Preventive healthcare

1261:. In order to prevent obesity, it is recommended that individuals adhere to a consistent exercise regimen as well as a nutritious and balanced diet. A healthy individual should aim for acquiring 10% of their energy from proteins, 15-20% from fat, and over 50% from complex carbohydrates, while avoiding alcohol as well as foods high in fat, salt, and sugar. Sedentary adults should aim for at least half an hour of moderate-level daily physical activity and eventually increase to include at least 20 minutes of intense exercise, three times a week. Preventive health care offers many benefits to those that chose to participate in taking an active role in the culture. The medical system in our society is geared toward curing acute symptoms of disease after the fact that they have brought us into the emergency room. An ongoing epidemic within American culture is the prevalence of obesity. Healthy eating and regular exercise play a significant role in reducing an individual's risk for type 2 diabetes. A 2008 study concluded that about 23.6 million people in the United States had diabetes, including 5.7 million that had not been diagnosed. 90 to 95 percent of people with diabetes have 1876:

coverage, insurance market reforms, better quality, and the forecast of efficiency and costs. Under the insurance market reforms the act required that insurance companies no longer exclude people with pre-existing conditions, allow for children to be covered on their parents' plan until the age of 26, and expand appeals that dealt with reimbursement denials. The Affordable Care Act also banned the limited coverage imposed by health insurances, and insurance companies were to include coverage for preventive health care services. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force has categorized and rated preventive health services as either A or B, as to which insurance companies must comply and present full coverage. Not only has the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force provided graded preventive health services that are appropriate for coverage, they have also provided many recommendations to clinicians and insurers to promote better preventive care to ultimately provide better quality of care and lower the burden of costs.

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lost economic output. They are also among the top ten leading causes of mortality. Chronic diseases are driven by risk factors that are largely preventable. Sub-analysis performed on all deaths in the United States in 2000 revealed that almost half were attributed to preventable behaviors including tobacco, poor diet, physical inactivity and alcohol consumption. More recent analysis reveals that heart disease and cancer alone accounted for nearly 46% of all deaths. Modifiable risk factors are also responsible for a large morbidity burden, resulting in poor quality of life in the present and loss of future life earning years. It is further estimated that by 2023, focused efforts on the prevention and treatment of chronic disease may result in 40 million fewer chronic disease cases, potentially reducing treatment costs by $ 220 billion.

407:, in the 1940s, Hugh R. Leavell and E. Gurney Clark coined the term primary prevention. They worked at the Harvard and Columbia University Schools of Public Health, respectively, and later expanded the levels to include secondary and tertiary prevention. Goldston (1987) notes that these levels might be better described as "prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation", although the terms primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention are still in use today. The concept of primal prevention has been created much more recently, in relation to the new developments in molecular biology over the last fifty years, more particularly in epigenetics, which point to the paramount importance of environmental conditions, both physical and affective, on the organism during its fetal and newborn life, or so-called primal period of life. 1759:, applied nationally and administered at the state level (SSB), 2. elimination of the tax deductibility of advertising costs of TV advertisements for "nutritionally poor" foods and beverages seen by children and adolescents (TV AD), 3. state policy requiring all public elementary schools in which physical education (PE) is currently provided to devote ≥50% of PE class time to moderate and vigorous physical activity (Active PE), and 4. state policy to make early child educational settings healthier by increasing physical activity, improving nutrition, and reducing screen time (ECE)." The CHOICES found that SSB, TV AD, and ECE led to net cost savings. Both SSB and TV AD increased quality adjusted life years and produced yearly tax revenue of 12.5 billion U.S. dollars and 80 million U.S. dollars, respectively. 1456:(CDC) recommends several primary prevention methods including: limiting sun exposure between 10 AM and 4 PM, when the sun is strongest, wearing tighter-weave natural cotton clothing, wide-brim hats, and sunglasses as protective covers, using sunscreens that protect against both UV-A and UV-B rays, and avoiding tanning salons. Sunscreen should be reapplied after sweating, exposure to water (through swimming for example) or after several hours of sun exposure. Since skin cancer is very preventable, the CDC recommends school-level prevention programs including preventive curricula, family involvement, participation and support from the school's health services, and partnership with community, state, and national agencies and organizations to keep children away from excessive UV radiation exposure. 2003:

cities, including Philadelphia, a sugary food tax is employed. This is a part of an amendment to Title 19 of the Philadelphia Code, "Finance, Taxes and Collections", Chapter 19-4100, Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Tax that was approved 2016, which establishes an excise tax of $ 0.015 per fluid ounce on distributors of beverages sweetened with both caloric and non-caloric sweeteners. Distributors are required to file a return with the department, and the department can collect taxes, among other responsibilities. These policies can be a source of tax credits. Under the Philadelphia policy, businesses can apply for tax credits with the revenue department on a first-come, first-served basis. This applies until the total amount of credits for a particular year reaches one million dollars.

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preventive services. Policy actions and provision of preventive services do not guarantee utilization. Reimbursement has remained a significant barrier to adoption due to variances in payer and state level reimbursement policies and guidelines through government and commercial payers. Americans use preventive services at about half the recommended rate and cost-sharing, such as deductibles, co-insurance, or copayments, also reduce the likelihood that preventive services will be used. Despite the ACA's enhancement of Medicare benefits and preventive services, there were no effects on preventive service utilization, calling out the fact that other fundamental barriers exist.

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people. Common barriers to accessing and utilizing healthcare resources included lack of income and education, language barriers, and lack of health insurance. Minorities were less likely than whites to possess health insurance, as were individuals who completed less education. These disparities made it more difficult for the disadvantaged groups to have regular access to a primary care provider, receive immunizations, or receive other types of medical care. Additionally, uninsured people tend to not seek care until their diseases progress to chronic and serious states and they are also more likely to forgo necessary tests, treatments, and filling prescription medications.

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smokers and the annual death toll is over 1 million. Recommended actions to reduce tobacco use include decreasing tobacco supply, increasing tobacco taxes, widespread educational campaigns, decreasing advertising from the tobacco industry, and increasing tobacco cessation support resources. In Wuhan, China, a 1998 school-based program implemented an anti-tobacco curriculum for adolescents and reduced the number of regular smokers, though it did not significantly decrease the number of adolescents who initiated smoking. This program was therefore effective in secondary but not primary prevention and shows that school-based programs have the potential to reduce tobacco use.

1566:, and is a global health priority needing a global response. Initiatives include the establishment of the International Research Network on Dementia Prevention (IRNDP) which aims to link researchers in this field globally, and the establishment of the Global Dementia Observatory a web-based data knowledge and exchange platform, which will collate and disseminate key dementia data from members states. Although there is no cure for dementia, it is well established that modifiable risk factors influence both the likelihood of developing dementia and the age at which it is developed. Dementia can be prevented by reducing the risk factors for vascular disease such as 507:, points to how much affective as well as physical environment during fetal and newborn life may determine adult health. This way of promoting health consists mainly in providing future parents with pertinent, unbiased information on primal health and supporting them during their child's primal period of life (i.e., "from conception to first anniversary" according to definition by the Primal Health Research Centre, London). This includes adequate parental leave, ideally for both parents, with kin caregiving and financial help where needed. 1679:

savings from postponing the last year of life, which makes up a large fraction of lifetime medical expenditures and becomes cheaper with age. Prevention leads to savings only if the cost of the preventive measure is less than the savings from avoiding morbidity net of the cost of extending the life span. In order to establish reliable economics of prevention for illnesses that are complicated in origin, knowing how best to assess prevention efforts, i.e. developing useful measures and appropriate scope, is required.

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among Asian Americans compared to non-Hispanic whites. Current U.S. population projections predict that more than half of Americans will belong to a minority group by 2044. Without targeted preventive interventions, medical costs from chronic disease inequities will become unsustainable. Broadening health policies designed to improve delivery of preventive services for minority populations may help reduce substantial medical costs caused by inequities in health care, resulting in a return on investment.

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functions of an already disabled patient. Goals of tertiary prevention include: preventing pain and damage, halting progression and complications from disease, and restoring the health and functions of the individuals affected by disease. For syphilitic patients, rehabilitation includes measures to prevent complete disability from the disease, such as implementing work-place adjustments for the blind and paralyzed or providing counseling to restore normal daily functions to the greatest extent possible.

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stock that provides direct utility. Health depreciates with age and the aging process can be countered through health investments. The theory further supports that individuals demand good health, that the demand for health investment is a derived demand (i.e. investment is health is due to the underlying demand for good health), and the efficiency of the health investment process increases with knowledge (i.e. it is assumed that the more educated are more efficient consumers and producers of health).

1068:. About 40% of these deaths occurred in neonates (children ages 1–28 days) due to pre-term birth complications. The highest number of child deaths occurred in Africa and Southeast Asia. As of 2015 in Africa, almost no progress has been made in reducing neonatal death since 1990. In 2010, India, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Pakistan, and China contributed to almost 50% of global child deaths. Targeting efforts in these countries is essential to reducing the global child death rate. 1387: 1955:(QALYs) saved. A QALY takes into account length and quality of life, and is used to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of medical and preventive interventions. Classically, one year of perfect health is defined as 1 QALY and a year with any degree of less than perfect health is assigned a value between 0 and 1 QALY. As an economic weighting system, the QALY can be used to inform personal decisions, to evaluate preventive interventions and to set priorities for future preventive efforts. 1605:

physicians than high-income countries. In Nigeria and Myanmar, there are fewer than 4 physicians per 100,000 people while Norway and Switzerland have a ratio that is ten-fold higher. Common barriers worldwide include lack of availability of health services and healthcare providers in the region, great physical distance between the home and health service facilities, high transportation costs, high treatment costs, and social norms and stigma toward accessing certain health services.

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the most commonly used skin protection. However, many adolescents purposely used sunscreen with a low sun protection factor (SPF) in order to get a tan. Various Australian studies have shown that many adults failed to use sunscreen correctly; many applied sunscreen well after their initial sun exposure and/or failed to reapply when necessary. A 2002 case-control study in Brazil showed that only 3% of case participants and 11% of control participants used sunscreen with SPF >15.

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cost-effective. These include screenings for HIV and chlamydia, cancers of the colon, breast and cervix, vision screening, and screening for abdominal aortic aneurysms in men >60 in certain populations. Alcohol and tobacco screening were found to be cost-saving in some reviews and cost-effective in others. According to the RWJF analysis, two preventive interventions were found to save costs in all reviews: childhood immunizations and counseling adults on the use of aspirin.

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complications and disabilities from the disease. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment for a syphilis patient would include a course of antibiotics to destroy the pathogen and screening and treatment of any infants born to syphilitic mothers. Disability limitation for syphilitic patients includes continued check-ups on the heart, cerebrospinal fluid, and central nervous system of patients to curb any damaging effects such as blindness or paralysis.

310:, identify risk factors for disease, discuss tips for a healthy and balanced lifestyle, stay up to date with immunizations and boosters, and maintain a good relationship with a healthcare provider. In pediatrics, some common examples of primary prevention are encouraging parents to turn down the temperature of their home water heater in order to avoid scalding burns, encouraging children to wear bicycle helmets, and suggesting that people use the 10088: 1500:

mortality in these nations. This is likely due to low quality, inefficient testing. However, Puerto Rico, which has offered early screening since the 1960s, has witnessed almost a 50% decline in cervical cancer incidence and almost a four-fold decrease in mortality between 1950 and 1990. Brazil, Peru, India, and several high-risk nations in sub-Saharan Africa which lack organized screening programs, have a high incidence of cervical cancer.

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interventions. They argue that while many treatments of existing diseases involve use of advanced equipment and technology, in some cases, this is a more efficient use of resources than attempts to prevent the disease. Cohen suggested that the preventive measures most worth exploring and investing in are those that could benefit a large portion of the population to bring about cumulative and widespread health benefits at a reasonable cost.

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attendance. However, only 18 states allow exemptions for "philosophical or moral reasons." Diseases for which vaccinations form part of the standard ACIP vaccination schedule are diphtheria tetanus pertussis (whooping cough), poliomyelitis (polio), measles, mumps, rubella, haemophilus influenzae type b, hepatitis B, influenza, and pneumococcal infections. The CDC website maintains such schedules.

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advertise only foods that meet certain nutritional criteria to children under 12 years old. This is a self-regulated program with policies written by the Council of Better Business Bureaus. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation funded research to test the efficacy of the CFBAI. The results showed progress in terms of decreased advertising of food products that target children and adolescents.

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quality of life in the present, and as an investment good because of its potential to increase attendance and workplace productivity over time. Preventive health behaviors such as healthful diet, regular exercise, access to and use of well-care, avoiding tobacco, and limiting alcohol can be viewed as health inputs that result in both a healthier workforce and substantial cost savings.

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health benefits even if the measures do not save money. Furthermore, preventive health services are often described as one entity though they comprise a myriad of different services, each of which can individually lead to net costs, savings, or neither. Greater differentiation of these services is necessary to fully understand both the financial and health effects.

1859:, works to improve health of Americans by making evidence-based recommendations about clinical preventive services. They do not consider the cost of a preventive service when determining a recommendation. Each year, the organization delivers a report to Congress that identifies critical evidence gaps in research and recommends priority areas for further review. 1939:

disability ($ 21.6 billion), and premature mortality ($ 18.5 billion). Reported estimates of the cost burden due to increasingly high levels of overweight and obese members in the workforce vary, with best estimates suggesting 450 million more missed work days, resulting in $ 153 billion each year in lost productivity, according to the CDC Healthy Workforce.

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activity (PA), food and beverage, marketing and messaging, healthcare and worksites, and schools) and all sectors of society (including government, business and industry, schools, child care, urban planning, recreation, transportation, media, public health, agriculture, communities, and home) in order for obesity prevention efforts to truly be successful."

1491:. Cervical cytology screening aims to detect abnormal lesions in the cervix so that women can undergo treatment prior to the development of cancer. Given that high quality screening and follow-up care has been shown to reduce cervical cancer rates by up to 80%, most developed countries now encourage sexually active women to undergo a 1657:(ACA) could significantly impact coverage for many Americans as well as "The Prevention and Public Health Fund" which is the U.S. first and only mandatory funding stream dedicated to improving public health including counseling on lifestyle prevention issues, such as weight management, alcohol use, and treatment for 1990:

above. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention support initiatives such as Health in All Policies and HI-5 (Health Impact in 5 Years), and collaborative efforts that aim to consider prevention across sectors and address social determinants of health as a method of primary prevention for chronic disease.

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vaccination schedule, direct health care costs are reduced by $ 9.9 billion and society saves $ 33.4 billion in indirect costs. The economic benefits of childhood vaccination extend beyond individual patients to insurance plans and vaccine manufacturers, all while improving the health of the population.

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Despite nationwide controversies over childhood vaccination and immunization, there are policies and programs at the federal, state, local and school levels outlining vaccination requirements. All states require children to be vaccinated against certain communicable diseases as a condition for school

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is a population level issue that requires population health level efforts and national and state level public policy to effectively prevent, rather than individual level efforts. The United States currently employs many public health policy efforts aligned with the preventive health efforts discussed

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Chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes, obesity and cancer have become the most common and costly health problems in the United States. In 2014, it was projected that by 2023 that the number of chronic disease cases would increase by 42%, resulting in $ 4.2 trillion in treatment and

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The National Network of Perinatal Quality Collaboratives (NNPQC), sponsored by the CDC, supports state-based perinatal quality collaboratives (PQCs) in measuring and improving upon health care and health outcomes for mothers and babies. These PQCs have contributed to improvements such as reduction in

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As of 2009, the cost-effectiveness of preventive care is a highly debated topic. While some economists argue that preventive care is valuable and potentially cost saving, others believe it is an inefficient waste of resources. Preventive care is composed of a variety of clinical services and programs

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interventions in the United States: the Sugar-Sweetened Beverage excise tax (SSB), the TV AD program, active physical education (Active PE) policies, and early care and education (ECE) policies. They each have similar goals of reducing childhood obesity. The effects of these interventions on BMI have

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With lifestyle factors such as diet and exercise rising to the top of preventable death statistics, the economics of healthy lifestyle is a growing concern. There is little question that positive lifestyle choices provide an investment in health throughout life. To gauge success, traditional measures

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These sorts of disparities and barriers exist worldwide as well. Often, there are decades of gaps in life expectancy between developing and developed countries. For example, Japan has an average life expectancy that is 36 years greater than that in Malawi. Low-income countries also tend to have fewer

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in the United States. In the United States, elderly adults (>65 years old) received worse care and had less access to care than their younger counterparts. The same trends are seen when comparing all racial minorities (black, Hispanic, Asian) to white patients, and low-income people to high-income

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is a serious circulatory disease affecting thousands, usually older persons undergoing surgical procedures, women taking oral contraceptives and travelers. The consequences of thrombosis can be heart attacks and strokes. Prevention can include exercise, anti-embolism stockings, pneumatic devices, and

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Cost-saving and cost-effective benefits of preventive care measures are well established. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation evaluated the prevention cost-effectiveness literature, and found that many preventive measures meet the benchmark of <$ 100,000 per QALY and are considered to be favorably

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are required to provide certain preventive care services free of charge to patients. Section 2713 of the Affordable Care Act, specifies that all private Marketplace and all employer-sponsored private plans (except those grandfathered in) are required to cover preventive care services that are ranked

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The prevalence elasticity of demand for prevention can also provide insights into the economics. Demand for preventive care can alter the prevalence rate of a given disease and further reduce or even reverse any further growth of prevalence. Reduction in prevalence subsequently leads to reduction in

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While these specific services bring about small net savings, not every preventive health measure saves more than it costs. A 1970s study showed that preventing heart attacks by treating hypertension early on with drugs actually did not save money in the long run. The money saved by evading treatment

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Developing future economic models that would guide both private and public investments as well as drive future policy to evaluate the efficacy of positive lifestyle choices on health is a major topic for economists globally. Americans spend over three trillion a year on health care but have a higher

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Lung cancer and tobacco smoking are increasing worldwide, especially in China. China is responsible for about one-third of the global consumption and production of tobacco products. Tobacco control policies have been ineffective as China is home to 350 million regular smokers and 750 million passive

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Preventive care transcends demographics and is applicable to people of every age. The Health Capital Theory underpins the importance of preventive care across the lifecycle and provides a framework for understanding the variances in health and health care that are experienced. It treats health as a

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Because in the U.S. chronic illnesses predominate as a cause of death and pathways for treating chronic illnesses are complex and multifaceted, prevention is a best practice approach to chronic disease when possible. In many cases, prevention requires mapping complex pathways to determine the ideal

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is the most common cancer in the United States. The most lethal form of skin cancer, melanoma, leads to over 50,000 annual deaths in the United States. Childhood prevention is particularly important because a significant portion of ultraviolet radiation exposure from the sun occurs during childhood

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The 2011 National Health Interview Survey performed by the Centers for Disease Control was the first national survey to include questions about ability to pay for food. Difficulty with paying for food, medicine, or both is a problem facing 1 out of 3 Americans. If better food options were available

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website describes a federally funded program, Vaccines for Children (VFC), which provides vaccines at no cost to children who might not otherwise be vaccinated because of inability to pay. Additionally, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) is an expert vaccination advisory board

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Policies that address the obesity epidemic should be proactive and far-reaching, including a variety of stakeholders both in healthcare and in other sectors. Recommendations from the Institute of Medicine in 2012 suggest that "concerted action be taken across and within five environments (physical

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Health disparities are increasing in the United States for chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Populations at heightened risk for health inequities are the growing proportion of racial and ethnic minorities, including African Americans, American Indians,

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Most skin cancer and sun protection data comes from Australia and the United States. An international study reported that Australians tended to demonstrate higher knowledge of sun protection and skin cancer knowledge, compared to other countries. Of children, adolescents, and adults, sunscreen was

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and the major underlying cause of lung cancer. Between 25% and 40% of all cancer deaths and about 90% of lung cancer cases are associated with tobacco use. Other carcinogens include asbestos and radioactive materials. Both smoking and second-hand exposure from other smokers can lead to lung cancer

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Child mortality is caused by factors including poverty, environmental hazards, and lack of maternal education. In 2003, the World Health Organization created a list of interventions in the following table that were judged economically and operationally "feasible," based on the healthcare resources

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The general use of machinery that has adequate ventilation and airflow is suggested for these patients in order to halt progression and complications of disease. A study conducted in nursing homes to prevent diseases concluded that the use of evaporative humidifiers to maintain the indoor humidity

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There are dozens of current policies acting at either (or all of) the federal, state, local and school levels. Most states employ a physical education requirement of 150 minutes of physical education per week at school, a policy of the National Association of Sport and Physical Education. In some

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According to the Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health (REACH), a national CDC program, non-Hispanic blacks currently have the highest rates of obesity (48%), and risk of newly diagnosed diabetes is 77% higher among non-Hispanic blacks, 66% higher among Hispanics/Latinos and 18% higher

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Research on preventive care addresses the question of whether it is cost saving or cost effective and whether there is an economics evidence base for health promotion and disease prevention. The need for and interest in preventive care is driven by the imperative to reduce health care costs while

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expenditure. Despite the potential for decreasing healthcare spending, utilization of healthcare resources in the United States still remains low, especially among Latinos and African-Americans. Overall, preventive services are difficult to implement because healthcare providers have limited time

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dramatically. There are varying views on what constitutes a "good investment." Some argue that preventive health measures should save more money than they cost, when factoring in treatment costs in the absence of such measures. Others have argued in favor of "good value" or conferring significant

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programs serve as effective sources of secondary prevention. The Mayo Clinic, Johns Hopkins, and Memorial Sloan-Kettering hospitals conducted annual x-ray screenings and sputum cytology tests and found that lung cancer was detected at higher rates, earlier stages, and had more favorable treatment

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has become a global problem. Low and middle income countries share a majority of the cancer burden largely due to exposure to carcinogens resulting from industrialization and globalization. However, primary prevention of cancer and knowledge of cancer risk factors can reduce over one third of all

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Preventive healthcare is especially important given the worldwide rise in the prevalence of chronic diseases and deaths from these diseases. There are many methods for prevention of disease. One of them is prevention of teenage smoking through information giving. It is recommended that adults and

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Hugh R. Leavell and E. Gurney Clark as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting physical and mental health and efficiency. Leavell, H. R., & Clark, E. G. (1979). Preventive Medicine for the Doctor in his Community (3rd ed.). Huntington, NY: Robert E. Krieger

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Preventive care services mainly focus on chronic disease. The Congressional Budget Office has provided guidance that further research is needed in the area of the economic impacts of obesity in the U.S. before the CBO can estimate budgetary consequences. A bipartisan report published in May 2015

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of lifestyle changes versus taking the drug metformin. They found that neither method brought about financial savings, but were cost-effective nonetheless because they brought about an increase in QALYs. In addition to scrutinizing costs, preventive healthcare skeptics also examine efficiency of

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and depression. A study concluded that more than a third of dementia cases are theoretically preventable. Among older adults both an unfavorable lifestyle and high genetic risk are independently associated with higher dementia risk. A favorable lifestyle is associated with a lower dementia risk,

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Prevention of tobacco use is paramount to prevention of lung cancer. Individual, community, and statewide interventions can prevent or cease tobacco use. 90% of adults in the U.S. who have ever smoked did so prior to the age of 20. In-school prevention/educational programs, as well as counseling

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Evaluating the incremental benefits of preventive care requires a longer period of time when compared to acutely ill patients. Inputs into the model such as discounting rate and time horizon can have significant effects on the results. One controversial subject is use of a 10-year time frame to

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can reduce morbidity or mortality with low cost or cost savings. Specifically, health assessments/screenings have cost savings potential, with varied cost-effectiveness based on screening and assessment type. Inadequate prenatal care can lead to an increased risk of prematurity, stillbirth, and

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of breast and colorectal cancers had the most potential to prevent premature death. Preventive health measures that resulted in savings included vaccinating children and adults, smoking cessation, daily use of aspirin, and screening for issues with alcoholism, obesity, and vision failure. These

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and thereby increasing opportunities for illness. In order to assess the cost-effectiveness of prevention, the cost of the preventive measure, savings from avoiding morbidity, and the cost from extending the lifespan need to be considered. Life extension costs become smaller when accounting for

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Legislation can also affect smoking prevention and cessation. In 1992, Massachusetts (United States) voters passed a bill adding an extra 25 cent tax to each pack of cigarettes, despite intense lobbying and $ 7.3 million spent by the tobacco industry to oppose this bill. Tax revenue goes toward

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The health capital model explains how individual investments in health can increase earnings by "increasing the number of healthy days available to work and to earn income." In this context, health can be treated both as a consumption good, wherein individuals desire health because it improves

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only amounted to about a quarter of the cost of the drugs. Similarly, it was found that the cost of drugs or dietary changes to decrease high blood cholesterol exceeded the cost of subsequent heart disease treatment. Due to these findings, some argue that rather than focusing healthcare reform

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In developing nations in Latin America, such as Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, and Cuba, both public and privately organized programs have offered women routine cytological screening since the 1970s. However, these efforts have not resulted in a significant change in cervical cancer incidence or

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Finally, tertiary prevention attempts to reduce the damage caused by symptomatic disease by focusing on mental, physical, and social rehabilitation. Unlike secondary prevention, which aims to prevent disability, the objective of tertiary prevention is to maximize the remaining capabilities and

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Recently, advertisements for food and beverages directed at children have received much attention. The Children's Food and Beverage Advertising Initiative (CFBAI) is a self-regulatory program of the food industry. Each participating company makes a public pledge that details its commitment to

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The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, also known as just the Affordable Care Act or Obamacare, was passed and became law in the United States on March 23, 2010. The finalized and newly ratified law was to address many issues in the U.S. healthcare system, which included expansion of

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The economic consequences of childhood obesity are both short and long term. In the short term, obesity impairs cognitive achievement and academic performance. Some believe this is secondary to negative effects on mood or energy, but others suggest there may be physiological factors involved.

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outlined a few arguments made by skeptics of preventive healthcare. Many argue that preventive measures only cost less than future treatment when the proportion of the population that would become ill in the absence of prevention is fairly large. The Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group

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found that exposure to long working hours is the occupational risk factor with the largest attributable burden of disease, i.e. an estimated 745,000 fatalities from ischemic heart disease and stroke events in 2016. With this study, prevention of exposure to long working hours has emerged as a

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Telehealth and telemedicine has realized significant growth and development recently. The Center for Connected Health Policy (The National Telehealth Policy Resource Center) has produced multiple reports and policy briefs on the topic of Telehealth and Telemedicine and how they contribute to

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of a disease or injury whereas secondary prevention aims to detect and treat a disease early on. Secondary prevention consists of "early diagnosis and prompt treatment" to contain the disease and prevent its spread to other individuals, and "disability limitation" to prevent potential future

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According to the American Diabetes Association (ADA), medical costs for employees with diabetes are twice as high as for workers without diabetes and are caused by work-related absenteeism ($ 5 billion), reduced productivity at work ($ 20.8 billion), inability to work due to illness-related

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Childhood immunizations are largely responsible for the increase in life expectancy in the 20th century. From an economic standpoint, childhood vaccines demonstrate a very high return on investment. According to Healthy People 2020, for every birth cohort that receives the routine childhood

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Scientific advancements in genetics have contributed to the knowledge of hereditary diseases and have facilitated progress in specific protective measures in individuals who are carriers of a disease gene or have an increased predisposition to a specific disease. Genetic testing has allowed

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has described it "all population-level actions and measures that inhibit the emergence and establishment of adverse environmental, economic, and social conditions". This could be reducing air pollution or prohibiting endocrine-disrupting chemicals in food-handling equipment and food contact

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Healthcare insurance companies are willing to pay for preventive care despite the fact that patients are not acutely sick in hope that it will prevent them from developing a chronic disease later on in life. Today, health insurance plans offered through the Marketplace, mandated by the

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every 3–5 years. Finland and Iceland have developed effective organized programs with routine monitoring and have managed to significantly reduce cervical cancer mortality while using fewer resources than unorganized, opportunistic programs such as those in the United States or Canada.

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There are benefits and trade-offs when considering investment in preventive care versus other types of clinical services. Preventive care can be a good investment as supported by the evidence base and can drive population health management objectives. The concepts of cost saving and

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The burden of preventable illness extends beyond the healthcare sector, incurring costs related to lost productivity among workers in the workforce. Indirect costs related to poor health behaviors and associated chronic disease costs U.S. employers billions of dollars each year.

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In the CHOICES, it was noted that translating the effects of these interventions may in fact differ among communities throughout the nation. In addition it was suggested that limited outcomes are studied and these interventions may have an additional effect that is not fully

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is an area with restricted access to healthy foods due to a lack of supermarkets within a reasonable distance. These are often low-income neighborhoods with the majority of residents lacking transportation. There have been several grassroots movements since 1995 to encourage

1755:(2015) states: "The four initial interventions were selected by the investigators to represent a broad range of nationally scalable strategies to reduce childhood obesity using a mix of both policy and programmatic strategies... 1. an excise tax of $ 0.01 per ounce of 1051:

In 2010, 7.6 million children died before reaching the age of 5. While this is a decrease from 9.6 million in 2000, it was still far from the fourth Millennium Development Goal to decrease child mortality by two-thirds by 2015. Of these deaths, about 64% were due to

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of prevention is achievable, but impacted by the length of time it takes to see effects/outcomes of intervention. This makes prevention efforts difficult to fund—particularly in strained financial contexts. Prevention potentially creates other costs as well, due to

559:. Health-promotional activities do not target a specific disease or condition but rather promote health and well-being on a very general level. On the other hand, specific protection targets a type or group of diseases and complements the goals of health promotion. 1815:

infant death. Time is the ultimate resource and preventive care can help mitigate the time costs. Telehealth and telemedicine is one option that has gained consumer interest, acceptance, and confidence and can improve quality of care and patient satisfaction.

3627:"Global, regional, and national burdens of ischemic heart disease and stroke attributable to exposure to long working hours for 194 countries, 2000-2016: A systematic analysis from the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury" 5717:

Taylor WC, Pass TM, Shepard DS, Komaroff AL. Cost effectiveness of cholesterol reduction for the primary prevention of coronary heart disease in men. In: Goldbloom RB, Lawrence RS, eds. Preventing disease: beyond the rhetoric. New York: Springer-Verlag,

590:, using vacant lots to grow food cultivated by local residents. Mobile fresh markets are another resource for residents in a "food desert", which are specially outfitted buses bringing affordable fresh fruits and vegetables to low-income neighborhoods. 726:

in the United States is tobacco; however, poor diet and lack of exercise may soon surpass tobacco as a leading cause of death. These behaviors are modifiable and public health and prevention efforts could make a difference to reduce these deaths.

1748:(CEA) has led to a better understanding of projected cost reductions and improved health outcomes. The Childhood Obesity Intervention Cost-Effectiveness Study (CHOICES) was conducted to evaluate and compare the CEA of these four interventions. 1587:

regardless of genetic risk. In 2020, a study identified 12 modifiable lifestyle factors, and the early treatment of acquired hearing loss was estimated as the most significant of these factors, potentially preventing up to 9% of dementia cases.

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based on the evidence that epigenetic processes start at conception (see below: Primal and primordial preventions). Primordial prevention refers to measures designed to avoid the development of risk factors in the first place, early in life.

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cost-effectiveness are different and both are relevant to preventive care. Preventive care that may not save money may still provide health benefits; thus, there is a need to compare interventions relative to impact on health and cost.

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Modeling outcomes in such interventions in children over the long term is challenging because advances in medicine and medical technology are unpredictable. The projections from cost-effective analysis may need to be reassessed more

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and medical screenings are also important. Using PPE properly and getting the recommended vaccines and screenings can help decrease the spread of respiratory diseases, protecting the healthcare workers as well as their patients.

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Partridge S, Balayla J, Holcroft CA, Abenhaim HA (November 2012). "Inadequate prenatal care utilization and risks of infant mortality and poor birth outcome: a retrospective analysis of 28,729,765 U.S. deliveries over 8 years".

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in 2015 was 2.9 years, substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence, albeit a significant fraction of the LLE is considered to be unavoidable (such as pollution from some natural wildfires).

1634:, and a higher rate of diabetes than other high-income nations because of negative lifestyle choices. Despite these large costs, very little is spent on prevention for lifestyle-caused conditions in comparison. In 2016, the 690:

disease from progressing to symptomatic disease. Certain diseases can be classified as primary or secondary. This depends on definitions of what constitutes a disease, though, in general, primary prevention addresses the

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A or B by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force free of charge to patients. UnitedHealthcare insurance company has published patient guidelines at the beginning of the year explaining their preventive care coverage.

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before having unprotected sex, receiving regular STI screenings, to both receive treatment and prevent spreading STIs to partners, and, specifically for HIV, regularly taking prophylactic antiretroviral drugs, such as

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and infrastructure in 42 nations that contribute to 90% of all infant and child deaths. The table indicates how many infant and child deaths could have been prevented in 2000, assuming universal healthcare coverage.

258:, and are dynamic processes that begin before individuals realize they are affected. Disease prevention relies on anticipatory actions that can be categorized as primal, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. 3683:

Liu L, Johnson HL, Cousens S, Perin J, Scott S, Lawn JE, et al. (June 2012). "Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality: an updated systematic analysis for 2010 with time trends since 2000".

1209: 9053: 2706:

Katz, D., & Ather, A. (2009). Preventive Medicine, Integrative Medicine & The Health of The Public. Commissioned for the IOM Summit on Integrative Medicine and the Health of the Public. Retrieved from

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Each year, millions of people die of preventable causes. A 2004 study showed that about half of all deaths in the United States in 2000 were due to preventable behaviors and exposures. Leading causes included

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Preventive healthcare strategies are described as taking place at the primal, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention levels. Although advocated as preventive medicine in the early twentieth century by

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Food is the most basic tool in preventive health care. Poor nutrition is linked to various chronic illnesses. Because of this, having a healthy diet and proper nutrition can be used to prevent illnesses.

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authors estimated that if usage of these services in the United States increased to 90% of the population, there would be net savings of $ 3.7 billion, which comprised only about -0.2% of the total 2006

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Methods to reduce the harm of symptomatic disease, such as disability or death, through rehabilitation and treatment. Examples include surgical procedures that halt the spread or progression of disease.

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Jensen GA, Salloum RG, Hu J, Ferdows NB, Tarraf W (July 2015). "A slow start: Use of preventive services among seniors following the Affordable Care Act's enhancement of Medicare benefits in the U.S".

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Furthermore, obese children have increased health care expenses (e.g. medications, acute care visits). In the long term, obese children tend to become obese adults with associated increased risk for a

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and adolescence and can subsequently lead to skin cancer in adulthood. Furthermore, childhood prevention can lead to the development of healthy habits that continue to prevent cancer for a lifetime.

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Bakos L, Wagner M, Bakos RM, Leite CS, Sperhacke CL, Dzekaniak KS, Gleisner AL (September 2002). "Sunburn, sunscreens, and phenotypes: some risk factors for cutaneous melanoma in southern Brazil".

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costs. There are a number of organizations and policy actions that are relevant when discussing the economics of preventive care services. The evidence base, viewpoints, and policy briefs from the

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Maciosek MV, Coffield AB, Edwards NM, Flottemesch TJ, Goodman MJ, Solberg LI (July 2006). "Priorities among effective clinical preventive services: results of a systematic review and analysis".

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Access to healthcare and preventive health services is unequal, as is the quality of care received. A study conducted by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) revealed

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that informs vaccination policy and guides on-going recommendations to the CDC, incorporating the most up-to-date cost-effectiveness and risk-benefit evidence in its recommendations.

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Hill D, White V, Marks R, Theobald T, Borland R, Roy C (September 1992). "Melanoma prevention: behavioral and nonbehavioral factors in sunburn among an Australian urban population".

1852:(CDC), the ACA makes preventive care affordable and accessible through mandatory coverage of preventive services without a deductible, copayment, coinsurance, or other cost sharing. 1542:

testing. Lifestyle changes that may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer include increasing consumption of whole grains, fruits and vegetables, and reducing consumption of red meat.

4814: 1844:(USPSTF) all provide examples that improve the health and well-being of populations (e.g. preventive health assessments/screenings, prenatal care, and telehealth/telemedicine). The 5728:

Goldman L, Weinstein MC, Goldman PA, Williams LW (March 1991). "Cost-effectiveness of HMG-CoA reductase inhibition for primary and secondary prevention of coronary heart disease".

2474:

Maciosek MV, Coffield AB, Flottemesch TJ, Edwards NM, Solberg LI (September 2010). "Greater use of preventive services in U.S. health care could save lives at little or no cost".

1169: 876:. There are a few differences between the two, such as malnutrition, pollution, and unsafe sanitation, that reflect health disparities between the developing and developed world. 3472:

Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, Jamison DT, Murray CJ (May 2006). "Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data".

1099: 3397:"Anesthesiologist behavior and anesthesia machine use in the operating room during the COVID-19 pandemic: awareness and changes to cope with the risk of infection transmission" 6376: 5558: 2412: 1848:(ACA) has major influence on the provision of preventive care services, although it is currently under heavy scrutiny and review by the new administration. According to the 709:

within the range 40–60% can reduce respiratory risk. Certain diseases thrive in different humidities, so the use of the humidifiers can help kill the particles of diseases.

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including annual doctor's check-ups, annual immunizations, and wellness programs; recent models show that these simple interventions can have significant economic impacts.

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Cantor, Amy G.; Jungbauer, Rebecca M.; Totten, Annette M.; Tilden, Ellen L.; Holmes, Rebecca; Ahmed, Azrah; Wagner, Jesse; Hermesch, Amy C.; McDonagh, Marian S. (2022).

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Barrett JL, Gortmaker SL, Long MW, Ward ZJ, Resch SC, Moodie ML, et al. (July 2015). "Cost Effectiveness of an Elementary School Active Physical Education Policy".

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was "responsible for approximately 9 million deaths per year" in 2019. And another study concluded that the global mean loss of life expectancy (a measure similar to

10481: 7599: 6914: 628:, became mainstream upon the discovery of infectious disease agents and have decreased the rates of communicable diseases which are spread in unsanitary conditions. 6669:

Centers for Disease Control Prevention (October 2011). "Health plan implementation of U.S. Preventive Services Task Force A and B recommendations--Colorado, 2010".

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practices. STIs can be asymptomatic, or cause a range of symptoms. Preventive measures for STIs are called prophylactics. The term especially applies to the use of

10714: 10669: 4938:"Disparities in Healthcare Quality Among Racial and Ethnic Groups: Selected Findings from the 2011 National Healthcare Quality and Disparities Reports. Fact Sheet" 1414:(NRT), hypnosis, and self-motivated behavioral change. Studies have shown long term success rates (>1 year) of 20% for hypnosis and 10%-20% for group therapy. 7170:

Folland, S., Goodman, A.C., & Stano, M. (2016). Demand for Health Capital. The Economics of Health and Healthcare, 7th ed. (p. 130). New York, NY: Routledge.

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Wright DR, Kenney EL, Giles CM, Long MW, Ward ZJ, Resch SC, et al. (July 2015). "Modeling the Cost Effectiveness of Child Care Policy Changes in the U.S".

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cancer cases. Primary prevention of cancer can also prevent other diseases, both communicable and non-communicable, that share common risk factors with cancer.

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Primordial prevention refers to all measures designed to prevent the development of risk factors in the first place, early in life, and even preconception, as

4682: 4538:"Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010" 1653:

Health insurance coverage impacts lifestyle choices, even intermittent loss of coverage had negative effects on healthy choices in the U.S. The repeal of the

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deliveries before 39 weeks, reductions in healthcare associated bloodstream infections, and improvements in the utilization of antenatal corticosteroids.

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recognizes the potential of preventive care to improve patients' health at individual and population levels while decreasing the healthcare expenditure.

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improving quality of care and the patient experience. Preventive care can lead to improved health outcomes and cost savings potential. Services such as

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Serdula MK, Ivery D, Coates RJ, Freedman DS, Williamson DF, Byers T (March 1993). "Do obese children become obese adults? A review of the literature".

6767: 4181:

Chou CP, Li Y, Unger JB, Xia J, Sun P, Guo Q, et al. (April 2006). "A randomized intervention of smoking for adolescents in urban Wuhan, China".

9038: 2154: 581:, soup kitchens, and other resources for low-income people, obesity and the chronic conditions that come along with it would be better controlled. A 314:(AQI) to check the level of pollution in the outside air before engaging in sporting activities. Some common disease screenings include checking for 7401: 1771:

such as diabetes or hypertension. Any effect on their cognitive development may also affect their contributions to society and socioeconomic status.

1129: 394:. However, these measures are not affordable for every individual and the cost effectiveness of preventive healthcare is still a topic of debate. 7425: 6230: 2799:

Gofrit ON, Shemer J, Leibovici D, Modan B, Shapira SC. Quaternary prevention: a new look at an old challenge. Isr Med Assoc J. 2000;2(7):498-500.

511: 6322:

Galama TJ, van Kippersluis H (2013). "Health Inequalities through the Lens of Health-Capital Theory: Issues, Solutions, and Future Directions".

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Carrillo JE, Carrillo VA, Perez HR, Salas-Lopez D, Natale-Pereira A, Byron AT (May 2011). "Defining and targeting health care access barriers".

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Thrul J, Bühler A, Herth FJ (2014). "Prevention of teenage smoking through negative information giving, a cluster randomized controlled trial".

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Methods to mitigate or avoid results of unnecessary or excessive interventions in the health system, including potential violations of rights.

67: 5166: 5017:"Addressing access barriers to health services: an analytical framework for selecting appropriate interventions in low-income Asian countries" 8056: 5765:"The 10-year cost-effectiveness of lifestyle intervention or metformin for diabetes prevention: an intent-to-treat analysis of the DPP/DPPOS" 3193: 6220:

Folland, S., Goodman, A., & Stano, M. (2013). The economics of health and health care. (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education.

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is globally the second most common cancer in women and the third-most common in men, and the fourth most common cause of cancer death after

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MMWR. Recommendations and Reports : Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Recommendations and Reports / Centers for Disease Control

4779: 4997: 9587: 9088: 3117: 2740: 2020: 1886: 1849: 1654: 1453: 439:

Methods to avoid occurrence of disease either through eliminating disease agents or increasing resistance to disease. Examples include

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Schmeiser MD (April 2012). "The impact of long-term participation in the supplemental nutrition assistance program on child obesity".

2215:""New parents" secure a lifelong well-being for their offspring by refusing to be victims of societal stress during its primal period" 1329:, started within 72 hours (optimally less than 1 hour) after exposure to high-risk fluids, can also protect against HIV transmission. 9928: 7595: 2065: 1273: 191: 185: 6384: 1695:

A 2010 study reported that in the United States, vaccinating children, cessation of smoking, daily prophylactic use of aspirin, and

10754: 6952: 5078:"A Monte Carlo simulation approach for estimating the health and economic impact of interventions provided at a student-run clinic" 4537: 978: 771: 6974: 10764: 9527: 9121: 9093: 8133: 7696: 6040: 3904: 2898:

Gollwitzer ES, Marsland BJ (November 2015). "Impact of Early-Life Exposures on Immune Maturation and Susceptibility to Disease".

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is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States and Europe and is a major cause of death in other countries.

10359: 10344: 9098: 8414: 5424:

Gandjour A, Lauterbach KW (July 2005). "Does prevention save costs? Considering deferral of the expensive last year of life".

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efforts exclusively on preventive care, the interventions that bring about the highest level of health should be prioritized.

286:(WHO), about 55 million people died worldwide in 2011, and two-thirds of these died from non-communicable diseases, including 10576: 10536: 9156: 9063: 7981: 7922: 7636: 6339: 4498: 3447: 3063: 2142: 2120: 1018:– or underlying contributors to earlier death – may not be included as "preventable" causes of death. A study concluded that 1687:

There is no general consensus as to whether or not preventive healthcare measures are cost-effective, but they increase the

10632: 10262: 10252: 9827: 9146: 6818: 17: 7583: 9103: 8667: 8255: 624:, sewage treatment, and the development of personal hygienic routines, such as regular hand-washing, safe sex to prevent 7879: 2075: 10730: 9963: 9305: 8171: 7884: 3087: 10364: 10134: 9161: 8687: 8270: 6819:"Health-Care Cost Projections for Diabetes and other Chronic Diseases: The Current Context and Potential Enhancement" 6719: 6092: 6041:"The cost savings and cost-effectiveness of clinical preventative [sic] care. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation" 3914: 3746:

Jones G, Steketee RW, Black RE, Bhutta ZA, Morris SS (July 2003). "How many child deaths can we prevent this year?".

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resources, can help prevent and cease adolescent smoking. Other cessation techniques include group support programs,

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has a significant impact on human health and food quality monitoring has increased. Water, including drinking water,

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Methods to detect and address an existing disease prior to the appearance of symptoms. Examples include treatment of

101: 7251: 6743: 4690: 602:

are included in standard healthcare as switching from a "typical Western diet" could often extend life by a decade.

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Countdown to 2015, decade report (2000–10)—taking stock of maternal, newborn and child survival WHO, Geneva (2010)

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Lelieveld, Jos; Pozzer, Andrea; Pöschl, Ulrich; Fnais, Mohammed; Haines, Andy; Münzel, Thomas (1 September 2020).

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Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF, Gerberding JL (March 2004). "Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000".

1285: 1015: 625: 2329: 10314: 10081: 9953: 9387: 9259: 9078: 9028: 8840: 8737: 8498: 8399: 8312: 7792: 5657:

Weinstein MC, Stason WB. "Hypertension: a policy perspective. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976.

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Institute of Medicine (US) Roundtable on Evidence-Based Medicine, Yong PL, Saunders RS, Olsen LA (2010-01-01).

4940:. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. September 2012. AHRQ Publication No. 12-0006-1-EF. 2110: 1833: 933: 836: 179: 6430: 2310: 10808: 10750: 9271: 8911: 8682: 8029: 8014: 7752: 6308:

Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. (2009). The cost savings and cost-effectiveness of clinical preventive care.

2160: 1304:, which are highly effective at preventing disease, but also to other devices meant to prevent STIs, such as 1265:. Diabetes is the main cause of kidney failure, limb amputation, and new-onset blindness in American adults. 31: 7181: 6569:

Harrington SE (1 January 2010). "U. S. Health-care Reform: The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act".

10840: 10835: 10830: 10760: 10329: 10257: 9933: 8776: 8503: 8004: 1411: 1023: 343: 38: 7379: 5345: 1650:

programs were on the rise but the economics and effectiveness data were continuing to evolve and develop.

278:. This same study estimates that 400,000 people die each year in the United States due to poor diet and a 10652: 10506: 10374: 10267: 9577: 8923: 8816: 8727: 8540: 8528: 8437: 8126: 8034: 7232: 1745: 869: 723: 302:. This is an increase from the year 2000, during which 60% of deaths were attributed to these diseases.) 5667:

Weinstein MC, Stason WB (March 1978). "Economic considerations in the management of mild hypertension".

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children aim to visit their doctor for regular check-ups, even if they feel healthy, to perform disease

10725: 10324: 9557: 8993: 8918: 8823: 8359: 7508: 6744:"ACA: Preventive Care Coverage Requirements—Compliancedashboard: Interactive Web-Based Compliance Tool" 6324:

Health Inequalities through the Lens of Health Capital Theory: Issues, Solutions, and Future Directions

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Systemic and Pulmonary Vascular Dysfunction in Children Conceived by Assisted Reproductive Technologies

1952: 1615: 79: 7584:"The Nutrition Source – Healthy Living Guide 2020/2021: A Digest on Healthy Eating and Healthy Living" 6444: 5389:

Gandjour A (March 2009). "Aging diseases--do they prevent preventive health care from saving costs?".

2050: 10247: 10216: 9986: 9115: 9110: 8978: 8677: 8384: 8342: 8306: 8213: 8078: 8024: 7807: 7747: 7629: 5320: 1326: 1035: 903: 747: 335: 283: 6614:"The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act: implications for public health policy and practice" 3936: 3570:"Loss of life expectancy from air pollution compared to other risk factors: a worldwide perspective" 10795: 10660: 10637: 10471: 10176: 9778: 9700: 9695: 9615: 9375: 8953: 8652: 8364: 8260: 8073: 7937: 7676: 4451:"Effective screening programmes for cervical cancer in low- and middle-income developing countries" 3280:

Fan, Sue-Yuan; Khuntia, Sucharita; Ahn, Christine Heera; Zhang, Bing; Tai, Li-Chia (January 2022).

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Pega F, Náfrádi B, Momen NC, Ujita Y, Streicher KN, Prüss-Üstün AM, et al. (September 2021).

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physicians to make quicker and more accurate diagnoses and has allowed for tailored treatments or

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Hu, Frank; Cheung, Lilian; Otis, Brett; Oliveira, Nancy; Musicus, Aviva, eds. (19 January 2021).

6231:"The Promise of Telehealth For Hospitals, Health Systems and Their Communities, TrendWatch | AHA" 5934:

Black N, Johnston DW, Peeters A (September 2015). "Childhood Obesity and Cognitive Achievement".

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Baicker K, Cutler D, Song Z (February 2010). "Workplace wellness programs can generate savings".

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with patients and must integrate a variety of preventive health measures from different sources.

655: 4243:"Primary prevention of skin cancer: a review of sun protection in Australia and internationally" 2413:"'Be Smart, Don't Start' campaign launched to deter youths from smoking - The Malta Independent" 1855:

The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), a panel of national experts in prevention and

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Leading preventive interventions as of 2003 reducing deaths in children 0–5 years old worldwide

10710: 10526: 10456: 9350: 9298: 9247: 9219: 8998: 8722: 8208: 8119: 8009: 7000:"The broader economic impact of vaccination: reviewing and appraising the strength of evidence" 6931: 4815:"Potential for primary prevention of Alzheimer's disease: an analysis of population-based data" 4787: 3088:"Food is Prevention: The Case for Integrating Food and Nutrition Interventions into Healthcare" 2125: 1643: 1559: 1552: 1350: 651: 295: 263: 251: 75: 4885:

Lourida I, Hannon E, Littlejohns TJ, Langa KM, Hyppönen E, Kuzma E, Llewellyn DJ (July 2019).

3282:"Electrochemical Devices to Monitor Ionic Analytes for Healthcare and Industrial Applications" 1899:

assess cost effectiveness of diabetes preventive services by the Congressional Budget Office.

10571: 10546: 10531: 10401: 10171: 10127: 10001: 9887: 9860: 9785: 9739: 9434: 9204: 8988: 8523: 8317: 8166: 7998: 7899: 6847:"Estimating the Effects of Federal Policies Targeting Obesity: Challenges and Research Needs" 5001: 3345:"Infection Prevention Precautions for Routine Anesthesia Care During the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic" 1425:

tobacco education and control programs and has led to a decline of tobacco use in the state.

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and "specific protection". Health promotion activities include prevention strategies such as

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Gortmaker SL, Long MW, Resch SC, Ward ZJ, Cradock AL, Barrett JL, et al. (July 2015).

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conducted a 2012 study evaluating the costs and benefits in quality-adjusted life-years or

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is a major risk factor for a wide variety of conditions including cardiovascular diseases,

988: 913: 659: 615: 611: 536: 404: 327: 307: 247: 142: 7463: 5187:

Dieleman JL, Baral R, Birger M, Bui AL, Bulchis A, Chapin A, et al. (December 2016).

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Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, et al. (December 2012).

3862: 3329:. Park Ridge, Illinois: American Association of Nurse Anesthesiology. 2015. pp. 3–25. 1762:

Some challenges with evaluating the effectiveness of child obesity interventions include:

8: 10720: 10516: 10501: 10496: 10446: 10101: 10043: 10026: 9685: 9402: 9189: 9184: 8958: 8757: 8747: 8582: 8191: 7976: 5817:"Cost Effectiveness of Childhood Obesity Interventions: Evidence and Methods for CHOICES" 4325:

Pincus MW, Rollings PK, Craft AB, Green A (1991). "Sunscreen use on Queensland beaches".

2115: 2090: 2060: 1845: 1583: 1053: 999: 968: 692: 663: 347: 279: 275: 267: 7100:"Productivity loss due to overweight and obesity: a systematic review of indirect costs" 6998:

Jit M, Hutubessy R, Png ME, Sundaram N, Audimulam J, Salim S, Yoong J (September 2015).

6960: 5680: 5093: 4570: 4295: 4134:"Tobacco smoking in China: prevalence, disease burden, challenges and future strategies" 647: 599: 10680: 10594: 10461: 10451: 10319: 10304: 10231: 9991: 9948: 9938: 9727: 9680: 9647: 9642: 9392: 9370: 8811: 8394: 8243: 7962: 7737: 7701: 7356: 7331: 7124: 7099: 7075: 7050: 7026: 6999: 6678: 6646: 6633: 6613: 6594: 6586: 6543: 6350: 6291: 6200: 6156: 5841: 5816: 5789: 5764: 5700: 5688: 5499: 5483: 5297: 5272: 5213: 5188: 5112: 5077: 4976: 4911: 4886: 4860: 4842: 4659: 4634: 4583: 4514: 4467: 4450: 4428: 4350: 4338: 4307: 4163: 4104: 4079: 3978: 3924: 3823: 3771: 3709: 3653: 3626: 3602: 3569: 3550: 3497: 3421: 3396: 3374: 3257: 3224: 3069: 3016: 2862: 2837: 2782: 2623: 2598: 2394: 1756: 1666: 1647: 1597: 1539: 1484: 1159: 784: 621: 587: 532: 173: 7439: 4830: 4650: 4553: 4056: 4014: 3966: 3759: 3697: 3537: 3520: 3485: 3003: 2770: 2614: 10745: 10675: 10604: 10599: 10521: 10436: 10416: 10221: 10087: 10061: 9943: 9913: 9892: 9855: 9838: 9753: 9717: 9707: 9602: 9522: 9466: 9429: 9414: 9355: 9322: 9291: 8973: 8968: 8896: 8845: 8619: 8599: 8587: 8547: 8518: 8486: 8404: 8297: 8265: 8161: 7909: 7894: 7889: 7796: 7666: 7661: 7419: 7361: 7189: 7129: 7080: 7031: 6686: 6651: 6598: 6582: 6551: 6508: 6355: 6335: 6295: 6283: 6275: 6192: 6148: 6098: 6088: 6021: 5986: 5951: 5916: 5881: 5846: 5794: 5745: 5692: 5640: 5602: 5540: 5491: 5441: 5406: 5302: 5253: 5218: 5117: 5038: 4968: 4916: 4846: 4834: 4683:"Development of a draft global action plan on the public health response to dementia" 4664: 4575: 4561: 4494: 4472: 4420: 4416: 4385: 4381: 4342: 4299: 4264: 4198: 4155: 4150: 4133: 4109: 4060: 4018: 3970: 3910: 3815: 3763: 3701: 3658: 3607: 3589: 3554: 3542: 3489: 3426: 3378: 3366: 3303: 3262: 3244: 3059: 3043: 3020: 3008: 2967: 2915: 2867: 2774: 2734: 2672: 2628: 2541: 2491: 2359: 2289: 1799: 1768: 1740: 1639: 1619: 1567: 1508: 1368: 810: 544: 367: 323: 311: 255: 7147: 6204: 5704: 5503: 5370: 4980: 4432: 4354: 4311: 4167: 4043:

Risser NL (November 1996). "Prevention of lung cancer: the key is to stop smoking".

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Vineis P, Wild CP (February 2014). "Global cancer patterns: causes and prevention".

3775: 3713: 3501: 3073: 2398: 10784: 10740: 10705: 10700: 10690: 10561: 10511: 10491: 10441: 10431: 10334: 10181: 10120: 10071: 9763: 9748: 9625: 9500: 9456: 9138: 8891: 8850: 8662: 8637: 8449: 8379: 8223: 7986: 7927: 7833: 7656: 7351: 7343: 7332:"Obesity Prevention Policies in U.S. States and Localities: Lessons from the Field" 7119: 7111: 7070: 7062: 7021: 7011: 6768:"Preventive Services Covered by Private Health Plans under the Affordable Care Act" 6641: 6625: 6578: 6535: 6500: 6345: 6327: 6267: 6255: 6184: 6160: 6140: 6132: 6013: 5978: 5943: 5908: 5873: 5836: 5828: 5784: 5776: 5737: 5684: 5632: 5594: 5530: 5475: 5437: 5433: 5398: 5292: 5284: 5245: 5208: 5200: 5159:"US Healthcare reform should focus on prevention efforts to cut skyrocketing costs" 5140: 5107: 5097: 5028: 4960: 4906: 4898: 4826: 4654: 4646: 4635:"Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission" 4587: 4565: 4557: 4549: 4462: 4412: 4377: 4334: 4291: 4254: 4190: 4145: 4099: 4091: 4052: 4010: 3962: 3827: 3805: 3755: 3693: 3648: 3638: 3597: 3581: 3532: 3481: 3416: 3408: 3356: 3293: 3252: 3236: 3051: 2998: 2959: 2907: 2857: 2849: 2786: 2766: 2662: 2618: 2610: 2531: 2520:"Does preventive care save money? Health economics and the presidential candidates" 2483: 2386: 2351: 2281: 1627: 1531: 1417: 1312:. Other means for preventing STIs include education on how to use condoms or other 944: 528: 524: 426: 387: 5519:"Longevity and health care expenditures: the real reasons older people spend more" 3455: 1337:

Genetically modified mosquitoes are being used in developing countries to control

540: 10695: 10586: 10391: 10296: 10290: 10191: 10091: 10036: 9897: 9882: 9865: 9805: 9800: 9744: 9722: 9419: 9365: 9345: 9199: 8901: 8704: 8697: 8632: 8572: 8454: 8444: 8374: 8347: 8332: 8287: 8277: 8228: 7848: 7843: 7802: 7768: 7561: 6539: 5912: 5877: 5832: 5636: 5523:

The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences

5102: 3867: 3643: 3361: 3344: 3298: 3281: 3047: 2963: 2390: 2070: 2055: 2041: 1986: 1688: 1675: 1631: 1579: 1476: 1262: 1258: 1219: 548: 383: 375: 7305: 7115: 6504: 6256:"Telehealth Strategies for the Delivery of Maternal Health Care: A Rapid Review" 6117: 5598: 5135:

Haninger K, Miller W, Rein D, O'Grady M, Yeung JE, Eichner J, McMahon M (2013),

4493:. International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization. 2014. 4194: 10609: 10551: 10486: 10426: 10411: 10354: 10349: 10186: 9923: 9877: 9690: 9620: 9439: 8886: 8672: 8609: 8594: 8577: 8535: 8337: 8218: 7932: 7917: 7788: 7571: 7533: 7306:"Health Impact in 5 Years | Health System Transformation | AD for Policy | CDC" 6629: 5273:"Intermittent lack of health insurance coverage and use of preventive services" 5057: 3889: 3412: 3240: 2947: 2235: 1671: 1526:

It is also highly preventable; about 80 percent of colorectal cancers begin as

1516: 1468: 1189: 683: 556: 391: 7402:"Philadelphia, Penn., Code tit Chapter 19-4100 (current through Nov. 7, 2017)" 7347: 7016: 5762: 5249: 5144: 3225:"Nutrition, longevity and disease: From molecular mechanisms to interventions" 3055: 2487: 2355: 1386: 10824: 10556: 10476: 10226: 10166: 10006: 9795: 9790: 9652: 9592: 9495: 9194: 9073: 8881: 8855: 8732: 8692: 8657: 8647: 8627: 8369: 8327: 8302: 8250: 8238: 8233: 8142: 7706: 7691: 7681: 7280: 6279: 6102: 5535: 5518: 3792:

Kumanyika S, Jeffery RW, Morabia A, Ritenbaugh C, Antipatis VJ (March 2002).

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estimated that $ 101 billion was spent in 2013 on the preventable disease of

1480: 1089: 1027: 873: 643: 363: 319: 299: 5741: 5204: 5033: 5016: 4259: 4242: 2439: 10011: 9996: 9822: 9547: 9397: 9382: 9328: 9214: 8642: 8491: 8481: 8459: 8389: 8282: 8196: 8019: 7952: 7947: 7853: 7828: 7783: 7365: 7252:"Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: 2014–2060" 7193: 7133: 7084: 7035: 6872:"A prevention prescription for improving health and health care in America" 6690: 6655: 6555: 6512: 6359: 6287: 6196: 6188: 6152: 6017: 5990: 5955: 5920: 5885: 5850: 5798: 5644: 5544: 5445: 5410: 5306: 5257: 5222: 5121: 5042: 4972: 4920: 4902: 4838: 4668: 4579: 4476: 4424: 4268: 4202: 4159: 4022: 3974: 3819: 3810: 3793: 3767: 3705: 3662: 3611: 3546: 3493: 3430: 3370: 3266: 3012: 2971: 2919: 2871: 2676: 2632: 2545: 2495: 2363: 2293: 2105: 1811: 1710: 1571: 1520: 1309: 1254: 923: 893: 687: 460: 444: 440: 379: 331: 315: 224: 44:"Disease control" redirects here. For the same concept in agriculture, see 6445:"Perinatal Quality Collaboratives | Perinatal | Reproductive Health | CDC" 6025: 5749: 5606: 5495: 5288: 4964: 4735: 4389: 4346: 4303: 4113: 4064: 3585: 3143: 2853: 2838:"Effect of in utero and early-life conditions on adult health and disease" 2824:

Maltreated Children: Experience, Brain Development and the Next Generation

2778: 1968:

Hispanics/Latinos, Asian Americans, Alaska Natives and Pacific Islanders.

1618:, show great value. However, that method does not account for the cost of 666:

regulations establish some protection in combination with the monitoring.

10566: 9870: 9815: 9712: 9567: 9542: 9360: 9209: 8906: 8604: 8513: 8476: 7645: 5696: 4080:"An analysis of the successful 1992 Massachusetts tobacco tax initiative" 2667: 2650: 2536: 2519: 2080: 1951:

Health benefits of preventive care measures can be described in terms of

1535: 1512: 1445: 1394: 1305: 1139: 639: 582: 504: 463:(a risk factor for many cardiovascular diseases), and cancer screenings. 359: 30:"Preventive medicine" redirects here. For the peer-reviewed journal, see 6846: 6682: 6637: 6590: 6547: 6144: 5461:""Though much is taken": reflections on aging, health, and medical care" 1734: 9958: 9843: 9810: 9582: 9532: 9517: 9512: 9505: 9490: 9480: 8835: 8557: 7863: 7823: 6399:"A and B Recommendations | United States Preventive Services Taskforce" 5487: 5460: 4095: 1807: 1402: 1355: 1003: 954: 849: 552: 239: 7066: 6668: 5780: 4887:"Association of Lifestyle and Genetic Risk With Incidence of Dementia" 3787: 3785: 10031: 9773: 9768: 9632: 9610: 9485: 9449: 8933: 8752: 8322: 8203: 7858: 7742: 6271: 6136: 5982: 5947: 5402: 3906:

Ecological Aspects for Application of Genetically Modified Mosquitoes

1179: 1061: 1019: 578: 355: 7464:"Trends in Television Food Advertising to Young People: 2016 Update" 5479: 4711: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4622: 4620: 1591: 1562:

involves reducing the number of risk factors for the development of

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Concepts of primary prevention: A framework for program development

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Arenas DJ, Lett LA, Klusaritz H, Teitelman AM (28 December 2017).

3036:"The Importance of Healthy Living and Defining Lifestyle Medicine" 2809: 2473: 1646:. In an effort to encourage healthy lifestyle choices, as of 2010 880:

Leading causes of preventable death worldwide as of the year 2001

731:

Leading causes of preventable deaths in the United States in 2000

10143: 10016: 9476: 9444: 9337: 8471: 7942: 7838: 7727: 7485:"State Mandates on Immunization and Vaccine-Preventable Diseases" 7484: 7208:"Cost Savings and Cost-Effectiveness of Clinical Preventive Care" 7182:"Cost savings and cost-effectiveness of clinical preventive care" 4633:

Livingston G, Huntley J, Sommerlad A, et al. (August 2020).

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Bowdle A, Jelacic S, Shishido S, Munoz-Price LS (November 2020).

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Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz

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outcomes, which supports widespread investment in such programs.

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Primal prevention has been propounded as a separate category of

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A Review and Analysis of Economic Models of Prevention Benefits

5015:

Jacobs B, Ir P, Bigdeli M, Annear PL, Van Damme W (July 2012).

3323:

Infection Prevention and Control Guidelines for Anesthesia Care

3168: 1714: 1441:

An image of melanoma, one of the deadliest forms of skin cancer

1437: 1374: 1301: 287: 212: 7614: 4448: 2214: 2204: 1472:

The presence of cancer (adenocarcinoma) detected on a Pap test

10627: 8928: 7048: 5763:

The Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group (April 2012).

5559:"Obesity and the Economics of Prevention | OECD READ edition" 5344:(ASPA), Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs (2013-06-10). 5134: 4884: 2835: 1479:

ranks among the top three most common cancers among women in

6975:"Immunization and Infectious Diseases | Healthy People 2020" 6902:

Chatterjee A, Kubendran S, King J, DeVol R (February 2014).

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Broadstock M (March 1991). "Sun protection at the cricket".

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Stanton WR, Janda M, Baade PD, Anderson P (September 2004).

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Gluckman PD, Hanson MA, Cooper C, Thornburg KL (July 2008).

2209: 2207: 1792: 1538:. Other methods of screening for polyps and cancers include 9283: 9054:

Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety

8860: 7576: 7534:"Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) | CDC" 7281:"Health in All Policies | AD for Policy and Strategy | CDC" 6253: 2271: 1727: 1488: 1230:

Antimalarial intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy

1119: 10112: 6310:

The Synthesis Project: New Insights from Research Results.

6003: 4861:"WHO Media centre fact sheets: Dementia. Fact sheet N°362" 4632: 3567: 1608: 1043:

priority for prevention healthcare in workplace settings.

7572:

European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC)

6526:

Fein O (September 2010). "Keep the single payer vision".

4875: 4812: 4801: 4240: 3471: 2934:

Why Silicon Valley's Paid Leave Policies Need to Go Viral

1911: 1293: 386:

can also be performed to screen for mutations that cause

339: 6720:"Affordable Care Act Implementation FAQs - Set 12 | CMS" 6115: 5863: 4483: 4324: 3745: 3223:

Longo, Valter D.; Anderson, Rozalyn M. (28 April 2022).

2952:

Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care

2330:

Smoking is Critical to Our Health. Be Smart, Don't Start

390:

or predisposition to certain diseases such as breast or

227:

against diseases is a key preventive healthcare measure.

7440:"Children's Food & Beverage Advertising Initiative" 6997: 6116:

Hackl F, Halla M, Hummer M, Pruckner GJ (August 2015).

6085:

Promoting health, preventing disease: the economic case

5468:

The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly. Health and Society

4760:"International Research Network on Dementia Prevention" 4535: 7567:

Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care (CTFPHC)

6490: 6423:"U.S. Preventive Services Task Force - Annual Reports" 5814: 5186: 4367: 4001:

Goodman GE (March 2000). "Prevention of lung cancer".

3682: 2648: 1838:

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

712: 646:

in many cases for securing health. There also is some

7562:

United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF)

7237:

Association of State and Territorial Health Officials

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Cost-effectiveness of childhood obesity interventions

555:. Preventing disease and creating overall well-being 535:, and are current, non-clinical life choices such as 7581: 5933: 5372:

Pathway to the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect

2802: 2562:. Sacramento, California Department of Mental Health 2518:

Cohen JT, Neumann PJ, Weinstein MC (February 2008).

2031: 1783: 1534:, which can be easily detected and removed during a 503:. New knowledge in molecular biology, in particular 488: 4953:

Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved

3561: 2987:"Is the Environment Associated With Preterm Birth?" 5423: 4449:Sankaranarayanan R, Budukh AM, Rajkumar R (2001). 3279: 3040:Lifestyle Medicine: A Manual for Clinical Practice 2897: 2644: 2642: 2010: 1893: 1268: 37:"Prophylaxis" redirects here. For other uses, see 6082: 5516: 5235: 2756: 2649:Chiolero A, Paradis G, Paccaud F (October 2015). 2599:"Primordial prevention of cardiovascular disease" 2341: 2230: 2228: 2155:American Osteopathic Board of Preventive Medicine 1592:Health disparities and barriers to accessing care 10822: 7186:The Synthesis Project. Research Synthesis Report 7098:Goettler A, Grosse A, Sonntag D (October 2017). 7051:"Economic costs of diabetes in the U.S. in 2012" 3033: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2376: 1622:or future lost earnings because of poor health. 1390:Distribution of lung cancer in the United States 7380:"Chapter 19-4100. Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Tax" 7261:. United States Census Bureau. pp. 25–1143 6957:U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 6939:U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 6381:U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 5666: 3857: 3855: 3452:U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2639: 2434: 2432: 1739:There are at least four nationally implemented 5517:Yang Z, Norton EC, Stearns SC (January 2003). 4236: 4234: 4232: 4180: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4032: 2571:Baker, Sara Josephine. Fighting for Life.1939. 2225: 1946: 1210:Antibiotics for premature rupture of membranes 593: 10128: 9299: 8127: 7630: 7173: 6377:"Preventive Health Care: What is the Problem" 3222: 2592: 2590: 2456: 2342:Isensee B, Hanewinkel R (November 2018). "". 1871:Affordable Care Act and preventive healthcare 1333:Malaria prevention using genetic modification 64:The examples and perspective in this article 7509:"Birth-18 Years Immunization Schedule | CDC" 7179: 7049:American Diabetes Association (April 2013). 6427:U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) 5008: 3852: 3727: 3725: 3723: 3118:"Access to Good Food as Preventive Medicine" 2752: 2750: 2429: 2236:"Primal Health Research Databank - Glossary" 7424:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 7249: 6671:MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 5270: 4998:"WHO | Fact file on health inequities" 4444: 4442: 4229: 4029: 3902: 3842:"Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) - NIDDK" 3095:Center for Health Law and Policy Innovation 2584:, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2011 1818: 1636:Journal of the American Medical Association 523:Primary prevention consists of traditional 10135: 10121: 9588:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility 9306: 9292: 9089:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 8134: 8120: 7637: 7623: 6793:"Preventative [sic] care services" 6568: 5669:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 5618: 5616: 5071: 5069: 4517:. World Health Organization. February 2010 4281: 4131: 3952: 3741: 3739: 3737: 3467: 3465: 2651:"The pseudo-high-risk prevention strategy" 2587: 1850:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1454:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 9929:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery 9049:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control 9039:Center for Disease Control and Prevention 7596:Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health 7399: 7355: 7123: 7074: 7025: 7015: 6904:"Chronic Disease and Wellness in America" 6897: 6895: 6645: 6611: 6474:Center for Connected Health Policy (CCHP) 6349: 6083:Merkur S, Sassi F, McDaid D (June 2015). 5968: 5840: 5788: 5534: 5296: 5212: 5111: 5101: 5032: 4910: 4658: 4569: 4466: 4455:Bulletin of the World Health Organization 4258: 4149: 4103: 3948: 3946: 3809: 3794:"Obesity prevention: the case for action" 3720: 3652: 3642: 3601: 3536: 3521:"Pollution and health: a progress update" 3420: 3360: 3297: 3256: 3002: 2861: 2747: 2666: 2622: 2535: 2076:Genetic modifications preventing diseases 2066:Effects of climate change on human health 1920: 1793:Clinical preventive services and programs 1614:such as the quality years of life method 246:. Disease and disability are affected by 192:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery 186:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery 102:Learn how and when to remove this message 7148:"Business Pulse Series | CDC Foundation" 6708:. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education. 6371: 6369: 5388: 4600: 4439: 4132:Zhang J, Ou JX, Bai CX (November 2011). 4127: 4125: 4123: 3909:. University of California. pp. X. 3448:"Skin Cancer Module: Practice Exercises" 2552: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2267: 2265: 2263: 2261: 2259: 2257: 2255: 1929: 1642:, and another $ 88 billion was spent on 1523:, having caused 715,000 deaths in 2010. 1467: 1436: 1385: 1272: 1084:Percent of all child deaths preventable 330:(high blood cholesterol), screening for 219: 27:Prevention of the occurrence of diseases 9094:Health departments in the United States 7473:. University of Connecticut. June 2017. 7329: 7180:Neumann PJ, Cohen JT (September 2009). 6953:"Chronic Diseases and Health Promotion" 6932:"CDC National Health Report Highlights" 6816: 6706:The economics of health and health care 6703: 6118:"The Effectiveness of Health Screening" 5901:American Journal of Preventive Medicine 5866:American Journal of Preventive Medicine 5821:American Journal of Preventive Medicine 5625:American Journal of Preventive Medicine 5613: 5584: 5580: 5578: 5066: 4992: 4990: 4932: 4930: 4327:The Australasian Journal of Dermatology 4222: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4212: 4003:Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology 4000: 3996: 3994: 3992: 3734: 3462: 3034:Mechanick JI, Kushner RF, eds. (2016). 2596: 2379:Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 2149:American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1962: 1609:Economics of lifestyle-based prevention 677: 14: 10823: 10345:Nursing credentials and certifications 9099:Council on Education for Public Health 6892: 6216: 6214: 6078: 6076: 5810: 5808: 5368: 5343: 4042: 3943: 3678: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3515:Fuller, Richard; Landrigan, Philip J; 3442: 3440: 3390: 3388: 3338: 3336: 3115: 2739:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2702: 2700: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2196: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2184: 2182: 2180: 2178: 1912:Mortality from modifiable risk factors 872:worldwide share similar trends to the 699: 654:such as via maximum pollution levels, 605: 499:Primal prevention is health promotion 10116: 9287: 9157:Professional degrees of public health 9064:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare 8115: 7982:Artificial intelligence in healthcare 7618: 7233:"The Economic Case for Health Equity" 6403:www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org 6366: 5458: 5156: 4120: 3394: 2984: 2945: 2655:International Journal of Epidemiology 2502: 2305: 2303: 2252: 2143:American Board of Preventive Medicine 2121:Pollution prevention (disambiguation) 1240: 620:Specific protective measures such as 518: 322:(high blood sugar, a risk factor for 282:. According to estimates made by the 10791: 10633:Nursing Interventions Classification 10067: 9828:Physical medicine and rehabilitation 9254: 9147:Bachelor of Science in Public Health 6525: 5575: 5271:Sudano JJ, Baker DW (January 2003). 4987: 4944: 4927: 4405:International Journal of Dermatology 4209: 3989: 2978: 1503: 545:lifestyle-related medical conditions 50: 10803: 10077: 9266: 8415:Workers' right to access the toilet 8256:Human right to water and sanitation 7602:from the original on 5 October 2021 7471:Rudd Center for Obesity Food Policy 6211: 6073: 5805: 5587:The New England Journal of Medicine 5321:"Prevention and Public Health Fund" 4296:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1991.tb121157.x 4077: 3669: 3437: 3385: 3333: 2842:The New England Journal of Medicine 2683: 2524:The New England Journal of Medicine 2440:"Medical Encyclopedia: MedlinePlus" 2175: 1879: 1842:U.S. Preventive Services Task Force 713:Leading causes of preventable death 447:and exercise regimen, and avoiding 24: 9964:Medical Scientist Training Program 8057:reform debate in the United States 7250:Colby SL, Ortman JM (March 2015). 6332:10.1108/S1049-2585(2013)0000021013 5689:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1978.tb25625.x 5325:American Public Health Association 4339:10.1111/j.1440-0960.1991.tb00676.x 2582:RNA, Life's Indispensable Molecule 2300: 2051:Urban green space#Impact on health 1463: 1296:, are common but preventable with 1200:Nevirapine and replacement feeding 1046: 1034:A landmark study conducted by the 888:Deaths caused (millions per year) 760:Poor diet and physical inactivity 25: 10852: 8688:Commercial determinants of health 8141: 8084:(Category Health care by country) 7594:: Department of Nutrition at the 7555: 6571:The Journal of Risk and Insurance 6312:Research Synthesis Report No. 18. 6038: 5277:American Journal of Public Health 4780:"The Global Dementia Observatory" 3004:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.2239 2826:, Norton Professional Books, 1996 2615:10.1161/circulationaha.115.014849 1784:Economics of U.S. preventive care 1040:International Labour Organization 489:Primal and primordial preventions 421:Primal and primordial prevention 10802: 10790: 10779: 10778: 10096: 10086: 10076: 10066: 10057: 10056: 9265: 9253: 9242: 9241: 8271:National public health institute 8096: 8095: 7526: 7501: 7477: 7456: 7432: 7393: 7372: 7323: 7298: 7273: 7243: 7225: 7200: 7164: 7140: 7091: 7042: 6991: 6967: 6945: 6924: 6864: 6839: 6810: 6785: 6760: 6736: 6712: 6697: 6662: 6605: 6583:10.1111/j.1539-6975.2010.01371.x 6562: 6519: 6484: 6462: 6437: 6415: 6391: 6315: 6302: 6247: 6223: 6177:American Journal of Perinatology 6167: 6109: 6059: 6047:. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation 6032: 5997: 5962: 5927: 5892: 5857: 5756: 5721: 5711: 5660: 5651: 5062:. National Academies Press (US). 4417:10.1046/j.1365-4362.2002.01412.x 4284:The Medical Journal of Australia 4151:10.1111/j.1440-1843.2011.02062.x 2034: 1906: 1682: 1551:This section is an excerpt from 717: 682:Secondary prevention deals with 551:, and create a sense of overall 55: 10643:Nursing Outcomes Classification 10638:Nursing Minimum Data Set (NMDS) 10310:Associate of Science in Nursing 10097: 8668:Open-source healthcare software 8410:Sociology of health and illness 7644: 5551: 5510: 5452: 5417: 5382: 5362: 5337: 5313: 5264: 5229: 5180: 5150: 5128: 5059:Missed Prevention Opportunities 5049: 4853: 4772: 4752: 4728: 4712:"Home | World Dementia Council" 4704: 4675: 4594: 4529: 4507: 4396: 4361: 4318: 4275: 4174: 4071: 3896: 3882: 3834: 3618: 3508: 3314: 3273: 3216: 3186: 3161: 3136: 3109: 3080: 3027: 2939: 2936:, Vogue, culture, opinion, 2015 2926: 2891: 2878: 2829: 2816: 2793: 2574: 2565: 2558:Goldston, S. E. (Ed.). (1987). 2011:Childhood immunization policies 1894:Evaluating incremental benefits 1286:Sexually transmitted infections 1269:Sexually transmitted infections 934:Sexually transmitted infections 837:Sexually transmitted infections 626:sexually transmitted infections 443:against disease, maintaining a 10315:Bachelor of Science in Nursing 9954:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine 9388:Oral and maxillofacial surgery 9029:Caribbean Public Health Agency 8841:Sexually transmitted infection 8738:Statistical hypothesis testing 8499:Occupational safety and health 8400:Sexual and reproductive health 8313:Occupational safety and health 7793:Academic health science centre 6612:Rosenbaum S (1 January 2011). 5438:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2004.11.009 4247:Health Promotion International 2405: 2370: 2335: 2321: 2111:Preventive and social medicine 1834:Robert Wood Johnson Foundation 1432: 1381: 1170:Newborn temperature management 180:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine 13: 1: 10537:Psychiatric and mental health 8683:Social determinants of health 8030:Health information management 8015:health information technology 7753:Health information management 7330:Chriqui JF (September 2013). 4831:10.1016/s1474-4422(14)70136-x 4651:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6 4554:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0 4057:10.1016/S0749-2081(96)80024-6 4015:10.1016/s1040-8428(99)00074-8 3967:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)62224-2 3760:10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13811-1 3698:10.1016/s0140-6736(12)60560-1 3538:10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0 3486:10.1016/s0140-6736(06)68770-9 2771:10.1016/s0140-6736(95)90119-1 2168: 2161:Preventive Medicine (journal) 1344: 1279:Fool the Axis Use Prophylaxis 1100:Insecticide-treated materials 115:Preventive medicine physician 32:Preventive Medicine (journal) 10330:Master of Science in Nursing 9934:Bachelor of Medical Sciences 9701:Neurosurgical anesthesiology 9313: 8743:Analysis of variance (ANOVA) 8504:Human factors and ergonomics 8005:Translational bioinformatics 6748:complianceadministrators.com 6540:10.1097/mlr.0b013e3181f28be4 5913:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.03.016 5878:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.02.005 5833:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.03.032 5637:10.1016/j.amepre.2006.03.012 5163:U.S. News & World Report 5103:10.1371/journal.pone.0189718 4382:10.1016/0091-7435(92)90072-p 4045:Seminars in Oncology Nursing 3644:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106595 3362:10.1213/ANE.0000000000005169 3299:10.3390/chemosensors10010022 2964:10.1016/j.cppeds.2015.12.008 2597:Gillman MW (February 2015). 2391:10.3109/09687637.2013.798264 2311:"The top 10 causes of death" 1993: 1412:nicotine replacement therapy 1359:pharmacological treatments. 1024:years of potential life lost 863: 344:sexually transmitted disease 39:Prophylaxis (disambiguation) 7: 10142: 8924:Good manufacturing practice 8728:Randomized controlled trial 8035:Consumer health informatics 7406:Healthy Food Policy Project 7116:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-014632 6851:Congressional Budget Office 6505:10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.03.023 6470:"Reports and Policy Briefs" 6260:Annals of Internal Medicine 5599:10.1056/nejm199307293290511 5426:Journal of Health Economics 4195:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.01.002 3903:Takken W, Scott TW (1991). 3525:The Lancet Planetary Health 2027: 1975: 1953:quality-adjusted life-years 1947:Quality-adjusted life years 1840:(OECD), and efforts by the 1746:cost-effectiveness analysis 1545: 870:causes of preventable death 686:and attempts to prevent an 648:monitoring of air pollution 594:Food education and guidance 397: 78:, discuss the issue on the 10: 10857: 10325:Doctor of Nursing Practice 8994:Theory of planned behavior 8919:Good agricultural practice 8824:Public health surveillance 8716:epidemiological statistics 8360:Public health intervention 7259:Current Population Reports 6630:10.1177/003335491112600118 5021:Health Policy and Planning 3413:10.1007/s00540-020-02846-z 3241:10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.002 2137:Journals and organizations 1979: 1550: 1366: 1348: 1245: 1150:Water, sanitation, hygiene 724:preventable cause of death 609: 598:It has been proposed that 492: 342:and other common types of 270:, unintentional injuries, 43: 36: 29: 10774: 10651: 10618: 10585: 10482:Women's Health Care Nurse 10373: 10289: 10240: 10217:Clinical nurse specialist 10209: 10200: 10159: 10150: 10052: 9974: 9912: 9673: 9601: 9556: 9465: 9336: 9321: 9237: 9172: 9131: 9116:World Toilet Organization 9111:World Health Organization 9018: 9007: 8944: 8869: 8785: 8713: 8678:Public health informatics 8618: 8423: 8385:Right to rest and leisure 8214:Globalization and disease 8149: 8091: 8045: 8025:Public health informatics 7961: 7938:Electronic health records 7908: 7872: 7816: 7808:Supervised injection site 7761: 7748:Allied health professions 7715: 7652: 7577:Preventive Health Checkup 7348:10.1007/s13679-013-0063-x 7017:10.1186/s12916-015-0446-9 6087:. McGraw-Hill Education. 5250:10.1377/hlthaff.2009.0626 5145:10.13140/RG.2.1.1225.6803 4784:World Health Organization 4687:World Health Organization 3890:"STD Data and Statistics" 3631:Environment International 3198:Twin Cities Mobile Market 3056:10.1007/978-3-319-24687-1 2488:10.1377/hlthaff.2008.0701 2356:10.1007/s00103-018-2825-9 2315:World Health Organization 2086:Mental illness prevention 1362: 1327:Post-exposure prophylaxis 1036:World Health Organization 669:Preventive measures like 571: 284:World Health Organization 200: 165: 160: 148: 136: 124: 119: 10661:International Nurses Day 10177:Licensed practical nurse 9888:Transplantation medicine 9779:Clinical neurophysiology 9696:Obstetric anesthesiology 9616:Interventional radiology 9376:Digestive system surgery 9162:Schools of public health 8954:Diffusion of innovations 8653:Health impact assessment 8365:Public health laboratory 8261:Management of depression 7400:smithaa02 (2017-11-13). 6879:Bipartisan policy center 5157:Frist B (May 28, 2015). 4716:worlddementiacouncil.org 4491:World Cancer Report 2014 3349:Anesthesia and Analgesia 3194:"It's a Market on a Bus" 3124:. Atlantic Media Company 2912:10.1016/j.it.2015.09.009 2327:LeChelle Saunders, BSc: 2286:10.1001/jama.291.10.1238 2240:primalhealthresearch.com 2101:Pre-exposure prophylaxis 1819:Economics for investment 1702:United States healthcare 1665:point for intervention. 1014:However, several of the 557:prolongs life expectancy 495:Parent education program 238:, is the application of 10340:Nurse Licensure Compact 9759:Intensive care medicine 9733:Mass gathering medicine 9578:Maternal–fetal medicine 9225:Social hygiene movement 9152:Doctor of Public Health 8984:Social cognitive theory 8786:Infectious and epidemic 8568:Fecal–oral transmission 7973:Medical image computing 7923:Artificial intelligence 7336:Current Obesity Reports 5742:10.1001/jama.265.9.1145 5205:10.1001/jama.2016.16885 3574:Cardiovascular Research 3116:Marucs E (2014-04-07). 2985:Etzel RA (April 2020). 2131:Treatment as prevention 1857:evidence-based medicine 1277:U.S. propaganda poster 1257:, certain cancers, and 1016:leading causes of death 656:regulation of chemicals 652:environmental standards 600:healthy longevity diets 562: 537:eating nutritious meals 318:(high blood pressure), 9351:Cardiothoracic surgery 9220:Germ theory of disease 8999:Transtheoretical model 8010:Translational medicine 6189:10.1055/s-0032-1316439 6018:10.1006/pmed.1993.1014 5536:10.1093/geronb/58.1.S2 4903:10.1001/jama.2019.9879 4603:"Colorectal Neoplasia" 4601:Burke CA, Bianchi LK. 3811:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801938 2946:Etzel RA (June 2016). 2417:www.independent.com.mt 2126:Sick building syndrome 1921:Childhood vaccinations 1744:been studied, and the 1560:prevention of dementia 1553:Prevention of dementia 1473: 1442: 1406:and eventually death. 1391: 1351:Thrombosis prophylaxis 1282: 264:cardiovascular disease 254:, disease agents, and 252:genetic predisposition 228: 10572:Travel health nursing 10172:Clinical nurse leader 10002:Personalized medicine 9861:Reproductive medicine 9786:Occupational medicine 9740:Evolutionary medicine 9104:Public Health Service 8989:Social norms approach 8979:PRECEDE–PROCEED model 8425:Preventive healthcare 8318:Pharmaceutical policy 8167:Chief Medical Officer 7999:Computational biology 7900:Universal precautions 7152:www.cdcfoundation.org 6979:www.healthypeople.gov 6826:Fight Chronic Disease 6618:Public Health Reports 6045:The Synthesis Project 5378:. Harvard University. 5289:10.2105/AJPH.93.1.130 5034:10.1093/heapol/czr038 4965:10.1353/hpu.2011.0037 4819:The Lancet. Neurology 4562:10536/DRO/DU:30050819 4260:10.1093/heapro/dah310 3517:Balakrishnan, Kalpana 3401:Journal of Anesthesia 3395:Obara S (June 2021). 2854:10.1056/NEJMra0708473 1930:Health capital theory 1471: 1440: 1389: 1276: 1110:Complementary feeding 634:personalized medicine 478:Quaternary prevention 456:Secondary prevention 378:), and screening for 248:environmental factors 232:Preventive healthcare 223: 46:Pesticide application 10397:Correctional nursing 10022:Traditional medicine 9982:Alternative medicine 9849:Addiction psychiatry 9663:Transfusion medicine 9658:Medical microbiology 9573:Gynecologic oncology 9425:Reproductive surgery 9180:Sara Josephine Baker 9079:Public Health Agency 8964:Health communication 8829:Disease surveillance 8795:Asymptomatic carrier 8777:Statistical software 8465:Preventive nutrition 8293:Medical anthropology 8182:Environmental health 7993:Behavior informatics 7588:www.hsph.harvard.edu 7387:City of Philadelphia 6920:on 28 February 2017. 5004:on November 9, 2011. 3458:on 22 February 2012. 2900:Trends in Immunology 2537:10.1056/nejmp0708558 1963:Minority populations 1401:is an environmental 1314:such barrier devices 989:Indoor air pollution 678:Secondary prevention 660:occupational hygiene 616:Biomarker (medicine) 612:Screening (medicine) 543:often, that prevent 468:Tertiary prevention 405:Sara Josephine Baker 328:hypercholesterolemia 242:measures to prevent 84:create a new article 76:improve this article 66:may not represent a 18:Prevention (medical) 10841:Nursing specialties 10836:Preventive medicine 10831:Medical terminology 10731:Republic of Ireland 10507:Occupational health 10497:Nursing informatics 10273:Psych/mental health 10044:History of medicine 10027:Veterinary medicine 9834:Preventive medicine 9686:Adolescent medicine 9528:Infectious diseases 9190:Carl Rogers Darnall 9185:Samuel Jay Crumbine 8959:Health belief model 8812:Notifiable diseases 8748:Regression analysis 8583:Waterborne diseases 8172:Cultural competence 7977:imaging informatics 7885:Cultural competence 6493:Preventive Medicine 6387:on 10 January 2016. 6006:Preventive Medicine 5681:1978NYASA.304..424W 5094:2017PLoSO..1289718A 4370:Preventive Medicine 4183:Preventive Medicine 3586:10.1093/cvr/cvaa025 3204:on 20 November 2015 2810:"Primal Prevention" 2201:Publishing Company. 2116:Primary Health Care 2091:Pandemic prevention 2061:Consumer protection 1887:Affordable Care Act 1846:Affordable Care Act 1757:sweetened beverages 1655:Affordable Care Act 1584:physical inactivity 1572:high blood pressure 1077: 969:Physical inactivity 881: 785:Infectious diseases 772:Alcohol consumption 732: 700:Tertiary prevention 664:consumer protection 606:Protective measures 436:Primary prevention 280:sedentary lifestyle 276:infectious diseases 268:respiratory disease 116: 10595:Nursing assessment 10457:Legal consultation 10320:Diploma in Nursing 10305:Nightingale Pledge 10232:Nurse practitioner 9992:Molecular oncology 9949:Doctor of Medicine 9939:Master of Medicine 9856:Radiation oncology 9728:Emergency medicine 9681:Addiction medicine 9648:Clinical chemistry 9643:Clinical pathology 9435:Transplant surgery 9393:Orthopedic surgery 9371:Colorectal surgery 8788:disease prevention 8723:Case–control study 8395:Security of person 8244:Health care reform 7963:Health informatics 7738:Healthcare science 6704:Folland S (2010). 5369:Schorr LB (2007). 4790:on 3 February 2017 4693:on 17 October 2016 4645:(10248): 413–446. 4605:. Cleveland Clinic 4548:(9859): 2095–128. 4096:10.1136/tc.5.3.220 2932:Garcia, Patricia, 2668:10.1093/ije/dyv102 2317:. 9 December 2020. 1800:health assessments 1667:Cost-effectiveness 1648:workplace wellness 1620:chronic conditions 1598:health disparities 1540:fecal occult blood 1530:, commonly called 1485:sub-Saharan Africa 1474: 1443: 1392: 1283: 1241:Preventive methods 1160:Antenatal steroids 1075: 879: 811:Traffic collisions 730: 622:water purification 533:lifestyle medicine 519:Primary prevention 229: 174:Doctor of Medicine 167:Education required 114: 10818: 10817: 10605:Nursing care plan 10600:Nursing diagnosis 10285: 10284: 10281: 10280: 10253:Adult-gerontology 10241:NPs by population 10222:Nurse anesthetist 10202:Advanced practice 10110: 10109: 9944:Master of Surgery 9908: 9907: 9893:Tropical medicine 9839:Prison healthcare 9754:Hospital medicine 9718:Disaster medicine 9708:Aviation medicine 9523:Hospital medicine 9430:Surgical oncology 9415:Pediatric surgery 9409: 9356:Endocrine surgery 9281: 9280: 9233: 9232: 9143:Higher education 8974:Positive deviance 8969:Health psychology 8945:Health behavioral 8872:safety management 8846:Social distancing 8620:Population health 8600:Smoking cessation 8548:Pharmacovigilance 8519:Injury prevention 8487:Infection control 8405:Social psychology 8355:Prisoners' rights 8298:Medical sociology 8266:Public health law 8162:Biological hazard 8109: 8108: 7873:Skills / training 7797:Teaching hospital 7067:10.2337/dc12-2625 6853:. 26 October 2015 6480:on 3 August 2017. 6433:on 10 March 2016. 6341:978-1-78190-553-1 5781:10.2337/dc11-1468 5459:Fuchs VR (1984). 5346:"Preventive Care" 5199:(24): 2627–2646. 4736:"Dementia - OECD" 4500:978-92-832-0432-9 3692:(9832): 2151–61. 3580:(11): 1910–1917. 3480:(9524): 1747–57. 3148:Food is Power.org 3065:978-3-319-24685-7 3050:. pp. 9–15. 3044:Cham, Switzerland 2991:JAMA Network Open 2884:Scherrer et al., 2350:(11): 1446–1452. 2219:Primal Prevention 1769:chronic condition 1741:childhood obesity 1632:life expectancies 1509:Colorectal cancer 1504:Colorectal cancer 1373:In recent years, 1369:Cancer prevention 1238: 1237: 1012: 1011: 991:from solid fuels 861: 860: 824:Firearm incidents 650:. In many cases, 644:is also monitored 486: 485: 388:genetic disorders 368:colorectal cancer 324:diabetes mellitus 312:air quality index 256:lifestyle choices 218: 217: 112: 111: 104: 86:, as appropriate. 16:(Redirected from 10848: 10806: 10805: 10794: 10793: 10782: 10781: 10472:Medical-surgical 10375:Specialties and 10335:Board of nursing 10207: 10206: 10182:Registered nurse 10157: 10156: 10137: 10130: 10123: 10114: 10113: 10100: 10099: 10090: 10080: 10079: 10070: 10069: 10060: 10059: 9764:Medical genetics 9749:General practice 9626:Nuclear medicine 9501:Gastroenterology 9457:Vascular surgery 9407: 9334: 9333: 9308: 9301: 9294: 9285: 9284: 9269: 9268: 9257: 9256: 9245: 9244: 9139:Health education 9016: 9015: 8870:Food hygiene and 8851:Tropical disease 8663:Infant mortality 8638:Community health 8514:Controlled Drugs 8450:Health promotion 8380:Right to housing 8224:Health economics 8136: 8129: 8122: 8113: 8112: 8099: 8098: 7987:Neuroinformatics 7928:Connected health 7639: 7632: 7625: 7616: 7615: 7611: 7609: 7607: 7549: 7548: 7546: 7545: 7530: 7524: 7523: 7521: 7520: 7505: 7499: 7498: 7496: 7495: 7489:www.immunize.org 7481: 7475: 7474: 7468: 7460: 7454: 7453: 7451: 7450: 7436: 7430: 7429: 7423: 7415: 7413: 7412: 7397: 7391: 7390: 7384: 7376: 7370: 7369: 7359: 7327: 7321: 7320: 7318: 7317: 7302: 7296: 7295: 7293: 7292: 7277: 7271: 7270: 7268: 7266: 7256: 7247: 7241: 7240: 7239:. Arlington, VA. 7229: 7223: 7222: 7220: 7219: 7204: 7198: 7197: 7177: 7171: 7168: 7162: 7161: 7159: 7158: 7144: 7138: 7137: 7127: 7095: 7089: 7088: 7078: 7046: 7040: 7039: 7029: 7019: 6995: 6989: 6988: 6986: 6985: 6971: 6965: 6964: 6963:on 2 March 2014. 6959:. Archived from 6949: 6943: 6942: 6936: 6928: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6913:. Archived from 6911:Milken Institute 6908: 6899: 6890: 6889: 6887: 6885: 6876: 6868: 6862: 6861: 6859: 6858: 6843: 6837: 6836: 6834: 6832: 6823: 6814: 6808: 6807: 6805: 6803: 6797:UnitedHealthcare 6789: 6783: 6782: 6780: 6779: 6764: 6758: 6757: 6755: 6754: 6740: 6734: 6733: 6731: 6730: 6716: 6710: 6709: 6701: 6695: 6694: 6666: 6660: 6659: 6649: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6566: 6560: 6559: 6523: 6517: 6516: 6488: 6482: 6481: 6476:. Archived from 6466: 6460: 6459: 6457: 6456: 6441: 6435: 6434: 6429:. Archived from 6419: 6413: 6412: 6410: 6409: 6395: 6389: 6388: 6383:. 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Archived from 2714: 2704: 2681: 2680: 2670: 2646: 2637: 2636: 2626: 2594: 2585: 2580:Darnell, James, 2578: 2572: 2569: 2563: 2556: 2550: 2549: 2539: 2515: 2500: 2499: 2471: 2454: 2453: 2451: 2450: 2436: 2427: 2426: 2424: 2423: 2409: 2403: 2402: 2374: 2368: 2367: 2339: 2333: 2325: 2319: 2318: 2307: 2298: 2297: 2269: 2250: 2249: 2247: 2246: 2232: 2223: 2222: 2211: 2202: 2198: 2044: 2039: 2038: 2037: 1880:Health insurance 1751:Gortmaker, S.L. 1628:infant mortality 1418:Cancer screening 1318:testing partners 1288:(STIs), such as 1078: 1074: 914:High cholesterol 882: 878: 742:% of all deaths 733: 729: 662:requirements or 529:health education 525:health promotion 427:health promotion 410: 409: 150:Activity sectors 117: 113: 107: 100: 96: 93: 87: 59: 58: 51: 21: 10856: 10855: 10851: 10850: 10849: 10847: 10846: 10845: 10821: 10820: 10819: 10814: 10770: 10647: 10620: 10619:Classification 10614: 10587:Nursing process 10581: 10422:Faith community 10387:Ambulatory care 10378: 10376: 10369: 10295: 10293: 10277: 10236: 10196: 10192:Nurse scientist 10152: 10146: 10141: 10111: 10106: 10048: 10037:Chief physician 9970: 9915: 9904: 9898:Travel medicine 9883:Sports medicine 9866:Sexual medicine 9806:Palliative care 9801:Pain management 9745:Family medicine 9723:Diving medicine 9669: 9597: 9559: 9552: 9468: 9461: 9420:Plastic surgery 9366:General surgery 9346:Cardiac surgery 9327: 9325: 9317: 9312: 9282: 9277: 9229: 9200:Margaret Sanger 9168: 9127: 9011: 9009: 9003: 8946: 8940: 8912:Safety scandals 8871: 8865: 8787: 8781: 8715: 8709: 8705:Social medicine 8698:Race and health 8633:Child mortality 8614: 8573:Open defecation 8455:Human nutrition 8445:Family planning 8433:Behavior change 8419: 8375:Right to health 8288:Maternal health 8278:Health politics 8229:Health literacy 8145: 8140: 8110: 8105: 8087: 8041: 8040: 8039: 7957: 7904: 7868: 7844:Overutilization 7812: 7803:Pharmacy school 7769:Assisted living 7757: 7711: 7648: 7643: 7605: 7603: 7558: 7553: 7552: 7543: 7541: 7532: 7531: 7527: 7518: 7516: 7507: 7506: 7502: 7493: 7491: 7483: 7482: 7478: 7466: 7462: 7461: 7457: 7448: 7446: 7438: 7437: 7433: 7417: 7416: 7410: 7408: 7398: 7394: 7382: 7378: 7377: 7373: 7328: 7324: 7315: 7313: 7304: 7303: 7299: 7290: 7288: 7279: 7278: 7274: 7264: 7262: 7254: 7248: 7244: 7231: 7230: 7226: 7217: 7215: 7206: 7205: 7201: 7178: 7174: 7169: 7165: 7156: 7154: 7146: 7145: 7141: 7110:(10): e014632. 7096: 7092: 7047: 7043: 6996: 6992: 6983: 6981: 6973: 6972: 6968: 6951: 6950: 6946: 6934: 6930: 6929: 6925: 6917: 6906: 6900: 6893: 6883: 6881: 6874: 6870: 6869: 6865: 6856: 6854: 6845: 6844: 6840: 6830: 6828: 6821: 6815: 6811: 6801: 6799: 6791: 6790: 6786: 6777: 6775: 6766: 6765: 6761: 6752: 6750: 6742: 6741: 6737: 6728: 6726: 6718: 6717: 6713: 6702: 6698: 6677:(39): 1348–50. 6667: 6663: 6610: 6606: 6567: 6563: 6524: 6520: 6489: 6485: 6468: 6467: 6463: 6454: 6452: 6443: 6442: 6438: 6421: 6420: 6416: 6407: 6405: 6397: 6396: 6392: 6375: 6374: 6367: 6342: 6320: 6316: 6307: 6303: 6252: 6248: 6239: 6237: 6229: 6228: 6224: 6219: 6212: 6172: 6168: 6120: 6114: 6110: 6095: 6081: 6074: 6065: 6064: 6060: 6050: 6048: 6037: 6033: 6002: 5998: 5967: 5963: 5942:(9): 1082–100. 5932: 5928: 5897: 5893: 5862: 5858: 5813: 5806: 5761: 5757: 5726: 5722: 5716: 5712: 5665: 5661: 5656: 5652: 5621: 5614: 5583: 5576: 5567: 5565: 5557: 5556: 5552: 5515: 5511: 5480:10.2307/3349821 5463: 5457: 5453: 5422: 5418: 5387: 5383: 5375: 5367: 5363: 5354: 5352: 5342: 5338: 5329: 5327: 5319: 5318: 5314: 5269: 5265: 5234: 5230: 5185: 5181: 5172: 5170: 5155: 5151: 5133: 5129: 5074: 5067: 5054: 5050: 5013: 5009: 4996: 4995: 4988: 4949: 4945: 4936: 4935: 4928: 4883: 4876: 4866: 4864: 4859: 4858: 4854: 4811: 4802: 4793: 4791: 4778: 4777: 4773: 4764: 4762: 4758: 4757: 4753: 4744: 4742: 4734: 4733: 4729: 4720: 4718: 4710: 4709: 4705: 4696: 4694: 4681: 4680: 4676: 4631: 4618: 4608: 4606: 4599: 4595: 4534: 4530: 4520: 4518: 4513: 4512: 4508: 4501: 4489: 4488: 4484: 4447: 4440: 4401: 4397: 4366: 4362: 4323: 4319: 4280: 4276: 4239: 4230: 4225: 4210: 4179: 4175: 4130: 4121: 4084:Tobacco Control 4078:Koh HK (1996). 4076: 4072: 4041: 4030: 3999: 3990: 3951: 3944: 3932: 3931: 3922: 3921: 3917: 3901: 3897: 3888: 3887: 3883: 3873: 3871: 3868:Merriam-Webster 3861: 3860: 3853: 3840: 3839: 3835: 3790: 3783: 3754:(9377): 65–71. 3744: 3735: 3730: 3721: 3681: 3670: 3623: 3619: 3566: 3562: 3513: 3509: 3470: 3463: 3446: 3445: 3438: 3393: 3386: 3341: 3334: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3315: 3278: 3274: 3221: 3217: 3207: 3205: 3192: 3191: 3187: 3177: 3175: 3167: 3166: 3162: 3152: 3150: 3142: 3141: 3137: 3127: 3125: 3114: 3110: 3100: 3098: 3090: 3086: 3085: 3081: 3066: 3048:Springer Nature 3032: 3028: 2983: 2979: 2944: 2940: 2931: 2927: 2906:(11): 684–696. 2896: 2892: 2883: 2879: 2834: 2830: 2821: 2817: 2808: 2807: 2803: 2798: 2794: 2755: 2748: 2732: 2731: 2725: 2723: 2719: 2712: 2710:"Archived copy" 2708: 2705: 2684: 2647: 2640: 2595: 2588: 2579: 2575: 2570: 2566: 2557: 2553: 2516: 2503: 2472: 2457: 2448: 2446: 2444:medlineplus.gov 2438: 2437: 2430: 2421: 2419: 2411: 2410: 2406: 2375: 2371: 2340: 2336: 2326: 2322: 2309: 2308: 2301: 2280:(10): 1238–45. 2270: 2253: 2244: 2242: 2234: 2233: 2226: 2213: 2212: 2205: 2199: 2176: 2171: 2166: 2071:Health security 2056:Chemoprevention 2042:Medicine portal 2040: 2035: 2033: 2030: 2013: 1996: 1987:Chronic disease 1984: 1978: 1965: 1949: 1932: 1923: 1914: 1909: 1896: 1882: 1873: 1821: 1795: 1786: 1737: 1721:In 2008, Cohen 1689:quality of life 1685: 1611: 1594: 1589: 1588: 1556: 1548: 1506: 1487:, and parts of 1477:Cervical cancer 1466: 1464:Cervical cancer 1435: 1384: 1371: 1365: 1353: 1347: 1335: 1271: 1263:type 2 diabetes 1259:type 2 diabetes 1248: 1243: 1220:Measles vaccine 1049: 1047:Child mortality 866: 748:Tobacco smoking 720: 715: 702: 684:latent diseases 680: 618: 608: 596: 588:urban gardening 574: 565: 549:quality of life 521: 497: 491: 400: 384:Genetic testing 376:cervical cancer 362:(to screen for 205: 203: 168: 151: 139: 138:Occupation type 108: 97: 91: 88: 73: 60: 56: 49: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10854: 10844: 10843: 10838: 10833: 10816: 10815: 10813: 10812: 10800: 10788: 10775: 10772: 10771: 10769: 10768: 10758: 10751:United Kingdom 10748: 10743: 10738: 10733: 10728: 10723: 10718: 10708: 10703: 10698: 10693: 10688: 10683: 10678: 10673: 10663: 10657: 10655: 10649: 10648: 10646: 10645: 10640: 10635: 10630: 10624: 10622: 10616: 10615: 10613: 10612: 10610:Nursing theory 10607: 10602: 10597: 10591: 10589: 10583: 10582: 10580: 10579: 10574: 10569: 10564: 10559: 10554: 10549: 10544: 10539: 10534: 10529: 10527:Perianesthesia 10524: 10519: 10514: 10509: 10504: 10499: 10494: 10489: 10484: 10479: 10474: 10469: 10464: 10459: 10454: 10449: 10444: 10439: 10434: 10429: 10424: 10419: 10414: 10409: 10404: 10399: 10394: 10389: 10383: 10381: 10371: 10370: 10368: 10367: 10362: 10357: 10355:Nurse registry 10352: 10350:Nursing school 10347: 10342: 10337: 10332: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10312: 10307: 10301: 10299: 10287: 10286: 10283: 10282: 10279: 10278: 10276: 10275: 10270: 10265: 10263:Women's health 10260: 10255: 10250: 10244: 10242: 10238: 10237: 10235: 10234: 10229: 10224: 10219: 10213: 10211: 10204: 10198: 10197: 10195: 10194: 10189: 10187:Graduate nurse 10184: 10179: 10174: 10169: 10163: 10161: 10154: 10148: 10147: 10140: 10139: 10132: 10125: 10117: 10108: 10107: 10105: 10104: 10094: 10084: 10074: 10064: 10053: 10050: 10049: 10047: 10046: 10041: 10040: 10039: 10029: 10024: 10019: 10014: 10009: 10004: 9999: 9994: 9989: 9984: 9978: 9976: 9975:Related topics 9972: 9971: 9969: 9968: 9967: 9966: 9956: 9951: 9946: 9941: 9936: 9931: 9926: 9924:Medical school 9920: 9918: 9910: 9909: 9906: 9905: 9903: 9902: 9901: 9900: 9890: 9885: 9880: 9878:Sleep medicine 9875: 9874: 9873: 9863: 9858: 9853: 9852: 9851: 9841: 9836: 9831: 9825: 9820: 9819: 9818: 9808: 9803: 9798: 9793: 9788: 9783: 9782: 9781: 9771: 9766: 9761: 9756: 9751: 9742: 9737: 9736: 9735: 9725: 9720: 9715: 9710: 9705: 9704: 9703: 9698: 9691:Anesthesiology 9688: 9683: 9677: 9675: 9671: 9670: 9668: 9667: 9666: 9665: 9660: 9655: 9650: 9645: 9640: 9630: 9629: 9628: 9623: 9621:Neuroradiology 9618: 9607: 9605: 9599: 9598: 9596: 9595: 9590: 9585: 9580: 9575: 9570: 9564: 9562: 9558:Obstetrics and 9554: 9553: 9551: 9550: 9545: 9540: 9535: 9530: 9525: 9520: 9515: 9510: 9509: 9508: 9498: 9493: 9488: 9483: 9473: 9471: 9463: 9462: 9460: 9459: 9454: 9453: 9452: 9442: 9440:Trauma surgery 9437: 9432: 9427: 9422: 9417: 9412: 9411: 9410: 9403:Otolaryngology 9400: 9395: 9390: 9385: 9380: 9379: 9378: 9373: 9363: 9358: 9353: 9348: 9342: 9340: 9331: 9329:subspecialties 9319: 9318: 9311: 9310: 9303: 9296: 9288: 9279: 9278: 9276: 9275: 9263: 9251: 9238: 9235: 9234: 9231: 9230: 9228: 9227: 9222: 9217: 9212: 9207: 9202: 9197: 9192: 9187: 9182: 9176: 9174: 9170: 9169: 9167: 9166: 9165: 9164: 9159: 9154: 9149: 9141: 9135: 9133: 9129: 9128: 9126: 9125: 9118: 9113: 9108: 9107: 9106: 9101: 9096: 9091: 9083: 9082: 9081: 9076: 9068: 9067: 9066: 9058: 9057: 9056: 9051: 9043: 9042: 9041: 9033: 9032: 9031: 9022: 9020: 9013: 9008:Organizations, 9005: 9004: 9002: 9001: 8996: 8991: 8986: 8981: 8976: 8971: 8966: 8961: 8956: 8950: 8948: 8942: 8941: 8939: 8938: 8937: 8936: 8931: 8921: 8916: 8915: 8914: 8909: 8904: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8884: 8875: 8873: 8867: 8866: 8864: 8863: 8858: 8853: 8848: 8843: 8838: 8833: 8832: 8831: 8821: 8820: 8819: 8809: 8808: 8807: 8797: 8791: 8789: 8783: 8782: 8780: 8779: 8774: 8773: 8772: 8764: 8755: 8750: 8745: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8719: 8717: 8714:Biological and 8711: 8710: 8708: 8707: 8702: 8701: 8700: 8695: 8690: 8680: 8675: 8673:Multimorbidity 8670: 8665: 8660: 8655: 8650: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8630: 8624: 8622: 8616: 8615: 8613: 8612: 8610:Vector control 8607: 8602: 8597: 8595:School hygiene 8592: 8591: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8578:Sanitary sewer 8575: 8570: 8565: 8555: 8550: 8545: 8544: 8543: 8536:Patient safety 8533: 8532: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8506: 8496: 8495: 8494: 8489: 8484: 8479: 8469: 8468: 8467: 8462: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8441: 8440: 8429: 8427: 8421: 8420: 8418: 8417: 8412: 8407: 8402: 8397: 8392: 8387: 8382: 8377: 8372: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8352: 8351: 8350: 8345: 8340: 8335: 8330: 8320: 8315: 8310: 8300: 8295: 8290: 8285: 8280: 8275: 8274: 8273: 8268: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8247: 8246: 8241: 8231: 8226: 8221: 8219:Harm reduction 8216: 8211: 8206: 8201: 8200: 8199: 8194: 8184: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8164: 8159: 8153: 8151: 8147: 8146: 8139: 8138: 8131: 8124: 8116: 8107: 8106: 8104: 8103: 8092: 8089: 8088: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8066: 8064:United Kingdom 8061: 8060: 8059: 8049: 8047: 8043: 8042: 8038: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7996: 7990: 7984: 7979: 7969: 7968: 7967: 7965: 7959: 7958: 7956: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7933:Digital health 7930: 7925: 7920: 7918:3D bioprinting 7914: 7912: 7906: 7905: 7903: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7880:Bedside manner 7876: 7874: 7870: 7869: 7867: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7820: 7818: 7814: 7813: 7811: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7789:Medical school 7786: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7765: 7763: 7759: 7758: 7756: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7719: 7717: 7713: 7712: 7710: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7653: 7650: 7649: 7642: 7641: 7634: 7627: 7619: 7613: 7612: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7557: 7556:External links 7554: 7551: 7550: 7525: 7500: 7476: 7455: 7431: 7392: 7371: 7342:(3): 200–210. 7322: 7297: 7272: 7242: 7224: 7199: 7172: 7163: 7139: 7090: 7061:(4): 1033–46. 7041: 6990: 6966: 6944: 6923: 6891: 6863: 6838: 6809: 6784: 6759: 6735: 6711: 6696: 6661: 6604: 6577:(3): 703–708. 6561: 6518: 6483: 6461: 6436: 6414: 6390: 6365: 6340: 6314: 6301: 6246: 6222: 6210: 6183:(10): 787–93. 6166: 6108: 6093: 6072: 6058: 6031: 5996: 5977:(4): 386–404. 5961: 5926: 5891: 5856: 5804: 5755: 5736:(9): 1145–51. 5720: 5710: 5659: 5650: 5612: 5574: 5550: 5509: 5451: 5416: 5381: 5361: 5336: 5312: 5263: 5238:Health Affairs 5228: 5179: 5149: 5127: 5065: 5048: 5027:(4): 288–300. 5007: 4986: 4943: 4926: 4897:(5): 430–437. 4874: 4852: 4800: 4771: 4751: 4727: 4703: 4674: 4616: 4593: 4528: 4506: 4499: 4482: 4461:(10): 954–62. 4438: 4395: 4360: 4317: 4274: 4228: 4208: 4173: 4144:(8): 1165–72. 4119: 4070: 4028: 3988: 3942: 3915: 3895: 3881: 3863:"Prophylactic" 3851: 3833: 3781: 3733: 3719: 3668: 3617: 3560: 3507: 3461: 3436: 3407:(3): 351–355. 3384: 3332: 3313: 3272: 3215: 3185: 3160: 3144:"Food Deserts" 3135: 3108: 3079: 3064: 3026: 2997:(4): e202239. 2977: 2938: 2925: 2890: 2877: 2828: 2815: 2801: 2792: 2746: 2682: 2661:(5): 1469–73. 2638: 2609:(7): 599–601. 2586: 2573: 2564: 2551: 2501: 2482:(9): 1656–60. 2476:Health Affairs 2455: 2428: 2404: 2369: 2334: 2320: 2299: 2251: 2224: 2203: 2173: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2164: 2157: 2152: 2145: 2134: 2133: 2128: 2123: 2118: 2113: 2108: 2103: 2098: 2093: 2088: 2083: 2078: 2073: 2068: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2047: 2046: 2045: 2029: 2026: 2012: 2009: 1995: 1992: 1977: 1974: 1964: 1961: 1948: 1945: 1931: 1928: 1922: 1919: 1913: 1910: 1908: 1905: 1895: 1892: 1881: 1878: 1872: 1869: 1820: 1817: 1794: 1791: 1785: 1782: 1781: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1736: 1733: 1684: 1681: 1610: 1607: 1593: 1590: 1557: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1528:benign growths 1505: 1502: 1465: 1462: 1434: 1431: 1383: 1380: 1367:Main article: 1364: 1361: 1349:Main article: 1346: 1343: 1334: 1331: 1270: 1267: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1235: 1232: 1226: 1225: 1222: 1216: 1215: 1212: 1206: 1205: 1202: 1196: 1195: 1192: 1190:Tetanus toxoid 1186: 1185: 1182: 1176: 1175: 1172: 1166: 1165: 1162: 1156: 1155: 1152: 1146: 1145: 1142: 1136: 1135: 1132: 1130:Clean delivery 1126: 1125: 1122: 1116: 1115: 1112: 1106: 1105: 1102: 1096: 1095: 1092: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1048: 1045: 1010: 1009: 1006: 996: 995: 992: 985: 984: 981: 975: 974: 971: 965: 964: 961: 951: 950: 947: 940: 939: 936: 930: 929: 926: 920: 919: 916: 910: 909: 906: 900: 899: 896: 890: 889: 886: 865: 862: 859: 858: 855: 852: 846: 845: 842: 839: 833: 832: 829: 826: 820: 819: 816: 813: 807: 806: 803: 800: 794: 793: 790: 787: 781: 780: 777: 774: 768: 767: 764: 761: 757: 756: 753: 750: 744: 743: 740: 739:Deaths caused 737: 719: 716: 714: 711: 701: 698: 679: 676: 607: 604: 595: 592: 573: 570: 564: 561: 547:, improve the 520: 517: 501:par excellence 490: 487: 484: 483: 480: 474: 473: 469: 465: 464: 457: 453: 452: 437: 433: 432: 422: 418: 417: 414: 399: 396: 392:ovarian cancer 374:(to check for 296:cardiovascular 294:, and chronic 274:, and certain 216: 215: 206: 201: 198: 197: 196: 195: 189: 183: 177: 169: 166: 163: 162: 158: 157: 152: 149: 146: 145: 140: 137: 134: 133: 132: 131: 126: 122: 121: 110: 109: 70:of the subject 68:worldwide view 63: 61: 54: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10853: 10842: 10839: 10837: 10834: 10832: 10829: 10828: 10826: 10811: 10810: 10801: 10799: 10798: 10789: 10787: 10786: 10777: 10776: 10773: 10766: 10762: 10761:United States 10759: 10756: 10752: 10749: 10747: 10744: 10742: 10739: 10737: 10734: 10732: 10729: 10727: 10724: 10722: 10719: 10716: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10671: 10667: 10664: 10662: 10659: 10658: 10656: 10654: 10650: 10644: 10641: 10639: 10636: 10634: 10631: 10629: 10626: 10625: 10623: 10617: 10611: 10608: 10606: 10603: 10601: 10598: 10596: 10593: 10592: 10590: 10588: 10584: 10578: 10575: 10573: 10570: 10568: 10565: 10563: 10560: 10558: 10555: 10553: 10550: 10548: 10547:Public health 10545: 10543: 10540: 10538: 10535: 10533: 10532:Perioperative 10530: 10528: 10525: 10523: 10520: 10518: 10515: 10513: 10510: 10508: 10505: 10503: 10500: 10498: 10495: 10493: 10490: 10488: 10485: 10483: 10480: 10478: 10475: 10473: 10470: 10468: 10465: 10463: 10460: 10458: 10455: 10453: 10450: 10448: 10445: 10443: 10440: 10438: 10435: 10433: 10430: 10428: 10425: 10423: 10420: 10418: 10415: 10413: 10410: 10408: 10405: 10403: 10402:Critical care 10400: 10398: 10395: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10385: 10384: 10382: 10380: 10372: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10356: 10353: 10351: 10348: 10346: 10343: 10341: 10338: 10336: 10333: 10331: 10328: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10306: 10303: 10302: 10300: 10298: 10292: 10288: 10274: 10271: 10269: 10266: 10264: 10261: 10259: 10256: 10254: 10251: 10249: 10246: 10245: 10243: 10239: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10227:Nurse midwife 10225: 10223: 10220: 10218: 10215: 10214: 10212: 10208: 10205: 10203: 10199: 10193: 10190: 10188: 10185: 10183: 10180: 10178: 10175: 10173: 10170: 10168: 10167:Student nurse 10165: 10164: 10162: 10158: 10155: 10149: 10145: 10138: 10133: 10131: 10126: 10124: 10119: 10118: 10115: 10103: 10095: 10093: 10089: 10085: 10083: 10075: 10073: 10065: 10063: 10055: 10054: 10051: 10045: 10042: 10038: 10035: 10034: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10018: 10015: 10013: 10010: 10008: 10007:Public health 10005: 10003: 10000: 9998: 9995: 9993: 9990: 9988: 9987:Allied health 9985: 9983: 9980: 9979: 9977: 9973: 9965: 9962: 9961: 9960: 9957: 9955: 9952: 9950: 9947: 9945: 9942: 9940: 9937: 9935: 9932: 9930: 9927: 9925: 9922: 9921: 9919: 9917: 9911: 9899: 9896: 9895: 9894: 9891: 9889: 9886: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9876: 9872: 9869: 9868: 9867: 9864: 9862: 9859: 9857: 9854: 9850: 9847: 9846: 9845: 9842: 9840: 9837: 9835: 9832: 9829: 9826: 9824: 9821: 9817: 9814: 9813: 9812: 9809: 9807: 9804: 9802: 9799: 9797: 9796:Oral medicine 9794: 9792: 9791:Ophthalmology 9789: 9787: 9784: 9780: 9777: 9776: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9767: 9765: 9762: 9760: 9757: 9755: 9752: 9750: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9738: 9734: 9731: 9730: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9721: 9719: 9716: 9714: 9711: 9709: 9706: 9702: 9699: 9697: 9694: 9693: 9692: 9689: 9687: 9684: 9682: 9679: 9678: 9676: 9672: 9664: 9661: 9659: 9656: 9654: 9653:Cytopathology 9651: 9649: 9646: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9635: 9634: 9631: 9627: 9624: 9622: 9619: 9617: 9614: 9613: 9612: 9609: 9608: 9606: 9604: 9600: 9594: 9593:Urogynecology 9591: 9589: 9586: 9584: 9581: 9579: 9576: 9574: 9571: 9569: 9566: 9565: 9563: 9561: 9555: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9507: 9504: 9503: 9502: 9499: 9497: 9496:Endocrinology 9494: 9492: 9489: 9487: 9484: 9482: 9478: 9475: 9474: 9472: 9470: 9464: 9458: 9455: 9451: 9448: 9447: 9446: 9443: 9441: 9438: 9436: 9433: 9431: 9428: 9426: 9423: 9421: 9418: 9416: 9413: 9406: 9405: 9404: 9401: 9399: 9396: 9394: 9391: 9389: 9386: 9384: 9381: 9377: 9374: 9372: 9369: 9368: 9367: 9364: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9344: 9343: 9341: 9339: 9335: 9332: 9330: 9324: 9320: 9316: 9309: 9304: 9302: 9297: 9295: 9290: 9289: 9286: 9274: 9273: 9264: 9262: 9261: 9252: 9250: 9249: 9240: 9239: 9236: 9226: 9223: 9221: 9218: 9216: 9213: 9211: 9208: 9206: 9203: 9201: 9198: 9196: 9195:Joseph Lister 9193: 9191: 9188: 9186: 9183: 9181: 9178: 9177: 9175: 9171: 9163: 9160: 9158: 9155: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9144: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9136: 9134: 9130: 9123: 9119: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9105: 9102: 9100: 9097: 9095: 9092: 9090: 9087: 9086: 9084: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9074:Health Canada 9072: 9071: 9069: 9065: 9062: 9061: 9059: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9046: 9044: 9040: 9037: 9036: 9034: 9030: 9027: 9026: 9024: 9023: 9021: 9019:Organizations 9017: 9014: 9006: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8951: 8949: 8943: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8926: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8898: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8879: 8877: 8876: 8874: 8868: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8856:Vaccine trial 8854: 8852: 8849: 8847: 8844: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8834: 8830: 8827: 8826: 8825: 8822: 8818: 8815: 8814: 8813: 8810: 8806: 8803: 8802: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8792: 8790: 8784: 8778: 8775: 8771: 8769: 8765: 8763: 8761: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8740: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8733:Relative risk 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8720: 8718: 8712: 8706: 8703: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8693:Health equity 8691: 8689: 8686: 8685: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8664: 8661: 8659: 8658:Health system 8656: 8654: 8651: 8649: 8648:Global health 8646: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8628:Biostatistics 8626: 8625: 8623: 8621: 8617: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8598: 8596: 8593: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8576: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8560: 8559: 8556: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8546: 8542: 8539: 8538: 8537: 8534: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8501: 8500: 8497: 8493: 8490: 8488: 8485: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8474: 8473: 8470: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8457: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8439: 8436: 8435: 8434: 8431: 8430: 8428: 8426: 8422: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8403: 8401: 8398: 8396: 8393: 8391: 8388: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8370:Right to food 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8349: 8346: 8344: 8341: 8339: 8336: 8334: 8331: 8329: 8326: 8325: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8308: 8304: 8303:Mental health 8301: 8299: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8263: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8251:Housing First 8249: 8245: 8242: 8240: 8239:Health system 8237: 8236: 8235: 8234:Health policy 8232: 8230: 8227: 8225: 8222: 8220: 8217: 8215: 8212: 8210: 8207: 8205: 8202: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8190: 8189: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8155: 8154: 8152: 8148: 8144: 8143:Public health 8137: 8132: 8130: 8125: 8123: 8118: 8117: 8114: 8102: 8094: 8093: 8090: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8058: 8055: 8054: 8053: 8052:United States 8050: 8048: 8044: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001:in healthcare 8000: 7997: 7995:in healthcare 7994: 7991: 7989:in healthcare 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7974: 7971: 7970: 7966: 7964: 7960: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7915: 7913: 7911: 7907: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7877: 7875: 7871: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7821: 7819: 7815: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7798: 7794: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7767: 7766: 7764: 7760: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7720: 7718: 7714: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7654: 7651: 7647: 7640: 7635: 7633: 7628: 7626: 7621: 7620: 7617: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7585: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7559: 7539: 7535: 7529: 7514: 7510: 7504: 7490: 7486: 7480: 7472: 7465: 7459: 7445: 7441: 7435: 7427: 7421: 7407: 7403: 7396: 7388: 7381: 7375: 7367: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7337: 7333: 7326: 7311: 7307: 7301: 7286: 7282: 7276: 7260: 7253: 7246: 7238: 7234: 7228: 7213: 7209: 7203: 7195: 7191: 7187: 7183: 7176: 7167: 7153: 7149: 7143: 7135: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7117: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7101: 7094: 7086: 7082: 7077: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7056: 7055:Diabetes Care 7052: 7045: 7037: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7009: 7005: 7001: 6994: 6980: 6976: 6970: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6948: 6940: 6933: 6927: 6916: 6912: 6905: 6898: 6896: 6880: 6873: 6867: 6852: 6848: 6842: 6827: 6820: 6813: 6798: 6794: 6788: 6773: 6769: 6763: 6749: 6745: 6739: 6725: 6721: 6715: 6707: 6700: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6665: 6657: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6608: 6600: 6596: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6572: 6565: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6537: 6534:(9): 759–60. 6533: 6529: 6522: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6487: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6465: 6450: 6446: 6440: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6418: 6404: 6400: 6394: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6372: 6370: 6361: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6343: 6337: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6318: 6311: 6305: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6250: 6236: 6232: 6226: 6217: 6215: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6170: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6131:(8): 913–35. 6130: 6126: 6119: 6112: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6094:9780335262267 6090: 6086: 6079: 6077: 6068: 6062: 6046: 6042: 6035: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6012:(2): 167–77. 6011: 6007: 6000: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5965: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5930: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5907:(1): 135–47. 5906: 5902: 5895: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5872:(1): 148–59. 5871: 5867: 5860: 5852: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5827:(1): 102–11. 5826: 5822: 5818: 5811: 5809: 5800: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5775:(4): 723–30. 5774: 5770: 5769:Diabetes Care 5766: 5759: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5724: 5714: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5675:(1): 424–40. 5674: 5670: 5663: 5654: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5619: 5617: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5581: 5579: 5564: 5563:OECD iLibrary 5560: 5554: 5546: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5513: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5474:(2): 143–66. 5473: 5469: 5462: 5455: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5432:(4): 715–24. 5431: 5427: 5420: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5397:(3): 355–62. 5396: 5392: 5385: 5374: 5373: 5365: 5351: 5347: 5340: 5326: 5322: 5316: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5267: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5244:(2): 304–11. 5243: 5239: 5232: 5224: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5183: 5169:on 2015-05-28 5168: 5164: 5160: 5153: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5131: 5123: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5072: 5070: 5061: 5060: 5052: 5044: 5040: 5035: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5011: 5003: 4999: 4993: 4991: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4959:(2): 562–75. 4958: 4954: 4947: 4939: 4933: 4931: 4922: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4881: 4879: 4862: 4856: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4825:(8): 788–94. 4824: 4820: 4816: 4809: 4807: 4805: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4775: 4761: 4755: 4741: 4737: 4731: 4717: 4713: 4707: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4678: 4670: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4629: 4627: 4625: 4623: 4621: 4604: 4597: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4532: 4516: 4510: 4502: 4496: 4492: 4486: 4478: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4445: 4443: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4411:(9): 557–62. 4410: 4406: 4399: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4376:(5): 654–69. 4375: 4371: 4364: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4321: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4278: 4270: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4253:(3): 369–78. 4252: 4248: 4244: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4223: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4177: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4115: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4074: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4039: 4037: 4035: 4033: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4009:(3): 187–97. 4008: 4004: 3997: 3995: 3993: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3949: 3947: 3938: 3926: 3918: 3916:9781402015854 3912: 3908: 3907: 3899: 3891: 3885: 3870: 3869: 3864: 3858: 3856: 3847: 3843: 3837: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3804:(3): 425–36. 3803: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3786: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3679: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3613: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3564: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3511: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3466: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3443: 3441: 3432: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3391: 3389: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3363: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3339: 3337: 3325: 3324: 3317: 3309: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3276: 3268: 3264: 3259: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3219: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3189: 3174: 3170: 3164: 3149: 3145: 3139: 3123: 3119: 3112: 3096: 3089: 3083: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3030: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2981: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2942: 2935: 2929: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2894: 2887: 2881: 2873: 2869: 2864: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2832: 2825: 2819: 2811: 2805: 2796: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2753: 2751: 2742: 2736: 2722:on 2010-08-27 2718: 2711: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2678: 2674: 2669: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2645: 2643: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2593: 2591: 2583: 2577: 2568: 2561: 2555: 2547: 2543: 2538: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2470: 2468: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2445: 2441: 2435: 2433: 2418: 2414: 2408: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2373: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2338: 2332: 2331: 2324: 2316: 2312: 2306: 2304: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2268: 2266: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2258: 2256: 2241: 2237: 2231: 2229: 2220: 2216: 2210: 2208: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2174: 2163: 2162: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2150: 2146: 2144: 2141: 2140: 2139: 2138: 2132: 2129: 2127: 2124: 2122: 2119: 2117: 2114: 2112: 2109: 2107: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2097: 2096:Public health 2094: 2092: 2089: 2087: 2084: 2082: 2079: 2077: 2074: 2072: 2069: 2067: 2064: 2062: 2059: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2049: 2048: 2043: 2032: 2025: 2022: 2017: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1991: 1988: 1983: 1982:Health policy 1973: 1969: 1960: 1956: 1954: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1927: 1918: 1907:Economic case 1904: 1900: 1891: 1888: 1877: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1858: 1853: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1829: 1825: 1816: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1804:prenatal care 1802:/screenings, 1801: 1790: 1777: 1773: 1770: 1765: 1764: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1749: 1747: 1742: 1732: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1716: 1712: 1706: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1690: 1683:Effectiveness 1680: 1677: 1673: 1668: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1644:heart disease 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1623: 1621: 1617: 1606: 1602: 1599: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1554: 1543: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1501: 1497: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1481:Latin America 1478: 1470: 1461: 1457: 1455: 1450: 1447: 1439: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1413: 1407: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1388: 1379: 1376: 1370: 1360: 1357: 1352: 1342: 1340: 1330: 1328: 1324: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1280: 1275: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1233: 1231: 1228: 1227: 1223: 1221: 1218: 1217: 1213: 1211: 1208: 1207: 1203: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1187: 1183: 1181: 1178: 1177: 1173: 1171: 1168: 1167: 1163: 1161: 1158: 1157: 1153: 1151: 1148: 1147: 1143: 1141: 1138: 1137: 1133: 1131: 1128: 1127: 1123: 1121: 1118: 1117: 1113: 1111: 1108: 1107: 1103: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1093: 1091: 1090:Breastfeeding 1088: 1087: 1083: 1081:Intervention 1080: 1079: 1073: 1069: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1044: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1029: 1028:air pollution 1025: 1021: 1017: 1007: 1005: 1001: 998: 997: 993: 990: 987: 986: 982: 980: 977: 976: 972: 970: 967: 966: 962: 960: 956: 953: 952: 948: 946: 942: 941: 937: 935: 932: 931: 927: 925: 922: 921: 917: 915: 912: 911: 907: 905: 902: 901: 897: 895: 892: 891: 887: 884: 883: 877: 875: 874:United States 871: 856: 853: 851: 848: 847: 843: 840: 838: 835: 834: 830: 827: 825: 822: 821: 817: 814: 812: 809: 808: 804: 801: 799: 796: 795: 791: 788: 786: 783: 782: 778: 775: 773: 770: 769: 765: 762: 759: 758: 754: 751: 749: 746: 745: 741: 738: 735: 734: 728: 725: 718:United States 710: 706: 697: 694: 689: 685: 675: 672: 667: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 635: 629: 627: 623: 617: 613: 603: 601: 591: 589: 584: 580: 569: 560: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 516: 513: 512:Ruth A. Etzel 508: 506: 502: 496: 481: 479: 476: 475: 470: 467: 466: 462: 458: 455: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 435: 434: 431: 428: 423: 420: 419: 415: 412: 411: 408: 406: 395: 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 370:screening, a 369: 365: 364:breast cancer 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 320:hyperglycemia 317: 313: 309: 303: 301: 300:lung diseases 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 259: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 226: 222: 214: 210: 207: 199: 193: 190: 187: 184: 181: 178: 175: 172: 171: 170: 164: 159: 156: 153: 147: 144: 141: 135: 129: 128: 127: 123: 118: 106: 103: 95: 85: 81: 77: 71: 69: 62: 53: 52: 47: 40: 33: 19: 10807: 10796: 10783: 10736:South Africa 10542:Private duty 10210:APNs by role 10012:Rural health 9997:Nanomedicine 9833: 9548:Rheumatology 9479: / 9398:Hand surgery 9383:Neurosurgery 9270: 9258: 9246: 9215:Radium Girls 9210:Typhoid Mary 8897:Microbiology 8767: 8759: 8643:Epidemiology 8541:Organization 8492:Oral hygiene 8482:Hand washing 8460:Healthy diet 8424: 8390:Right to sit 8283:Labor rights 8020:Telemedicine 7953:Telemedicine 7948:Nanomedicine 7784:Nursing home 7604:. 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155:Medicine 74:You may 10797:Commons 10765:history 10755:history 10681:Germany 10621:systems 10392:Cardiac 10144:Nursing 10102:Outline 10072:Commons 10017:Therapy 9914:Medical 9477:Allergy 9445:Urology 9338:Surgery 9260:Commons 9173:History 9070:Canada 9045:Europe 8529:Nursing 8509:Hygiene 8472:Hygiene 8197:Liberal 8150:General 7943:mHealth 7854:Primary 7839:Hospice 7829:Chronic 7728:Nursing 7697:Ranking 7357:3916087 7125:5640019 7076:3609540 7027:4558933 6772:kff.org 6647:3001814 6351:3932058 6161:2618931 6069:. 2013. 6026:8483856 5842:9508900 5790:3308273 5750:1899896 5677:Bibcode 5607:8321264 5496:6425716 5488:3349821 5350:HHS.gov 5298:1447707 5214:5551483 5113:5746244 5090:Bibcode 4912:6628594 4660:7392084 4588:1541253 4468:2566667 4390:1438112 4347:1930002 4304:2000067 4114:9035358 4105:1759517 4065:8936641 3828:1410343 3654:8204267 3603:7449554 3422:7453066 3258:9089818 3101:May 13, 2863:3923653 2787:5463575 2779:7783540 2624:4349501 1994:Obesity 1580:smoking 1576:obesity 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