency and rule-test performance"
967:
Theories of learning and instruction: the 63rd yearbook of the
National Society for the Study of Education
954:
Theories of learning and instruction: the 63rd yearbook of the
National Society for the Study of Education
118:. What was learnt influenced education and training after the war. One of the main methods was the use of
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Although there were three or four other systems proposed, we discuss here the two best-known methods.
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Emurian H.H. (2009), "Teaching Java: managing instructional tactics to optimize student learning",
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Miller, Robert B. 1962. Analysis and specification of behavior for training. In Glaser R. (ed)
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German for reading : a programmed approach for graduate and undergraduate reading courses
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Crowder N. 1959. Automatic tutoring by means of intrinsic programming. In
Galanter E.H. (ed)
163:
61:
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1021:. Palo Alto CA: Fearon; 1997 edition by Atlanta, GA: The Center for Effective Performance.
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Glaser, Robert 1964. Implications of training research for education. In
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The materials have been tried out and revised according to results (developmental testing).
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comments that research on films went on "from about 1918 to the present" (meaning 1962).
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390:. Several available foreign language reading textbooks also use programmed learning.
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The materials are constructed according to a predetermined scheme (stimulus control).
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The aims of the course are stated in terms which are objective, and can be measured.
94:
Thorndike, however, did nothing with his idea. The first such system was devised by
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Lumsdaine A.A. 1947. Experimental research and the improvement of teaching films.
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Pressey S.L. 1926. A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores – and teaches.
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Blueprint for student success: a guide to research-based teaching practices, K-12
731:. Appleton-Century-Croft. Includes reprints of his papers on programmed learning.
402:
290:
261:
256:
Many of these ideas were picked up and used in other educational fields, such as
228:
Much better known was the other style of programmed learning, as proposed by the
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A helpful discussion of the different programming techniques was given by Klaus.
134:
659:
Klaus D.J. 1965. An analysis of programming techniues. In Glaser R. (ed) 1965.
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The materials are self-paced or presented in a manner which suits the learner.
1371:
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International
Journal of Information & Communication Technology Education
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Lumsdaine A.A. 1963. Instruments and media of instruction. In N.L. Gage (ed)
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Annett J. 1964. The role of knowledge of results in learning: a survey. In
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The teaching medium is appropriate for the subject-matter and the students.
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Arrangements are made for responses to be confirmed (knowledge of results).
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107:
865:"G" is for Growing: thirty years of research on children and Sesame Street
527:. 3rd ed, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, p554–561 Programmed learning.
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Pressey's work is reprinted in Lumsdaine A.A & Glaser R. (eds) 1960.
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Teaching through self-instruction: how to develop open learning material
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Ways of learning: learning theories and learning styles in the classroom
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Pressey, S.L. 1927. A machine for automatic teaching of drill material.
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Laplace Transform Solution Of Differential Equations: A Programmed Text
384:
Laplace Transform Solution Of Differential Equations: A Programmed Text
379:
982:. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.
786:. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.
718:. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.
624:. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.
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Macdonald-Ross M. 1973. Behavioural objectives – a critical review.
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Blue's Clues for success: the 8 secrets behind a phenomenal business
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Skinner B.F. 1954. The science of learning and the art of teaching.
137:, questions for students were put between segments of a film on the
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comprehension of young viewers increased with each repeat viewing.
115:
57:
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Lumsdaine A.A. 1953. Audio-visual research in the U.S. Air Force.
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learning suited a topic, most field trials gave positive results.
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Teaching machines and programmed learning II: data and directions
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Teaching machines and programmed learning II: data and directions
316:
colleges, the work was often described as programmed learning.
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The tipping point: how little things can make a big difference
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The learner has to respond actively (not necessarily overtly).
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2000. Researching Blue's Clues: viewing behavior and impact.
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101:
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Teaching machines and programmed learning I: a source book
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Teaching machines and programmed learning I: a source book
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A pre-test is given, or the initial behaviour is stated.
773:, De Cecco (ed), Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 279–285.
552:
Hovland C.I; Lumsdaine A.A. & Sheffield F.D. 1949.
356:
Well-known books using programmed learning include the
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Spanish for reading : a self-instructional course
637:. National Centre for Programmed Learning, Birmingham.
481:
McNeil S. A hypertext history of instructional design
845:
Children and television: lessons from Sesame Street
220:. He had been asked to investigate the training of
646:Leith G.O.M. 1966. Survey of programmed learning.
1100:; Margulies, Stuart and Mosenfelder, Donn (1966)
1369:
1244:. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Barron's Educational Series.
1077:Friedman, Daniel and Felleisen, Matthias (1996)
679:. London: Macdonald, p5 & examples in text.
456:Good frames and bad: a grammar of frame writing
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458:. 2nd ed, New York: Wiley, Chapters 1 & 4.
185:The material is arranged in appropriate steps.
152:
1174:Tatham, Karl C. Sandberg, Eddison C. (1972).
635:Problems and methods in programmed learning I
386:, by Robert D. Strum and John R. Ward of the
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1200:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
920:(2): 179–194. doi:10.1207/S1532785XMEP0202 4
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661:Teaching machines and programmed learning II
298:, which tested a third of its episodes, the
27:Use of programmed texts or teaching machines
1240:Franco, Fabiola; Sandberg, Karl C. (1998).
1215:Wendel, John R.; Sandberg, Karl C. (1973).
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205:The two main systems of programmed learning
429:. Chicago: AERA and Rand McNally, 583–682.
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1219:. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
1180:. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
1153:. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
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1057:Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, California,
271:Programmed learning ideas influenced the
102:Later developments of programmed learning
1149:Strum, Robert D.; Ward, John R. (1968).
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799:. London: Taylor & Francis, 2nd ed.
703:Automatic teaching: the state of the art
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740:Holland J.G. & Skinner B.F. 1961.
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1081:MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
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581:May M.A. & Lumsdaine A.A. 1958.
438:Margulies S. & Eigen L.D. 1961.
114:armies, there was great emphasis on
1332:, vol. 3, UMBC, pp. 34–49
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867:. Mahweh, New Jersey: Erlbaum, 40.
588:
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24:
1019:Preparing instructional objectives
936:. New York: Little, Brown, 125/7.
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72:Anticipating programmed learning,
25:
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554:Experiments on mass communication
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1006:Establishing instructional goals
427:Handbook of research on teaching
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596:Training research and education
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819:. London: Kogan Page, 2nd ed.
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440:Applied programmed instruction
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273:Children's Television Workshop
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556:. Princeton University Press.
408:
1112:; and various editions since
598:. New York: Wiley, 252; 256.
158:What is programmed learning?
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1346:Computers in Human Behavior
1102:Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess
847:. New York: Vintage Books.
705:. New York: Wiley, 109–116.
471:. New York: Macmillan, 165.
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371:Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess
339:
329:critical incident technique
153:Programmed learning arrives
10:
1399:
1274:The Behavior Analyst Today
755:Harvard Educational Review
729:The technology of teaching
648:Visual Education Year Book
288:Even more is this true of
266:computer-assisted learning
216:, a psychologist with the
1136:10.1007/978-1-349-12153-3
1124:"Engineering Mathematics"
995:. New York: Wiley, 31–63.
388:Naval Postgraduate School
1104:Bantam Books, New York,
932:Gladwell, Malcolm 2000.
843:Lesser, Gerald S. 1974.
744:. New York: McGraw-Hill.
742:The analysis of behavior
585:. Yale University Press.
176:A post-test is provided.
133:In a 1946 experiment at
1363:Page at lrs.ed.uiuc.edu
1053:Jones, Susan J. (2003)
1017:Mager, Robert F. 1962.
567:AV Communication Review
469:Education: a first book
376:Engineering Mathematics
88:Education: A First Book
1122:Stroud, K. A. (1987).
795:Pritchard, Alan 2009.
771:Educational Technology
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35:programmed instruction
18:Programmed instruction
1383:Educational practices
1265:Emurian H.H. (2007).
1039:Instructional Science
782:Glaser R. (ed) 1965.
690:Intrinsic programming
467:Thorndike E.L. 1912.
311:Learning or training?
86:Edward L. Thorndike,
78:
39:applied psychologists
909:Anderson, Daniel R.
886:Tracy, Diane. 2002.
525:Theories of learning
509:School & Society
493:School & Society
222:aircraft maintenance
67:knowledge of results
727:Skinner B.F. 1965.
677:Basically branching
609:Learning from films
583:Learning from films
345:Daily Oral Language
74:Edward L. Thorndike
31:Programmed learning
1378:1954 introductions
1177:French for reading
1079:The Little Schemer
815:Rowntree D. 1990.
692:. U.S. Industries.
675:Rowntree D. 1966.
538:Educational Screen
454:Markle S.M. 1969.
442:. New York: Wiley.
366:The Little Schemer
956:. NSSE, p153/181.
805:978-0-415-46608-0
96:Sidney L. Pressey
46:learning material
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