1945:
1935:
1915:
427:
217:
25:
1925:
550:, a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, is also produced as a fission product in minute quantities in other reactors, tritium can more easily escape to the environment if it is also present in the cooling water, which is the case in those PHWRs which use heavy water both as moderator and as coolant. Some CANDU reactors separate out the tritium from their heavy water inventory at regular intervals and sell it at a profit, however.
324:
or above. No amount of U can be made "critical" since it will tend to parasitically absorb more neutrons than it releases by the fission process. U, on the other hand, can support a self-sustained chain reaction, but due to the low natural abundance of U, natural uranium cannot achieve criticality by
521:
Pressurised heavy-water reactors do have some drawbacks. Heavy water generally costs hundreds of dollars per kilogram, though this is a trade-off against reduced fuel costs. The reduced energy content of natural uranium as compared to enriched uranium necessitates more frequent replacement of fuel;
348:
to physically separate the neutron energy moderation process from the uranium fuel itself, as U has a high probability of absorbing neutrons with intermediate kinetic energy levels, a reaction known as "resonance" absorption. This is a fundamental reason for designing reactors with separate solid
359:
atoms in the water molecules are very close in mass to a single neutron, and so their collisions result in a very efficient transfer of momentum, similar conceptually to the collision of two billiard balls. However, as well as being a good moderator, ordinary water is also quite effective at
336:, is to slow down the emitted neutrons (without absorbing them) to the point where enough of them may cause further nuclear fission in the small amount of U which is available. (U which is the bulk of natural uranium is also fissionable with fast neutrons.) This requires the use of a
469:), which means that it can be operated without expensive uranium enrichment facilities. The mechanical arrangement of the PHWR, which places most of the moderator at lower temperatures, is particularly efficient because the resulting thermal neutrons have lower energies (
488:
the lower the neutron temperature is, and thus lower temperatures in the moderator make successful interaction between neutrons and fissile material more likely. These features mean that a PHWR can use natural uranium and other fuels, and does so more efficiently than
360:
absorbing neutrons. And so using ordinary water as a moderator will easily absorb so many neutrons that too few are left to sustain a chain reaction with the small isolated U nuclei in the fuel, thus precluding criticality in natural uranium. Because of this, a
588:
nuclear proliferation, this opinion has changed drastically in light of the ability of several countries to build atomic bombs out of plutonium, which can easily be produced in heavy water reactors. Heavy-water reactors may thus pose a
653:
wrongfully dismissed graphite as a suitable moderator due to overlooking impurities and thus made unsuccessful attempts using heavy water (which they correctly identified as an excellent moderator). The
189:. As of the beginning of 2001, 31 PHWRs were in operation, having a total capacity of 16.5 GW(e), representing roughly 7.76% by number and 4.7% by generating capacity of all current operating reactors.
293:
to stimulate another nuclear fission event (in another fissionable nucleus). With careful design of the reactor's geometry, and careful control of the substances present so as to influence the
414:, or deuterium-oxide. Although it reacts dynamically with the neutrons in a fashion similar to light water (albeit with less energy transfer on average, given that heavy hydrogen, or
465:
The use of heavy water as the moderator is the key to the PHWR (pressurized heavy water reactor) system, enabling the use of natural uranium as the fuel (in the form of ceramic UO
1438:
473:
after successive passes through a moderator roughly equals the temperature of the moderator) than in traditional designs, where the moderator normally is much hotter. The
509:
and there is ongoing research into the ability of CANDU type reactors to operate exclusively on such fuels in a commercial setting. (More on that in the article on the
406:
absorb neutrons as readily as water. In this case potentially all of the neutrons being released can be moderated and used in reactions with the U, in which case there
1632:
161:. The heavy water coolant is kept under pressure to avoid boiling, allowing it to reach higher temperature (mostly) without forming steam bubbles, exactly as for a
522:
this is normally accomplished by use of an on-power refuelling system. The increased rate of fuel movement through the reactor also results in higher volumes of
1948:
645:. Although this process takes place with natural uranium using other moderators such as ultra-pure graphite or beryllium, heavy water is by far the best. The
383:
One complication of this approach is the need for uranium enrichment facilities, which are generally expensive to build and operate. They also present a
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787:
1743:
399:. This is not a trivial exercise by any means, but feasible enough that enrichment facilities present a significant nuclear proliferation risk.
238:
42:
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816:
89:
61:
849:
An
International Spent Nuclear Fuel Storage Facility - Exploring a Russian Site as a Prototype: Proceedings of an International Workshop
68:
1138:
344:, slowing them down to the point that they reach thermal equilibrium with surrounding material. It has been found beneficial to the
1377:
576:
While prior to India's development of nuclear weapons (see below), the ability to use natural uranium (and thus forego the need for
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fuel segments, surrounded by the moderator, rather than any geometry that would give a homogeneous mix of fuel and moderator.
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1969:
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418:, is about twice the mass of hydrogen), it already has the extra neutron that light water would normally tend to absorb.
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nuclei in the heavy water absorb neutrons, a very inefficient reaction. Tritium is essential for the production of
727:, its first nuclear weapon test, by extraction from the spent fuel of a heavy-water research reactor known as the
530:
than enriched uranium fuel, however, it generates less heat, allowing more compact storage. While deuterium has a
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Lestani, H.A.; González, H.J.; Florido, P.C. (2014). "Negative power coefficient on PHWRS with CARA fuel".
368:, generally between 3% and 5% U by weight (the by-product from this process enrichment process is known as
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1938:
1900:
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than in LWRs employing enriched uranium. Since unenriched uranium fuel accumulates a lower density of
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681:. As a result, if the fuel of a heavy-water reactor is changed frequently, significant amounts of
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In addition, the use of heavy water as a moderator results in the production of small amounts of
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185:. The high cost of the heavy water is offset by the lowered cost of using natural uranium and/or
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35:
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372:, and so consisting mainly of U, chemically pure). The degree of enrichment needed to achieve
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without the need for heavy water or - at least according to initial design specifications -
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The proliferation risk of heavy-water reactors was demonstrated when India produced the
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likewise used graphite as a moderator and ultimately developed the graphite moderated
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moderator depends on the exact geometry and other design parameters of the reactor.
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due to the low neutron absorption properties of heavy water, discovered in 1937 by
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369:
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956:"Tritium supply and use: a key issue for the development of nuclear fusion energy"
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712:. This process is currently expected to provide (at least partially) tritium for
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Pearson, Richard J.; Antoniazzi, Armando B.; Nuttall, William J. (2018-11-01).
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1963:
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728:
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320:. U can only be fissioned by neutrons that are relatively energetic, about 1
302:
649:
ultimately used graphite moderated reactors to produce plutonium, while the
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as a reactor capable of producing both large amounts of electric power and
634:
542:
and thus part of the heavy water moderator will inevitably be converted to
493:(LWRs). CANDU type PHWRs are claimed to be able to handle fuels including
410:
enough U in natural uranium to sustain criticality. One such moderator is
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332:
using only natural or low enriched uranium, for which there is no "bare"
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313:
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can be chemically extracted from the irradiated natural uranium fuel by
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will increase the likelihood of fission, thus explaining the need for a
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will require that the U isotope be concentrated in its uranium fuel, as
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402:
An alternative solution to the problem is to use a moderator that does
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is very expensive to isolate from ordinary water (often referred to as
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Department of
Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia
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and the desirability of keeping its temperature as low as feasible.
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used to enrich the U can also be used to produce much more "pure"
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Nuclear Power
Program – Stage1 – Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
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of reactivity, the
Argentina designed CARA fuel bundles used in
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1615:
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1560:
1443:
1180:
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1128:
921:
Waltham, Chris (June 2002). "An Early
History of Heavy Water".
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relationship is apparent, it is clear that in most cases lower
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derived fuel bundles, the reactor design has a slightly
177:), its low absorption of neutrons greatly increases the
1012:"India's Nuclear Weapons Program: Smiling Buddha: 1974"
1052:
880:
568:, are capable of the preferred negative coefficient.
316:
and a much smaller amount (about 0.72% by weight) of
1087:
1031:
Economics of
Nuclear Power from Heavy Water Reactors
395:material (90% or more U), suitable for producing a
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
308:Natural uranium consists of a mixture of various
1961:
814:
704:, which in turn enable the easier production of
421:
340:, which absorbs virtually all of the neutrons'
192:
1744:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
1073:
641:, and the second one transmuting the Np into
245:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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265:Learn how and when to remove this message
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
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571:
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352:Water makes an excellent moderator; the
1041:IAEA - Technical Reports Series No. 407
920:
637:, the first one transmuting the U into
289:one of the neutrons released from each
1962:
1671:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
181:of the reactor, avoiding the need for
1676:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
1061:
916:
914:
243:adding citations to reliable sources
210:
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
1681:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
625:. The U then rapidly undergoes two
534:neutron capture cross section than
13:
1490:
846:National Research Council (2005).
305:" can be achieved and maintained.
14:
1981:
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911:
58:"Pressurized heavy-water reactor"
1944:
1943:
1934:
1933:
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1913:
1764:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
609:. Occasionally, when an atom of
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215:
157:as fuel, but sometimes also use
23:
981:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2018.04.090
895:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2013.12.056
759:, PHWR types developed in India
743:, the first heavy water reactor
123:pressurized heavy-water reactor
34:needs additional citations for
1754:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
1004:
947:
883:Nuclear Engineering and Design
874:
839:
808:
780:
749:: The predominant type of PHWR
651:German wartime nuclear project
1:
960:Fusion Engineering and Design
773:
617:, its nucleus will capture a
460:
1554:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
422:Advantages and disadvantages
193:Purpose of using heavy water
7:
1970:Nuclear power reactor types
1901:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
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10:
1986:
1739:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
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1909:
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1864:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
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1759:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
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1707:
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1566:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
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1483:
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1398:
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1259:
1241:
1109:
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768:Pressurized water reactor
477:for fission is higher in
277:The key to maintaining a
163:pressurized water reactor
159:very low enriched uranium
1929:List of nuclear reactors
1769:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
1385:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
1053:Official website of AECL
763:List of nuclear reactors
725:Operation Smiling Buddha
584:technology) was seen as
153:. PHWRs frequently use
1919:Nuclear fusion reactors
1884:Organic nuclear reactor
1090:nuclear fission reactor
788:"Pocket Guide Reactors"
702:boosted fission weapons
683:weapons-grade plutonium
664:weapons grade plutonium
328:The trick to achieving
285:is to use, on average,
199:Nuclear reactor physics
187:alternative fuel cycles
815:Marion BrĂĽnglinghaus.
656:Soviet nuclear program
457:
279:nuclear chain reaction
16:Nuclear reactor design
706:thermonuclear weapons
595:nuclear proliferation
572:Nuclear proliferation
475:neutron cross section
429:
385:nuclear proliferation
354:ordinary hydrogen or
291:nuclear fission event
1749:Traveling-wave (TWR)
1233:Supercritical (SCWR)
687:nuclear reprocessing
677:suitable for use in
599:light-water reactors
503:light water reactors
501:from "conventional"
491:light water reactors
297:, a self-sustaining
239:improve this section
43:improve this article
1119:Aqueous homogeneous
972:2018FusED.136.1140P
941:2002physics...6076W
629:— both emitting an
553:While with typical
538:, this value isn't
495:reprocessed uranium
471:neutron temperature
450:neutron temperature
362:light-water reactor
1939:Nuclear technology
668:uranium enrichment
597:versus comparable
578:uranium enrichment
499:spent nuclear fuel
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1957:
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1949:Nuclear accidents
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867:978-0-309-09688-1
817:"Natural uranium"
795:World-Nuclear.org
647:Manhattan Project
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615:neutron radiation
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675:fissile material
562:Void coefficient
528:fission products
513:reactor itself)
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1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1590:
1587:
1586:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1530:
1520:
1517:
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1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1489:
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1479:
1474:
1467:
1462:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
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1437:
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1432:
1431:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1415:
1409:
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1405:
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1401:
1397:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1353:
1345:
1342:
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1337:
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1332:
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1327:
1323:
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1310:
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1305:
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1300:
1296:
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1287:
1284:
1281:
1280:
1279:
1276:
1275:
1274:
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1270:
1268:
1266:
1258:
1255:
1251:
1244:
1240:
1234:
1231:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1103:
1102:
1095:
1091:
1083:
1078:
1076:
1071:
1069:
1064:
1063:
1060:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1013:
1007:
999:
995:
991:
987:
982:
977:
973:
969:
966:: 1140–1148.
965:
961:
957:
950:
942:
938:
933:
928:
924:
917:
915:
905:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
877:
869:
863:
859:
855:
851:
850:
842:
826:
822:
818:
811:
796:
789:
783:
779:
769:
766:
764:
761:
758:
754:
751:
748:
747:CANDU reactor
745:
742:
739:
738:
732:
730:
729:CIRUS reactor
726:
722:
717:
715:
711:
710:neutron bombs
707:
703:
699:
695:
690:
688:
684:
680:
676:
671:
669:
665:
661:
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652:
648:
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640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
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596:
592:
587:
583:
579:
569:
567:
563:
560:
556:
551:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
517:Disadvantages
514:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
476:
472:
455:
451:
447:
443:
442:cross section
428:
419:
417:
413:
409:
405:
400:
398:
394:
393:weapons-grade
390:
387:concern; the
386:
381:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
358:
357:
350:
347:
343:
339:
335:
334:critical mass
331:
326:
323:
319:
315:
311:
306:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
269:
266:
258:
248:
244:
240:
234:
233:
229:
224:This section
222:
218:
213:
212:
208:
204:
200:
190:
188:
184:
183:enriched fuel
180:
176:
172:
168:
165:(PWR). While
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
1787:Sodium (SFR)
1714:fast-neutron
1553:
1272:
1099:
1015:. Retrieved
1006:
963:
959:
949:
922:
886:
882:
876:
848:
841:
831:11 September
829:. Retrieved
825:the original
820:
810:
799:. Retrieved
794:
782:
718:
708:, including
691:
672:
635:antineutrino
590:
585:
575:
558:
552:
539:
531:
520:
464:
407:
403:
401:
389:same systems
382:
377:
373:
355:
351:
333:
327:
312:, primarily
307:
286:
276:
261:
252:
237:Please help
225:
174:
170:
126:
122:
120:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1822:Superphénix
1649:Molten-salt
1601:VHTR (HTGR)
1378:HW BLWR 250
1344:R4 Marviken
1273:Pressurized
1243:Heavy water
1227:many others
1156:Pressurized
1111:Light water
904:11336/32479
889:: 185–197.
607:Otto Frisch
580:which is a
505:as well as
412:heavy water
378:light-water
374:criticality
330:criticality
303:criticality
207:Heavy water
175:heavy water
171:light water
167:heavy water
135:heavy water
1606:PBR (PBMR)
801:2021-12-24
774:References
524:spent fuel
461:Advantages
444:- while a
295:reactivity
197:See also:
145:O) as its
133:that uses
69:newspapers
1658:Fluorides
1322:IPHWR-700
1317:IPHWR-540
1312:IPHWR-220
1101:Moderator
1088:Types of
990:0920-3796
757:IPHWR-220
753:IPHWR-700
721:plutonium
698:deuterium
696:when the
586:hindering
446:nonlinear
416:deuterium
281:within a
226:does not
139:deuterium
1964:Category
1691:TMSR-LF1
1686:TMSR-500
1666:Fuji MSR
1626:THTR-300
1466:Graphite
1329:PHWR KWU
1295:ACR-1000
1223:IPWR-900
1206:ACPR1000
1201:HPR-1000
1191:CPR-1000
1166:APR-1400
998:53560490
735:See also
673:Pu is a
631:electron
627:β decays
593:risk of
582:dual use
566:Atucha I
559:positive
546:. While
507:MOX fuel
497:or even
440:fission
325:itself.
310:isotopes
255:May 2015
99:May 2015
1832:FBR-600
1812:CFR-600
1807:BN-1200
1473:coolant
1400:Organic
1285:CANDU 9
1282:CANDU 6
1250:coolant
1211:ACP1000
1186:CAP1400
1124:Boiling
1017:23 June
968:Bibcode
937:Bibcode
694:tritium
633:and an
619:neutron
591:greater
548:tritium
536:protium
376:with a
356:protium
287:exactly
247:removed
232:sources
147:coolant
141:oxide D
129:) is a
83:scholar
1877:Others
1817:Phénix
1802:BN-800
1797:BN-600
1792:BN-350
1621:HTR-PM
1616:HTR-10
1596:UHTREX
1561:Magnox
1556:(UNGG)
1449:Lucens
1444:KS 150
1181:ATMEA1
1161:AP1000
1144:Kerena
996:
988:
925:: 28.
864:
797:. 2015
205:, and
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
1894:Piqua
1889:Arbus
1847:PRISM
1589:MHR-T
1584:GTMHR
1514:EGP-6
1509:AMB-X
1484:Water
1429:HWGCR
1368:HWLWR
1307:IPHWR
1278:CANDU
1139:ESBWR
994:S2CID
927:arXiv
791:(PDF)
555:CANDU
532:lower
511:CANDU
90:JSTOR
76:books
1854:Lead
1837:CEFR
1827:PFBR
1709:None
1519:RBMK
1504:AM-1
1434:EL-4
1408:WR-1
1390:AHWR
1334:MZFR
1302:CVTR
1291:AFCR
1218:VVER
1176:APWR
1171:APR+
1134:ABWR
1019:2017
986:ISSN
862:ISBN
833:2015
755:and
723:for
714:ITER
660:RBMK
605:and
540:zero
301:or "
230:any
228:cite
149:and
127:PHWR
62:news
1842:PFR
1633:PMR
1611:AVR
1533:Gas
1471:by
1439:KKN
1373:ATR
1288:EC6
1248:by
1196:EPR
1129:BWR
976:doi
964:136
899:hdl
891:doi
887:270
854:doi
404:not
322:MeV
241:by
45:by
1966::
1576:He
1542:CO
1418:CO
1339:R3
992:.
984:.
974:.
962:.
958:.
935:.
913:^
897:.
885:.
860:.
852:.
819:.
793:.
731:.
716:.
689:.
670:.
643:Pu
639:Np
408:is
201:,
121:A
1716:)
1712:(
1544:2
1496:O
1494:2
1492:H
1420:2
1360:O
1358:2
1356:H
1265:O
1263:2
1261:D
1081:e
1074:t
1067:v
1021:.
1000:.
978::
970::
943:.
939::
929::
907:.
901::
893::
870:.
856::
835:.
804:.
623:U
611:U
486:U
467:2
438:U
318:U
314:U
268:)
262:(
257:)
253:(
249:.
235:.
143:2
137:(
125:(
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
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