History of the African National Congress

1907:, Zambia, in mid-1985, was, like the first consultative conference in Morogoro, called pursuant to a "crisis" among the MK rank-and-file. Indeed, one of the mutineers' demands was that such a conference should be called. A report to the conference admitted that some NAT personnel had made "bad, sometimes terrible mistakes", and the conference did attempt to act on the findings of the Stuart report: it agreed with Stuart's recommendation that NAT should be overhauled, and it adopted a code of conduct and established internal judicial procedures for the first time. Also at Kabwe, the NEC (now enlarged) was fully elected, rather than appointed by leadership, for the first time in decades, and Tambo was elected permanently to the ANC presidency, which he had already held in an acting capacity for 18 years. All racial barriers to NEC membership were removed, and Slovo became the first white to be elected. Finally, it was resolved that the ANC should hold consultative conferences, with elections, every five years. 1728:

16 Detachment", were sent to MK camps in Angola, and small numbers were infiltrated back into South Africa to carry out attacks. In March 1979, the ANC leadership, by then headquartered in Lusaka, undertook a strategic review following a 1978 visit to Vietnam. Its report was published in March 1979 as the "Green Book" and outlined the "Four Pillars of the Revolution": armed struggle; an internal underground; popular mobilisation; and international isolation of the apartheid regime. The new military strategy emphasised urban areas, in contrast to the rural guerrilla war originally envisaged. Also in 1979, Tambo directed Slovo to establish a special operations unit, whose focus became "armed propaganda": attacks on symbolic state targets, partly aimed at attracting new MK recruits under the slogan, "Swell the Ranks of Umkhonto we Sizwe". Perhaps most memorably, on 1 June 1980 the unit bombed the

1663:, the ANC's first consultative conference and first conference in exile, held between 25 April and 1 May 1969. Most dramatically, at the conference Tambo referred to a "loss of confidence in the men who have been leading our struggle from Lusaka" and offered his resignation as acting ANC President. Once he had left the meeting, the conference passed an unopposed vote of confidence in him, and he ultimately remained acting President until his appointment was formally confirmed in 1985. The conference also reinstated Hani and the other six cadres who had been suspended, and it adopted a new "Strategy and Tactics" document, drafted by Slovo. The document affirmed that the seizure by force of state power in South Africa was a central objective of the struggle, but, acknowledging a position expressed by the Hani memorandum, it clarified the relationship between military and political struggle: 1603: 1437:...multi-racialism is in fact a pandering to European bigotry and arrogance. It is a method of safeguarding white interests irrespective of population figures. In that sense it is a complete negation of democracy. To us the term 'multi-racialism' implies that there are such basic insuperable differences between the various national groups here that the best course is to keep them permanently distinctive in a kind of democratic apartheid. That to us is racialism multiplied, which probably is what the term truly connotes. We aim, politically, at a government of the Africans by the Africans for Africans, with everybody who owes his only loyalty to Afrika and who is prepared to accept the democratic rule of an African majority being regarded as an African. We guarantee no 1960: 2707: 2850: 2173: 1843:"). This was followed by a major clean-up operation, known as "Shishita", during which NAT rounded up dozens of MK cadres and transferred them to Angola for detention and interrogation. In the so-called Shishita report of 1981, formally titled the "Report on subversive activities of police agents in our movement", NAT claimed to have uncovered an extensive spying ring and a plot to assassinate the ANC leadership. Although most of the confessions had been extracted under torture, with several people dying during interrogation, the confessed spies were executed in Angola in the years that followed. 1411: 1225:, Suppression of Communism Act, and Voters' Representation Act – whose repeal the ANC had demanded in a January 1952 ultimatum to the Prime Minister. Although the protests remained non-violent, the notion of "defiance" represented a rhetorical escalation from the ANC's earlier programme of "passive" resistance. Thousands of volunteers were trained to carry out acts of civil disobedience, and on one estimate 8,000 people were arrested over subsequent months. The campaign wound down in late 1952 and officially ended in 1953, when further repressive legislation was passed: the 1184:, known as the "People’s Holiday", which led to the deaths of 18 people in clashes between protesters and the police. ANC support for the stay-away was not, however, unanimous – the Youth League, in particular, was concerned that the socialist or internationalist connotations of May Day were at odds with the Africanist position of the Programme of Action. There was broader support for the subsequent "Day of Protest", a stay-at-home on 26 June 1950 organised with the Indian Congress in protest of the May Day shootings and Suppression of Communism legislation. 356:

political rights, and Gumede was elected its president. However, in late 1929, the ANC overruled Gumede and declined to support the League's mass anti-pass demonstrations. The League collapsed shortly afterwards, and in April 1930 Gumede was voted out of his ANC office. Gumede's successor was Seme, who pursued the support of the traditionalist chiefs and moved ANC policy back to the right. The ANC under Seme has been described as being at "the nadir of influence". Relations with the CPSA soured when the ANC refused to support pass-burning demonstrations in

2124: 284:, concerned with protecting a moral and social order they correctly perceived to be under attack. Congress was intended to function first as a national forum to discuss the issues which affected 'the dark races of the subcontinent', and second as an organised pressure group. It planned to agitate for changes through 'peaceful propaganda', the election to legislative bodies of Congress sympathisers, through protests and enquiries, and finally, through 'passive action or continued movement' – a clear reference to the tactics which were being employed by 1458:, the police opened fire on an anti-pass demonstration organised by the PAC, killing 69 people and injuring 180 others. The PAC had organised its protest for that date in order to pre-empt the ANC's own anti-pass campaign, which was scheduled to begin later in March. In response to the massacre, the ANC declared a day of mourning and leaders publicly burned their passes in protest. The government declared a state of emergency and, on 8 April, both the ANC and the PAC were banned. They were not unbanned until February 1990, almost thirty years later. 2321: 198:, MK received a large influx of new recruits, who were used to escalate the armed struggle inside South Africa; ANC attacks, for the first time, killed large numbers of civilians. Yet even as the armed attacks continued, the ANC embarked upon secret talks about a possible negotiated settlement to end apartheid, beginning with a series of meetings with civil society and business leaders in the mid-1980s, and complemented by Mandela's own meetings with state officials during his imprisonment. 10284: 1199: 2375: 1433:. The Africanist bloc had generally opposed the Freedom Charter and the broader Congress Alliance, feeling that the influence of the latter had steered the ANC away from the African nationalism asserted in the 1949 Programme of Action, in favour of a new de facto policy of accommodating whites and communists. The complexity of the rationale for the bloc's opposition to multi-racialism is reflected in Sobukwe's opening address to the PAC's founding convention: 13010: 10931: 10172: 1023: 2881:, while dismissing the corruption charges against Zuma on a technicality, found that there was evidence of "political meddling" by Mbeki in Zuma's case. Nicholson's judgement was later overturned, but the Polokwane-elected NEC immediately called a special meeting and decided after 14 hours of debate that Mbeki should leave his office. The NEC, a party-political organ, had no legal authority to recall Mbeki directly, but the ANC-controlled 1888: 2649: 2664:. The deal is commonly associated with the large-scale corruption that is alleged to have taken place during and after the procurement process, and some critics have said that it was a defining moment or turning point for the ANC government, less than five years into its tenure. Arms Deal-related corruption allegations have provided a series of political scandals in the years since then, and in 2003 the ANC Chief Whip 441: 2520: 194:. Its exile was marked by an increasingly close alliance with the SACP, as well as by periods of significant unrest inside MK, including the Mkatashinga mutinies in 1983–84. Throughout these years, the ANC's central objective was the overthrow of apartheid, by means of the "Four Pillars": armed struggle; an internal underground; popular mobilisation; and international isolation of the apartheid regime. After the 1976 2928: 1253:. The new legislation made civil disobedience infeasible, and the ANC turned to other methods, including boycotts, demonstrations, and non-cooperation. The years following the Defiance Campaign were also notable for the ANC's renewed commitment to collaboration with other anti-apartheid groups. For example, in November 1952 in Johannesburg, the ANC and Indian Congress held a public meeting at which Tambo and 2060: 230: 1446:

Congress Alliance. At the same time, Sobukwe argued that the role of a liberation movement was only to "show the light" to the masses, who by spontaneous action would "find their way", while the ANC leadership of the time tended towards a view on which it should take a more active role in directing and channeling the aspirations of the people. The ANC and PAC immediately became rivals.

2348:" in the violence. As early as 1990, the ANC's position was that the violence was "part of a deliberate attempt by the state and its allies to destabilise the ANC and to sow terror and chaos amongst our people". Such allegations have since been partially substantiated. Widespread ANC-IFP violence dissipated by 1996, although there were further localised conflicts in following years. 2543:(TRC), in 1995. In addition to testimony from individual members and leaders, the ANC made a detailed collective submission to the TRC. Providing evidence on the "just and irregular war for national liberation" it had conducted, the ANC, both in its submissions and in its oral testimony, acknowledged some abuses but emphasised that it had not intentionally sought to harm civilians. 2023:, which was staunchly opposed to the apartheid government, including in regional conflicts in Angola and Mozambique. Ellis has suggested that much of the Soviet support to the ANC came through the ANC's close relationship with the SACP, but, according to Vladimir Shubin, another historian, the ANC had “direct access” to the Soviet leadership from the 1960s. In 1961, SACP leaders 1481:(SACP) – which included several ANC leaders, including Mandela and Sisulu – resolved that the Congress movement should reconsider its reliance on non-violence. In June 1961, Mandela presented a proposal to the ANC NEC, and then to the joint leadership of the Congress Alliance, which entailed a "turn to violence". Accordingly, later that year, a military body was formed, called 37: 396:, in 1943 the ANC's national conference signed the "African Claims" document. Notably, the document included demands for self-government and for black political rights, thus marking a shift in the ANC's objectives. Xuma proved willing to form tactical alliances with the CPSA – he chaired a joint CPSA-ANC anti-pass committee – and with the Indian Congresses (the 1126:

by younger people: the Tambos, Mandelas and so on... It was when those young people came into the ANC that there was transformation in so far as the ideology was concerned, because in the past the elderly people believed in demonstrations, reconciliation with the powers that be and so on. They weren't very much interested in action against the government.

1715: 1690:, his brother Ambrose, and at least one other member of the NEC. At a public gathering in 1975, Makiwane read out a statement which claimed that the SACP used the ANC as its "front organisation", and that a "non-African clique" had "hijacked the ANC" and was attempting "to substitute a class approach for the national approach to our struggle". The 2095:, continued secretly to engage with businessmen and government officials. However, the armed struggle continued, and within the ANC there was disagreement and perhaps uncertainty about the prudence of pursuing a peaceful settlement, a risky strategy if it alienated the ANC's constituency or resulted in a fruitless renouncement of armed struggle. 1778:. There was apparently some disagreement within the ANC (and within the ANC-MK-SACP bloc) as to whether MK attacks aimed to initiate an armed insurrection or only to weaken the apartheid government's position. Publicly, Tambo suggested the latter, telling the media in 1986 that the ANC's main objective was not "military victory but to force 2047:, including 36 million roubles for military supplies (including tens of thousands of guns), 12 million roubles for other supplies, and the rest for technical assistance and training. This financial and technical support continued well into 1990, with the relationship remaining close enough that Slovo and ANC Secretary-General 2959:

the nine provinces, with a significant jump in support in KwaZulu-Natal, Zuma's home province. However, the ANC conclusively lost the Western Cape to the DA. This was due to its declining popularity among minority voters, especially coloured voters, who constitute a large proportion of the population of the Western Cape.

1871:. Cadres also objected to the conduct of Mbokodo. During the ensuing fights between the mutineers and loyalists, several MK members died, and others were arrested and detained in prison camps, some to be tried later by military tribunals. It has been called "the most shameful episode in the history of the ANC". 2924:, both of whom had been influential in the anti-apartheid struggle but had failed to gain election to the NEC at Polokwane. In the 2009 general elections, COPE won 7.42% of the national vote and 30 parliamentary seats, becoming the second largest opposition party less than six months after its establishment. 2139:

the Cold War, a growing economic crisis inside South Africa, mounting international pressure, and a sustained front of internal dissent. Unbanned, the ANC's exiled leaders were able to return to South Africa to establish overt structures and to participate in the negotiations. It had its new headquarters at

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At last... the ANC has stopped blowing up walls. It's now doing the right thing. It can't make sense to continue blowing up pylons if we're going to get massacred for it and going to get hanged. It's not going to be possible for us to continue our action on the exclusive basis that no civilians shall

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in South Africa saw thousands of students cross the borders to seek military training. According to one estimate, the ANC in exile expanded from 1,000 members in 1975 to 9,000 members in 1980, with most of the increase accounted for by new MK cadres. Most of the new recruits, beginning with the "June

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ANC membership rose from around 7,000 to 100,000 over the course of the Defiance Campaign. In late 1953, in response to this expansion – and anticipating further legal constraints on the ANC's activities – Mandela proposed a new organisational system, known as the "M Plan", under which branches would

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t the time I first joined, the ANC was an organisation of teachers, intellectuals, clergymen – all the elite of African society. Young people were not very much interested in the ANC. They felt it was an organisation of elderly people. As a result, the ANC never became progressive until it was joined

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from 1927, and in the same year announced that it planned to embark on a course of mass mobilisation, including by constructing local branch memberships. This did not fully materialise, but the ANC did support the CPSA-founded League of African Rights, a body intended to agitate for various civil and

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said that he was "taken aback" by this response, given that the findings had been based on the ANC's own "very substantial, full and frank submissions". Yet in a parliamentary debate on the report, the ANC argued that the TRC's findings acted "to delegitimise or criminalise a significant part of the

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was elected secretary-general, reflecting the gradual merger that was taking place not only between the former wings of the ANC (that in exile, that underground, and that on Robben Island), but also between the ANC and other anti-apartheid groupings that had been influential inside the country while

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MK guerrilla activity increased steadily over this period, with one estimate recording an increase from 23 incidents in 1977 to 136 incidents in 1985. By 1986, the most common type of incident was attacks on or clashes with the police, including black policemen; MK operatives also targeted community

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resistance in the years prior to Sharpeville, for separate reasons – especially to improve the ANC's international standing and to fulfil the demands of some of its constituents – and, controversially, have argued that ANC President Luthuli in fact remained staunchly opposed to the use of violence.

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party (MK), named after the former armed wing of the ANC, was registered. The new party was launched in Soweto on 16 December 2023. At the launch South Africa's former President Jacob Zuma said he could no longer vote or campaign for a Cyril Ramaphosa-led ANC, endorsing the newly registered party.

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For the first time in the history of our country, we have under one roof, sharing the same vision and planning as equals, delegates from every sector of South African society, including those who hold the highest offices in the land... we can proudly say to the founders: the country is in the hands

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origin, risked her life so that we may know, and bring to justice, this assassin. The cold-blooded murder of Chris Hani has sent shock waves throughout the country and the world. Our grief and anger is tearing us apart... Any lack of discipline is trampling on the values that Chris Hani stood for.

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and groups aligned to the ANC or to the UDF, which in turn was aligned to the ANC. Yet it is debatable how much control the ANC in exile had over its supporters inside South Africa during the 1980s. One historian argues that when Tambo encouraged South Africans to render the country "ungovernable",

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with addresses by Mandela and Tambo. This was the first official meeting between exiles, underground members, and formerly imprisoned members of the ANC, and it affirmed the composition of the NEC as elected at the 1985 Kabwe conference. Tambo had returned to South Africa from Lusaka the day before

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unbanned the ANC and other illegal organisations and announced the beginning of formal negotiations for a peaceful settlement. Mandela was released shortly thereafter. These decisions by the apartheid regime have been attributed to a number of factors and combinations thereof, among them the end of

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of MK. In 1987, NAT was put under the oversight of the President's Council, also known as the National Security Committee and chaired by Tambo, and the body previously known as "Political HQ" was replaced by the augmented Internal Political Committee, responsible for the ANC's political underground

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The conference resolved to open membership of the ANC to non-blacks. Although the NEC remained open only to black members, the conference also established the powerful and multi-racial Revolutionary Council, on which MK and the SACP were well represented. The council, chaired by Tambo, oversaw both

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In the 2009 elections, the ANC secured 65.9% of votes at the national level – still a comfortable win, but a loss of 15 seats from 2004 and the beginning of the gradual electoral decline ultimately undergone by the ANC between 2009 and 2018. At the provincial level, the ANC won control of eight of

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By April 2007, it was clear that Mbeki intended to run for a third term as ANC President – although he was prohibited by the Constitution from standing again for the national presidency, the ANC has no such term limits internally. Some suspected that Mbeki intended to continue to exert substantial

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of 1996, marked the end of the Government of National Unity. The ANC had campaigned for, and narrowly received, a two-thirds majority in the National Assembly, and it gained 14 additional seats. It performed markedly better in the Western Cape than it had in 1994, securing a plurality, but the NNP

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James Stuart), to probe cadres' grievances. Its 1984 report, known as the Stuart report, found no evidence to substantiate rumours that enemy agents were responsible for the "disturbances", and made several recommendations for improving conditions in the camps. The report was not made public until

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In 1980 and 1981, worsening relations between MK and the Zambian government – primarily due to a large undeclared weapons cache found by Zambian security forces on an ANC farm outside Lusaka – triggered a "panic" within the ANC leadership about poor discipline among MK members, first in Zambia and

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and other economic sectors. According to Lodge, the ANC's endorsement of the charter reflected the changing character of its leadership and membership, who in 1955 were more likely to have legal, trade union, or non-professional backgrounds than the earlier generation of professional and religious

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set about implementing apartheid, particularly through a series of laws which further restricted the civil, political, and economic rights and freedoms of non-white South Africans. This naturally wrought a significant shift in the agenda and approach of non-white political organisations, including

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In 2024, the African National Congress (ANC) lost its parliamentary majority, although the ANC remained the largest party, receiving 40.18 percent of the vote. The Democratic Alliance (DA) received the second-highest number of votes (21.81 percent) followed by the new, Jacob Zuma-led, MK party

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By 2002, there were widespread rumours of a rift between the ANC and the SACP, as well as tensions with the third Tripartite Alliance partner, COSATU, which held anti-privatisation protests in July of that year. At the centre of their disagreements was the economic policy of the Mbeki government,

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In July 1996, Mandela fired Holomisa as deputy minister following his appearance before the commission; the next month, following internal disciplinary proceedings, he was expelled from the ANC for having brought the movement into disrepute. Holomisa had testified in May that that former Transkei

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From the mid-1980s, mounting international and domestic pressure made the apartheid government's position appear increasingly unsustainable, and the attention of some ANC leaders turned to the prospect of negotiating with the South African government to end apartheid. From September 1985, the ANC

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According to Lodge, another aspect of the disagreement concerned differing pictures of the ANC's role in mass mobilisation. The Africanists believed that a nationalist platform would be more effective at garnering a mass following than would the coalition of sectional interests represented by the

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Suttner says of the charter, "Its strength lay at once in its being a statement of general freedoms found in most human rights documents and also in its speaking directly to the specific form of rights violation under apartheid." The content of the charter and the composition of the congress were

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The TRC has grossly misdirected itself in its 'Findings on the Role of the African National Congress', through the pursuit of objectives which are contrary to the spirit and the intention of the Act under which it was established. These 'findings' show an extraordinary refusal on the part of the

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of the NEC, secretly returned to South Africa after many years in exile. They also established a secret direct channel of communication between Tambo and Mandela, who, still imprisoned, was also in contact with the government on the ANC's behalf. When the police uncovered Vula in 1990, eight ANC

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of the SACP. At this stage, MK was not yet an official ANC body, nor had it been directly established by the ANC NEC: it was considered an autonomous organisation, established and staffed by members of the SACP as well as the ANC. Importantly, this meant that MK membership was open to all races,

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Called the South African Native National Congress until 1923, the ANC was founded as a national discussion forum and organised pressure group, which sought to advance black South Africans’ rights at times using violent and other times diplomatic methods. Its early membership was a small, loosely

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campaign during the 1980s and various bombings which harmed civilians; attacks on suspected collaborators or state witnesses; and the ill treatment, torture, and executions of ANC members in exile. It also assigned partial responsibility to the ANC for the political violence of the early 1990s,

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in Bloemfontein, under the theme "From Resistance to Reconstruction and Nation-Building". Mandela was re-elected unopposed as ANC president, and Ramaphosa was re-elected unopposed as secretary-general. The composition of the rest of the top leadership changed, ushering in a younger generation –

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included Mandela, Sisulu, Tambo, ANC President Luthuli, and most of the rest of the ANC's NEC. All the defendants were released or acquitted by 1961, but the protracted trial apparently led to the neglect of organisational and administrative duties by ANC leadership. However, the trial has been

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In return, the organisation received substantial Soviet support. From 1962, ANC members identified as potential leaders were sent to the Soviet Union for academic and political training, and thousands of MK recruits were sent for basic and specialised military training in the Soviet Union over

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The ANC's official rationale for initiating the armed struggle – that it had been an unavoidable and unanimous response to increased state repression – has since been complicated by historians. In particular, several have argued that some groups within the ANC had supported a strategy of armed

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We, the People of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to know: that South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white, and that no government can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of all the people... And we pledge ourselves to strive together,

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In the early 1990s, there was substantial media reporting on alleged abuses in MK camps in exile. The ANC set up two commissions of inquiry to investigate — the Skweyiya Commission, appointed in 1991, and the broader Motsuenyane Commission, appointed in 1993. Both reported substantial abuses,

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found them guilty of “statutory communism” – it was clear that Moroka, for example, was not ideologically a communist – and suspended their sentences. However, Moroka had fallen out of favour with the ANC during the trial – he had pursued a separate legal defence and had publicly disowned the

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Speculation abounded that Mbeki would resign from, or be pushed out from, the national presidency before the end of his term in April 2009. When the corruption charges against Zuma were reinstated, Mbeki was accused of orchestrating a political conspiracy. In September 2008, High Court Judge

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of MK's "Luthuli Detachment" and was then in his mid-20s – they and five other cadres wrote a memorandum, known as the Hani memorandum, criticising the "wrong policies and personal failures" of the ANC leadership. The memorandum cited corruption, nepotism, and a misplaced focus on garnering

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in December 1997. Mandela had since at least February 1995 made it clear that he intended to retire in 1999, and Mbeki was understood to be his preferred successor, with Mandela emphasising in the press that Mbeki had already assumed substantial responsibilities and was already "a de facto

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still more narrowly. The result in KwaZulu-Natal came to be known as "negotiated", in the infamous phrase of an electoral officer – despite allegations of foul play, the ANC opted to accept the IFP's victory, probably in order to avert further violence in the province. In line with the

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ur movement must reject all manifestations of militarism which separates armed people's struggle from its political context... The primacy of the political leadership is unchallenged and supreme and all revolutionary formations and levels (whether armed or not) are subordinate to this

2270:, we have to break down and destroy the old order. We have to make apartheid unworkable and our country ungovernable. The accomplishment of these tasks will create the situation for us to overthrow the apartheid regime and for power to pass into the hands of the people as a whole. 151:. This was one of two significant splits in the ANC on the basis of its racial policies – in 1975, the so-called Gang of Eight was expelled for objecting to the ANC's 1969 decision to open its membership to all races. The second major shift came when in March 1960, following the 2169:(COSATU). Like the SACP, COSATU had already been aligned to the ANC in prior years — in 1987, two years after it was founded, it and many of its affiliates had adopted the Freedom Charter. The membership and leadership of all three bodies also already overlapped significantly. 2201:

and the people of Zambia for hosting the ANC in exile. The conference also resolved that it would consider suspending negotiations if the state did not release all political prisoners, allow the return of all exiles, and repeal all repressive legislation before 30 April 1991.

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Tonight I am reaching out to every single South African, black and white, from the very depths of my being. A white man, full of prejudice and hate, came to our country and committed a deed so foul that our whole nation now teeters on the brink of disaster. A white woman, of

2355:, who was by then an extremely popular figure in the ANC and an NEC member, led to an outbreak of violence. In an unprecedented televised address to the nation, Mandela delivered a plea for calm, which some remember as having prevented the spread of the unrest. Mandela said: 1685:

After 1969, a dissident Africanist faction, known as the "Gang of Eight" or "Group of Eight", objected to the influence given at Morogoro to non-Africans and the SACP. As their objections became more boisterous, they were expelled from the ANC in 1975. The group included

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sparing neither strength nor courage, until the democratic changes here set out have been won... Let all who love their people and their country now say, as we say here: 'THESE FREEDOMS WE WILL FIGHT FOR, SIDE BY SIDE, THROUGHOUT OUR LIVES, UNTIL WE HAVE WON OUR LIBERTY.'

2830:, political prosecutions, and the ANC's relationship to its Tripartite Alliance partners. Allegations abounded that ANC politicians on both sides were abusing their state offices in service of the rivalry – in October 2005, for example, top Zuma-aligned officials in the 1817:

The ANC's national intelligence and security department (commonly known as NAT) had greatly expanded during the post-1976 influx of recruits, among whom the ANC worried there might be state agents and whom NAT screened. The security wing of NAT became known as Mbokodo

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politicians, and attacked infrastructure instalments using landmines, limpet mines, and grenades. The ANC had maintained that any civilian casualties would be regrettable and unintended, but a number of civilians were killed in these attacks, including in the 1983

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for corruption. In 2008, the ANC-controlled Parliament disbanded the unit, a decision which faced severe criticism and which at least some commentators have linked to its investigations into ANC politicians, especially in relation to the Arms Deal. In 2011, the

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classified the ANC as a terrorist organisation, noting that, though it publicly denied targeting civilians, it had been responsible for civilian deaths. Neither the ANC nor Mandela were removed from the U.S. terror watch list until 2008. U.K. Prime Minister

2826:), he retained the ANC deputy presidency, after a brief suspension during the rape trial. An intense rivalry developed between him and Mbeki, with internal factions developing around each. Key points of contention between the two groups reportedly included 2043:

subsequent decades. Between 1979 and 1989, at Tambo's request came to Angola to lead training programmes at the MK camps. According to the Russian government, between 1963 and 1990, the Soviet Union provided the ANC with assistance worth about 61 million

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proposed a national convention which would represent all groups of South African society and could "draw up a Freedom Charter for the democratic South Africa of the future". The next month, the ANC national conference endorsed this proposal, and the

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operations", a position endorsed by the ANC's national conference in October 1962. Yet sabotage attacks, not guerrilla warfare, remained the primary activity of MK, with about 200 such attacks taking place between December 1961 and December 1964.

2788:, the ANC gained 13 seats in the National Assembly. It retained its plurality in both KwaZulu-Natal and the Western Cape, as well as its majority in the other provinces. In the Western Cape, it formed a coalition with the NNP to exclude the new 2633:

formed a coalition, blocking ANC control of the province. The ANC likewise gained a plurality in KwaZulu-Natal and became the senior party in a provincial coalition with the IFP, and it comfortably retained control of the other seven provinces.

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would have had the authority to do so. Mbeki decided to accede and resign in order to avoid a protracted and high-profile battle in Parliament. About a third of his cabinet also resigned, in protest of the NEC's decision. Mbeki was replaced by

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The TRC's five-volume report, published in 1998, recognised the ANC as a major victim of gross human rights abuses during apartheid, but also as a perpetrator of the same. Specifically, the TRC highlighted three categories of ANC actions: its

2981:, the ANC again secured a majority of the votes, but a notably reduced majority. In 2016, the DA was able to take control over several key municipalities, including Johannesburg and Pretoria. The ANC also lost votes to the newly established 7366: 5427: 1910:

These changes at Kabwe followed an organisational restructuring in 1983, which had replaced the Revolutionary Council with the Politico-Military Council, established various Regional Politico-Military Committees, and formalised the

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After its banning in April 1960, the ANC was driven underground. In the following years, many of its leaders were banned or arrested, including Mandela in 1962 and much of the rest of MK's top leadership in 1963 during the raid on

2792:(DA). In the aftermath of the elections, the NNP, which had performed very poorly – and which had in 2000 attempted a failed merger with the DA – announced that it would disband and that its members would join the ANC during the 308:

campaign and supported striking municipal workers and mineworkers. The pass laws were a consistent target of the Congress over its first few decades, as those laws were gradually extended and entrenched, such as through the 1923

2224:, the ANC elected a new NEC and top leadership. Tambo had stepped down after 24 years as president following a stroke; Mandela was elected to replace him, and Sisulu was elected his deputy. Notably, influential trade unionist 2071:

hosted in Lusaka and Harare several formal deputations from South African civil and labour groups, presumably with an eye to building partnerships and discussing aspects of a potential settlement. These groups included the

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and called for the use of grassroots and mass mobilisation techniques – such as strikes, stay-aways, and boycotts – which in the past had been used successfully by other groups, such as the CPSA, but not by the ANC itself.

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abuse, drunk driving, and a general element of ill discipline, as when in 1981 a group of MK members refused to transfer from Zambia to Angola because they perceived the Angolan camps as a place of punishment ("the ANC's

1528:

attacks, beginning on 16 December 1961 with a wave of bombings against government installations which were (at the instruction of the High Command) unoccupied. In May 1962, a memorandum co-authored by Mandela, Tambo, and

2621:

President". The conference was reportedly preceded by significant political manoeuvring and compromise-brokering, in an effort by the top leadership to ensure that Mandela's succession did not lead to internal conflict.

1587:. Tambo, who had been directed to set up the external mission in March 1960, thus became the ANC's de facto leader, and when Luthuli died in 1967 he became acting ANC President. From 1963, MK training was organised in 369:

A just and permanent peace will be possible only if the claims of all classes, colours and races for sharing and for full participation in the educational, political and economic activities are granted and recognised.

5497: 408:. On 9 March 1947, the ANC signed a co-operation agreement, the so-called "Three Doctors' Pact", with the Indian Congresses. By that year, the ANC had swelled to a record 5,517 members, more than half of them in the 5835: 3044:

In 2019, ANC won parliamentary election, but with a reduced majority. The ANC received 58% of the vote, ahead of the Democratic Alliance (DA) with 21%. The radical left-wing Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF), led by

2659:

In December 1999, following several years of planning and negotiations during the Mandela presidency, the ANC-led government signed R30-billion in defence procurement contracts, under what is commonly known as the

1722:

From the mid-1970s, conditions for an armed struggle improved: Angola and Mozambique achieved independence in 1975, allowing the ANC to set up facilities considerably closer to the home front, and, from 1976, the

1631:

with joint Rhodesian and South African security forces, a majority of the MK operatives involved were killed or imprisoned. When two veterans of the Wankie campaign returned from prison in Botswana – one of them

1619:, the MK rank-and-file reportedly grew frustrated with the paucity of its operational activity inside South Africa. In 1967 and 1968, MK launched the Wankie and Sipolilo campaigns, both joint campaigns with the 2411:

were held between 26 and 29 April 1994. As widely expected, the ANC, running alongside its Tripartite Alliance partners, won comfortably, gaining 62.65% of the national vote and 252 of the 400 seats in the new

1938:

position and calling for the ANC to revise the strategy underlying its armed struggle. They argued that the armed struggle should aim to elicit mass participation in overthrowing apartheid and bringing about a

2441:

and first democratically elected president, and Mbeki was his deputy. The National Party installed De Klerk as a second deputy president, having narrowly achieved the requisite 20% share of the national vote.

1993:

We draw immense satisfaction and inspiration from the fact that the Soviet Union is resolved to contribute everything within its possibilities and, within the context of our own requests, to assist the ANC,

1874:

Between the mutiny at Viana and a second only months later at the Pango camp, the ANC appointed the Commission of Inquiry into Recent Developments in the People's Republic of Angola, chaired by MK commissar

3190:

In July 2024, South Africa's and ANC´s former President Jacob Zuma was expelled from the African National Congress (ANC), because of campaigning for a rival party (MK party) in the 29 May general election.

1494:

during a period in which ANC membership remained open only to black Africans. This non-racial membership policy remained in place after the ANC had formally recognised MK as its armed wing in October 1962.

1343:

both explicitly multi-racial, even as the individual groups present were separated along racial lines. Famously, part of it reads (with a crucial phrase later included in the preamble to the post-apartheid

2589:

struggle of our people for liberation". A popular ANC talking point was that seeking to equate the actions of the ANC with the actions of the apartheid state was an acceptable form of “moral equivalence".

348:. For another example of decentralisation, membership was officially open only to black men (with women allowed to join only from 1943), but the practice appears to have been different at the local level. 4202: 2335:

The political violence worsened during the transition to democracy between 1990 and 1994, with as many as 14,000 or 15,000 people killed during that period. Significant confrontations included the 1992

4545: 1998:

and the peoples of our region to achieve these objectives... the Soviet Union is acting neither out of consideration of selfish interest nor with a desire to establish a so-called sphere of influence.

6737: 5902: 4314: 8890: 2486:. The conference endorsed a substantive restructuring of the organisation for the post-apartheid era, and it reaffirmed several central policies, including the 1992 Ready to Govern policy, the 1994 7869: 5022: 1579:). Thus from around 1963, the ANC effectively abandoned much of even its underground presence inside South Africa and operated almost entirely from its external mission, with headquarters first in 7358: 1165:. At the ANC's 38th National Conference in December 1949 in Bloemfontein, in a "remarkable putsch", the Youth League successfully campaigned for the replacement of incumbent ANC President Xuma by 8508: 6184: 1245:

Defiance Campaign and the ANC's objective of racial equality. In December 1952, Luthuli, who had risen to prominence during the Defiance Campaign, beat Moroka in a vote to become ANC President.

1169:, as well as for the instalment of Sisulu as Secretary-General and for six seats on the ANC NEC. The League tabled a broad and systematic Programme of Action. The Programme explicitly advocated 143:

At the turn of the decade, a series of significant events in quick succession changed the course of the movement. First, in 1959, a group of dissidents broke away from the ANC to form the rival

1822:), and by 1980 Tambo was concerned that it was suppressing ideological disagreement and alienating the rank-and-file. There were later widespread allegations that dissident MK cadres had faced 8159: 6706: 5409: 2478:

won the national chairmanship in a landslide. The expanded NEC contained several figures from the internal struggle against apartheid – the candidate who received the most votes was former

7830: 7626: 5804: 5129: 1499:

It was only when all else had failed, when all channels of peaceful protest had been barred to us, that the decision was made to embark on violent forms of political struggle, and to form

1396:, who were also charged). Mandela later joked that the detention of the defendants in communal cells enabled "the largest and longest unbanned meeting of the Congress Alliance in years". 8686: 280:

These were men who retained close ties with the African aristocracy, the rural chieftaincy, who, while anxious to promote the general advancement and 'upliftment of the race', were also

2584:

When it received advance notice of the TRC's findings, the ANC sought to interdict the report's publication, and many of its leaders subsequently rejected the findings. TRC Chairperson

5864: 256:

hymns were sung at the founding meeting. The Congress's membership at this early stage has been described as comprising an "elite" of black South African society, especially including

3544: 3093:

support for the ruling ANC party significantly declined, the ANC lost the parliamentary majority that it had held since the inaugural post-apartheid election in 1994, which required

1742:

be killed. That is implicit in our idea of intensifying the struggle... People are very resentful and feel they want to hurt... They somehow felt the ANC had been denying them this.

1217:, inspired by a 1946–48 resistance campaign organised by the Indian Congresses and in turn inspired by campaigns led by Gandhi earlier in the century. This joint campaign became the 7098: 7991: 10037: 9574: 1240:

In July 1952, 20 or 21 non-white leaders of the campaign, including Mandela, Sisulu, and ANC President Moroka, were charged with violating the Suppression of Communism Act. Judge

6888: 2313:

he was "trying to place the ANC at the head of an unfolding social revolution". On the practice of necklacing, which received international condemnation, ANC Secretary-General

344:. Such influences had additional scope to operate locally in the early Congress, which was significantly decentralised: the national organisation met only once annually, at the 7336: 3025:

In February 2018, Cyril Ramaphosa was elected as the new president of South Africa, following resignation of Jacob Zuma to finish Zuma’s term until general elections in 2019.

12819: 7565: 304:

intervention in South Africa to protect the rights of black South Africans. Thereafter, however, its posture changed slightly: in 1919 and 1920, it became involved in an anti-

6992: 5487: 2728: 10032: 8584:"The road to the Mangaung (Bloemfontein) National Elective Conference of the African National Congress in December 2012: A political challenge to the Jacob Zuma presidency?" 8560: 5451: 4445: 3200: 2810:

Although both Mbeki and Zuma were reappointed after the 2004 election, on 14 June 2005 Mbeki removed Zuma from his post as deputy president. This followed the conviction of

1098: 5827: 7405: 7306: 4047: 2908:

In response to Polokwane and to Mbeki's "recall", a group of pro-Mbeki ANC members broke away and in November 2008 announced the foundation of a new political party, the

10967: 10027: 6245: 6959: 17: 7687: 1477:

Following the Sharpeville massacre, the ANC abandoned its policy of exclusively non-violent resistance. In December 1960, the reconstituted CPSA underground, now the

11597: 10210: 10010: 10004: 9998: 9992: 9986: 9980: 9974: 9968: 3060: 3009: 2862: 2805: 2736: 2613: 2470: 2451: 2217: 2211: 2102:, through which the ANC would seek to re-establish an armed underground and political leadership inside South Africa. Through Operation Vula, ANC leaders, including 7534: 2869:, in December 2007, Zuma won the ANC presidency, and a slate of Zuma-aligned candidates won other top leadership positions. No fewer than eleven members of Mbeki's 8128: 1094: 412:. This represented a larger and more informal following than the ANC had had in the past, attracted in particular by large mass meetings it had begun to organise. 4859: 10888: 8189: 6675: 4183: 2861:

influence over the government through his ANC office. Zuma, with the support of the SACP and COSATU, emerged as a challenger to Mbeki in the run-up to the ANC's

405: 6614: 2890:, who had been elected ANC deputy president at Polokwane. Motlanthe led what was viewed as an interim or caretaker administration while Zuma campaigned for the 3394: 2909: 2903: 1691: 4537: 12386: 6729: 5882: 4306: 7899: 1257:

called for the establishment of an anti-apartheid organisation open to whites and able to coordinate with the Congresses. This led to the foundation of the

9952: 8219: 7861: 6440: 3524: 2551:, then an ANC cabinet minister, had accepted a "gift" of R50,000 in 1987 in relation to the Transkei government's decision to grant a gambling monopoly to 345: 206: 5014: 2985:, which became South Africa's third biggest party. Congress of the People (COPE) lost almost all of its support and managed to receive 0,67% of the vote. 1867:), the revolt was triggered by cadres' demand that they be sent to fight the apartheid state in South Africa, rather than to fight further battles in the 1339:, a document based on demands articulated during a process of mass participation and which became a fundamental document for the anti-apartheid struggle. 10893: 9632: 8849: 2317:

said in 1986, "Whatever the people decide to use to eliminate those enemy elements is their decision. If they decide to use necklacings, we support it."

1700:, under the title "The Enemy Hidden Under the Same Colour", comparing the group to the Africanist faction which had broken away to form the PAC in 1959. 1687: 9112: 8500: 7929: 6176: 11844: 11548: 9090: 8476: 4414: 2540: 2514: 7246: 6151: 2735:. Relatedly, the ANC and SACP complained that they were being marginalised by Mbeki's increasingly centralised administration. Nonetheless, the ANC's 2561:

Commission to locate itself in the context of the circumstances which related to the struggle against apartheid, both within and outside the country.

13034: 12989: 12923: 8454: 8280: 1975:

condemned acts of "calculated terror" by elements of the ANC, which he said were "creating the conditions for racial war". Two years later, the U.S.

7808: 7778: 6644: 6206: 12996: 10531: 8249: 6926: 6059: 2796:

period. This followed a 2002 cooperation agreement between the ANC and NNP, which had seen two NNP members appointed as national deputy ministers.

2292:", which had played a significant role in heightening the internal pressure on the regime to begin negotiations, had also led to the rise of local 1405: 551: 8151: 7960: 7014: 6698: 4821: 1141:

While the state was introducing formal apartheid, the ANC was itself changing by virtue of the rise of a younger generation of activists from the

508: 12491: 11764: 11555: 10960: 10426: 8757: 8726: 8663: 7838: 7748: 7618: 5531: 5118: 2365:

Those who commit such acts serve only the interests of the assassins, and desecrate his memory... We will not be provoked into any rash actions.

11262: 8633: 5796: 12805: 12784: 12645: 11562: 10470: 8422: 6332: 5061: 4336: 2743:

in 2002 proceeded without contest, although in an address to delegates Mbeki was scathing about the detrimental influence of "ultra-leftists".

2084: 8927: 7052: 4077: 2814:

on corruption charges, with the court finding that Shaik had made corrupt payments to Zuma in relation to the Arms Deal. Zuma was replaced by

2192:

In December 1990 in Johannesburg, the ANC held a third national consultative conference, its first inside the country, followed by a rally in

384:

However, amid a surge of trade union activity in the 1940s, the ANC experienced a revival and moderate radicalisation under President-General

12407: 11757: 10574: 10203: 10052: 5856: 2865:. This resulted in the party's first contested presidential election since that which had deposed Moroka in 1952. At the conference, held in 2254: 2112: 518: 333: 202: 10263: 7595: 3552: 1971:

For much of its time in exile, the ANC was treated with hostility by the United States and United Kingdom. In a 1986 speech, U.S. President

1615:

In its early years of exile, while MK focused on training its recruits and re-establishing an organisational structure under the command of

12323: 12239: 11694: 11673: 10515: 10295: 9138: 6028: 4933: 3786: 2176: 1108:

During the 1950s, while the ANC intensified its domestic programme of protest action, it also began calling in the international arena for

503: 9030: 12777: 11643: 11604: 10042: 9161: 8696: 7983: 7276: 7177: 2831: 2754:, became overt supporters of Zuma in his burgeoning rivalry with Mbeki. Further criticisms from the left targeted the Mbeki government's 2555:. Deputy President Mbeki argued that Holomisa should not have made the allegation public without discussing it with the ANC beforehand. 2434: 8399: 7718: 13014: 12456: 11812: 11433: 10953: 8603: 7657: 6896: 6309: 5739: 2531:

especially by NAT. In 1993, while accepting the findings of the Motsuenyane Commission, the ANC repeated an earlier call by NEC member

1775: 1425:

In April 1959, in an escalation of longstanding ideological tensions, a group of young Africanists broke away from the ANC to form the

163:(MK), which was to become the ANC's military wing. Announcing the beginning of an armed struggle against apartheid, MK embarked upon a 5603: 12840: 12701: 12624: 11914: 10873: 10382: 8891:"Economic Freedom Fighters became South Africa's third largest political party in just 10 years. What's behind its electoral success" 7328: 4817:

Further submissions and responses by the African National Congress to questions raised by the Commission for Truth and Reconciliation

4152: 2284:

Political violence inside South Africa, often involving ANC supporters, had escalated throughout the 1980s. The campaign to make the

1602: 453: 7557: 1097:

on several ANC members and leaders, limiting their political activity and freedom of movement. Eleven of the 27 members of the 1952

12770: 12505: 11837: 10868: 10507: 10196: 6984: 2612:, Mbeki was elected national president, with Zuma as his deputy. Mbeki had ascended to the ANC presidency, unopposed, at the ANC's 2503: 2491: 2487: 2197:

the conference began – after over three decades in exile – and the conference endorsed a message of gratitude to Zambian President

2080: 1109: 608: 8964: 8552: 5773: 4437: 4234: 1641:

international support over fighting on the home (South African) front; and it specifically named Modise and ANC Secretary-General

12763: 12610: 12568: 12316: 12197: 11780: 11315: 11253: 10564: 10390: 9625: 8787: 8361: 3138: 3094: 2746:

The rift in the Tripartite Alliance worsened later in Mbeki's presidency, especially once SACP and COSATU's general secretaries,

1620: 1249:

be divided into "cells", each centred around a single street and headed by a steward. It was most effectively implemented in the

993: 1177:

Thus from 1950 the ANC began to participate more consistently in mass-based action. In 1950, the ANC, under Moroka, supported a

360:

in 1930, and the (short-lived) Independent ANC was formed in a split by dissidents from the left-leaning region that is now the

321:, developed only years earlier in South Africa, the Congress protested the pass laws through a (somewhat sporadic) programme of 182:. It remained in exile until it was unbanned in 1990. For most of this period, the ANC was led by Tambo, headquartered first in 104:, that the ANC became a mass-based organisation. In 1952, the ANC's membership swelled during the uncharacteristically militant 12861: 12826: 12344: 11541: 10686: 10337: 10154: 10047: 8997: 7389: 7298: 5093: 4039: 3050: 2978: 2839: 2230: 2166: 2076: 1142: 909: 658: 643: 6237: 1383:, with the text of the Freedom Charter considered important evidence for the charges. The initial defendants in the resulting 12735: 12302: 11396: 10691: 9583: 9563: 9548: 9533: 9509: 9491: 9476: 9461: 9446: 9431: 9413: 9398: 9374: 9356: 9332: 9317: 9302: 9287: 9272: 9257: 9239: 9221: 8538: 8347: 8091: 7399: 7142: 7084: 6948: 6396: 6145: 5971: 5421: 5055: 4520: 4377: 4278: 4196: 4135: 3966: 3918: 3852: 3720: 3121:

with the support of the parties who then formed part of the GNU. A further six parties subsequently joined the GNU to form a

1331:, in June 1955. The alliance of the groups present at the congress, which endured long afterwards, later became known as the 8097: 7428: 7215: 7148: 6402: 5977: 5935: 4383: 4284: 3924: 3858: 3726: 12951: 12742: 12652: 12274: 10464: 9049: 8818: 8312: 7679: 6102: 2689: 683: 463: 5356:"Nuclear terrorism in Africa: The ANC's Operation Mac and the attack on the Koeberg Nuclear Power Station in South Africa" 13039: 12888: 12833: 12749: 12596: 12260: 11823: 11490: 11460: 10552: 7526: 3090: 3080: 3039: 2974: 2968: 2953: 2891: 2785: 2779: 2609: 2603: 2430: 2408: 2402: 2036: 1925: 1258: 1066: 1052: 563: 468: 210: 8120: 7131:

Fullard, Madeleine; Rousseau, Nicky (2003). "An imperfect past: The Truth and Reconciliation Commission in transition".

5252: 155:, the ANC was banned, marking the beginning of a period of escalating state repression. Forced underground, the ANC and 12847: 12812: 12756: 12281: 12246: 11935: 11384: 11373: 10802: 10487: 10432: 10176: 9618: 6667: 6083:"The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) and the Tripartite Alliance : a marriage of (in)convenience?" 3148: 3098: 3067: 2789: 2701: 1090: 1026: 593: 8181: 2245:. When the UDF formally disbanded the next month, the ANC was to absorb still more of its former leaders and members. 1503:. We did so not because we desired such a course, but solely because the Government had left us with no other choice. 12631: 12498: 12477: 12435: 11977: 11650: 10935: 10918: 10611: 10482: 8946: 8427: 6606: 3164: 2417: 2413: 1976: 1426: 1158: 668: 638: 144: 8908: 5642:"The Soviet Union/Russian Federation's Relations with South Africa, with Special Reference to the Period since 1980" 1789:

engaged in a number of raids and bombings on ANC bases in the countries neighbouring South Africa, such as the 1981

12561: 12400: 11569: 11483: 11426: 10626: 10458: 10119: 9597: 8045: 6584: 3648: 3110: 1674: 983: 613: 137: 7504: 6801: 6525: 5449:

Cleveland, Todd (2005). ""We Still Want the Truth": The ANC's Angolan Detention Camps and Post-Apartheid Memory".

5332: 2706: 2039:. Tambo himself visited Moscow in April 1963, and in subsequent years the ANC sent regular delegations to Moscow. 1984:

also called the ANC a terrorist organisation in 1987, although the ANC continued to maintain its London office in

1732:

oil refinery complex, causing damage estimated at R66 million. Likewise, a 1982 special operations bombing of the

12791: 12554: 12470: 12351: 12337: 12309: 11576: 11520: 10903: 10476: 10327: 7891: 5677: 5208: 4992: 4681: 3126: 2630: 2051:

were reportedly in Moscow when the South African government announced Mandela's release and the ANC's unbanning.

1599:, "it is no exaggeration to say that the ANC was in danger of extinction inside South Africa" during this period. 1361: 973: 598: 493: 337: 11729: 10238: 8211: 2165:

was established in mid-1990, comprising the ANC (recognised as the Alliance leader), the SACP, and the powerful

1959: 12540: 12449: 12204: 11963: 10357: 4898:"After Morogoro: the continuing crisis in the African National Congress (of South Africa) in Zambia, 1969–1971" 4762:

Suttner, Raymond (2010). "'The Road to Freedom is via the Cross' 'Just Means' in Chief Albert Luthuli's Life".

4740: 3489: 3184: 2680: 1947:

within the ANC in 1981 – the ideology of which was anonymously condemned as "economistic and workerist" in the

1572: 1388:

interpreted as cementing the ties among Congress Alliance members (and with several communist leaders, such as

663: 8841: 300:

calls "the politics of petitioning". For example, in 1914 and 1919, it sent delegations to Britain to request

12694: 12680: 12603: 12484: 12442: 12421: 12295: 11858: 11504: 11226: 10268: 10159: 10089: 9116: 7921: 7800: 7211:

Dis-placing Race: The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) and Interpretations of Violence

2870: 2819: 2793: 1733: 1478: 1324: 1303: 1073: 816: 693: 678: 653: 156: 97: 11736: 9602: 8486: 4406: 2827: 2437:, intended to function as a transitional power-sharing mechanism. Mandela became South Africa's first black 1233:, while the Criminal Law Amendment Act punished civil disobedience with a three-year prison sentence and/or 12958: 12902: 12728: 12617: 12589: 12526: 12218: 12076: 10502: 10420: 10332: 10273: 10233: 7238: 6125: 3019: 2878: 2391: 1344: 958: 573: 11743: 8446: 8272: 6637:"A Cruel Attempt to Kill Progress: Chris Hani assassination must not be allowed to derail S. Africa talks" 1659:

In response to the Hani memorandum and other signs of "crisis" in the MK ranks, Tambo called the landmark

12895: 12798: 12673: 12582: 12428: 11787: 10908: 10878: 10795: 10716: 7770: 6636: 2352: 2289: 1944: 1786: 1241: 831: 673: 618: 528: 523: 8241: 6918: 6051: 12365: 11886: 11794: 11750: 11527: 11405: 11304: 10848: 10681: 10621: 10372: 10352: 10342: 9698: 9680: 7952: 7022: 6214: 4815: 3242: 3224: 3172: 2882: 2345: 2140: 1771: 533: 214: 8749: 8718: 8655: 7740: 6429:"The Microdynamics of Conflict Escalation : The Case of ANC-IFP Fighting in South Africa in 1990" 6272:"Political Mobilisation and Rise of the Culture of Violence in South Africa Exploring the Root Causes" 5704:"Whose Liberation? A Partly-Forgotten Left Critique of ANC Strategy and Its Contemporary Implications" 5523: 2849: 861: 296:

The Congress did indeed have moderate objectives and methods during its early years, engaging in what

12909: 12547: 12379: 12372: 12330: 12044: 11991: 11879: 11830: 11611: 11269: 10913: 10838: 10569: 10547: 10537: 10322: 9641: 9419: 8625: 3144: 3118: 2982: 2759: 2523: 2438: 2072: 1934:

and three others were suspended from the ANC on the basis of papers they had published, supporting a

1596: 781: 628: 623: 603: 578: 558: 397: 310: 218: 65: 10283: 6340: 5045: 4344: 3187:, although the UAT withdrew on 12 July 2024 after it did not receive any positions in the Cabinet. 2416:. It also won control of all nine provinces but two: the National Party, later reconstituted as the 1356:

In addition to its claims to civil and political equality, the charter incorporated demands for the

12721: 11984: 11636: 10883: 10858: 10646: 10526: 10443: 10347: 10219: 8432: 7044: 4069: 2843: 2676: 968: 588: 4182:

Crawford, N.; Klotz, A. (28 January 1999). "Appendix: Chronology of Sanctions Against Apartheid".

1533:

referred to the MK sabotage attacks as "the first phase of a comprehensive plan for the waging of

791: 12358: 12253: 12120: 11970: 11851: 11583: 11366: 11276: 10898: 10728: 9903: 9686: 9668: 7587: 4705:"Albert Luthuli's private struggle: how an icon of peace came to accept sabotage in South Africa" 3504: 3484: 3442: 3230: 3212: 3056:

In May 2019, Cyril Ramaphosa was sworn in for a new five-year term as South Africa's president.

3022:. Zuma was forced to step down as the leader of the party because of the corruption allegations. 2661: 2643: 2314: 2048: 1940: 1226: 1045: 998: 766: 352: 265: 10248: 9139:"Statement by President Cyril Ramaphosa on the appointment of members of the national executive" 3758: 2035:

to outline the party's plans to launch an armed struggle, and secured the support of the ruling

1379:

In December 1956, 156 prominent figures in the Congress Alliance were arrested and charged with

1076:, which would not be voted out for the next 46 years. The party had campaigned on a platform of 11928: 11893: 11095: 10671: 10400: 10258: 3160: 2815: 1623:. The campaigns, which aimed to infiltrate MK cadres back into South Africa through Zambia and 698: 389: 249: 7268: 7171: 3759:"The African National Congress in South Africa, 1976–1983: Guerrilla War and armed propaganda" 1410: 328:

The 1920s were notable in South Africa for what has been characterised as intensive growth in

12463: 12393: 12288: 12183: 12037: 11687: 11467: 11380: 11175: 10995: 10843: 10828: 10636: 10542: 10317: 8383: 8080:

Gevisser, Mark (2007). "Thabo Mbeki, Jacob Zuma, and the Future of the South African Dream".

7710: 3156: 3102: 2873:, as well as several other stalwarts of the movement, failed to gain re-election to the NEC. 2823: 2421: 2328: 2309: 2111:

leaders were charged with terrorism, causing a major scandal at an early phase of the formal

1763: 1748: 1070: 963: 953: 648: 568: 513: 401: 322: 289: 245: 45: 8583: 7649: 2770:

nationalist party, no longer representative of the interests of the poor and working class.

12211: 12097: 11865: 11801: 11534: 11297: 11290: 11242: 11025: 10788: 10134: 10104: 9692: 9016:"ANC conference: South Africa's President Cyril Ramaphosa defies scandal to win party vote" 6475: 5591: 5559: 3494: 3236: 2714: 2341: 2324: 2266:

Our own tasks are very clear. To bring about the kind of society that is visualised in the

1827: 1568: 1513: 1455: 930: 731: 688: 538: 478: 409: 273: 201:

The ANC was unbanned on 2 February 1990, and its leaders returned to South Africa to begin

175: 152: 6889:"Political Report of the NEC, to the 49th National Conference by President Nelson Mandela" 4160: 2172: 2087:. Also in 1985, the ANC met with a group of prominent businessmen, led by the chairman of 1489:). Mandela was its first commander-in-chief and its High Command also included Sisulu and 1157:

and was known for its "Africanist" ideology, closely resembling that later adopted by the

1089:

the ANC. Of immediate significance to the ANC (and to the CPSA, which was banned) was the

8: 12666: 12638: 12512: 12030: 12023: 11956: 11921: 11872: 11352: 11159: 10781: 10661: 10606: 10584: 10312: 10253: 10144: 9962: 6428: 5657: 5492: 5178: 4661: 2683:, which also, in a highly politicised trial, prosecuted the National Police Commissioner 2578: 2536: 2162: 2156: 1767: 1660: 1654: 1170: 1008: 329: 77: 8871: 6479: 5766:"The U.S. Government Had Nelson Mandela on Terrorist Watch Lists Until 2008. Here's Why" 5372: 5355: 2539:

during apartheid. The ANC-led Government of National Unity established such a body, the

2300:. ANC-aligned groups sometimes executed opponents and suspected collaborators, often by 11359: 10760: 10734: 9704: 8691: 8353: 8037: 7496: 7488: 6869: 6793: 6576: 6517: 6509: 6301: 5765: 5731: 5669: 5595: 5587: 5468: 5316: 5200: 4984: 4925: 4852:

Houston, Gregory; Ralinala, Rendani Moses (2004). "The Wankie and Sipolilo Campaigns".

4779: 4732: 4673: 4267:

Lodge, Tom (1983). "The creation of a mass movement: strikes and defiance, 1950-1952".

4228: 4021: 3640: 3248: 3168: 3152: 3106: 2838:, an Mbeki ally. There were some disputes on the branch level during the run-up to the 2577:

especially through its role in arming self-defence units without establishing adequate

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In December 2022, President Cyril Ramaphosa was re-elected as the ANC's leader in the

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The organisation was founded as the South African Native National Congress (SANNC) in

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The ANC's War Against Apartheid: Umkhonto We Sizwe and the Liberation of South Africa

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Comrades Against Apartheid: The ANC & the South African Communist Party in Exile

9362: 6873: 6521: 6355: 5241:"The other armies: A brief historical overview of Umkhonto We Sizwe (MK), 1961-1994" 5087: 12868: 12232: 11942: 11722: 11412: 11167: 11135: 11071: 10863: 10722: 10559: 10438: 9569: 9367:

The Founders: The Origins of the ANC and the Struggle for Democracy in South Africa

8018:"COSATU, the SACP and the ANC post-Polokwane: Looking Left but does it Feel Right?" 7472: 6851: 6777: 6560: 6549:"Reassessing transition violence: voices from South Africa's township wars, 1990-4" 6491: 6483: 6367: 6285: 6133: 6094: 6012: 5715: 5653: 5571: 5460: 5367: 5300: 5182: 5174: 4968: 4909: 4771: 4716: 4657: 4607: 4597: 4483: 4003: 3770: 3624: 2994: 2921: 2474:

notably, Sisulu declined to stand for re-election and was replaced by Mbeki, while

2459:

of the people; the tree of liberty is firmly rooted in the soil of the motherland!

2305: 1931: 1855:, Angola, unrest broke out on such a scale that it is generally characterised as a 1802: 1798: 1794: 1628: 871: 821: 751: 393: 9391:

Spear of the Nation: Umkhonto weSizwe: South Africa’s Liberation Army, 1960s–1990s

2755: 2123: 12190: 12104: 11998: 11666: 11590: 11511: 11235: 11119: 11111: 11103: 11079: 10823: 10709: 10676: 10631: 10592: 10521: 10094: 9909: 9873: 9811: 9763: 9746: 9674: 9186: 9068: 9015: 8982: 8081: 7440: 7209: 7132: 6386: 5961: 5868: 5828:"Margaret Thatcher branded ANC 'terrorist' while urging Nelson Mandela's release" 4775: 4510: 4367: 4268: 4125: 3908: 3842: 3710: 3514: 3448: 3412: 3351: 3303: 3290: 3218: 3122: 3114: 3053:(ANCYL) from 2008 until his expulsion from the ANC in 2012, came third with 11%. 3015: 2751: 2344:. It was during this period that ANC leaders began to implicate a state-aligned " 2267: 2225: 2180: 1894:, President of the ANC in exile, was known for his conciliatory leadership style. 1724: 1592: 1548: 1438: 1418: 1357: 1336: 1309: 1271: 1222: 988: 978: 488: 297: 195: 148: 125: 41: 8810: 8302: 6082: 5575: 2912:(COPE). They were led by former Defence Minister (and two-term ANC chairperson) 1736:

was reported to cost the state between R20 million and R100 million in damages.

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The ANC and Black Workers in South Africa, 1912-1992: An Annotated Bibliography

9162:"United Africans Transformation withdraws from GNU after not getting positions" 6856: 6839: 6371: 3472: 3460: 3400: 3363: 3321: 3309: 3272: 3260: 2913: 2747: 2483: 2378: 2297: 2242: 2238: 2198: 2135: 2127: 2107: 2099: 1876: 1694:

of the SACP published a statement on the group's expulsion in its journal, the

1559:, and several others were sentenced to life imprisonment during the subsequent 1552: 1509: 1430: 1414: 1319: 1254: 1202: 1146: 1116:

called for sanctions. The next year, a group of ANC members went into exile in

1113: 851: 841: 811: 796: 776: 771: 761: 736: 314: 285: 261: 113: 112:, towards which the ANC had been led by a new generation of leaders, including 6781: 6487: 6137: 6016: 5304: 4913: 4720: 4487: 4008: 3991: 3774: 2320: 1421:

police station, where he turned himself in for refusing to carry his passbook.

213:, which marked the end of apartheid, the ANC became the majority party in the 205:. Following his release, Mandela was elected president of the ANC at its 48th 13028: 12854: 12575: 11680: 11659: 11629: 11622: 11331: 10666: 10651: 10453: 10415: 10367: 10114: 10099: 10057: 9927: 9885: 9787: 9497: 9245: 8599: 8395: 8033: 7484: 7388:

Booysen, Susan (2011). "State institutions as sites of struggle in ANC war".

6865: 6789: 6572: 6505: 6297: 6289: 6024: 5898: 5727: 5719: 5665: 5583: 5464: 5381: 5312: 5240: 5196: 4980: 4921: 4728: 4669: 4621: 4495: 4017: 3976: 3782: 3636: 3519: 3466: 3424: 3327: 3046: 2931: 2835: 2811: 2763: 2732: 2684: 2652: 2548: 2425: 2276: 2234: 2144: 1988:, which it occupied from 1978 to 1994 and which is now marked with a plaque. 1972: 1964: 1852: 1588: 1564: 1560: 1154: 1102: 1093:

of 1950, whose notoriously broad definition of communism was used to justify

1003: 876: 826: 498: 483: 253: 171: 147:, objecting to the ANC's new programme of multi-racialism as embodied in the 121: 10616: 9610: 7862:"South Africa Constitutional Court Says Hawks Crime Unit Creation 'Invalid'" 7094: 6000: 4897: 4814:

African National Congress (1997). "Appendix: ANC structures and personnel".

4471: 4307:"38th National Conference: Programme Of Action: Statement of Policy Adopted" 2098:

In this context, in 1986 Tambo sanctioned the initiation of the clandestine

40:

The 1914 South African Native National Congress delegation to Britain (L-R:

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Chothia, Farouk; Kupemba, Danai Kesta; Plett-Usher, Barbra (14 June 2024).

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in Johannesburg, until in 1997 it relocated to its current headquarters at

2044: 2024: 2020: 1530: 1250: 1166: 1150: 904: 866: 856: 846: 746: 361: 357: 281: 257: 241: 191: 117: 85: 73: 69: 9349:

The ANC's Early Years: Nation, Class and Place in South Africa Before 1940

12112: 11055: 10774: 9840: 9793: 9734: 9091:"South Africa's National Assembly re-elects Cyril Ramaphosa as president" 7476: 7074: 6126:"The trade union movement and the Tripartite Alliance: a tangled history" 3376: 3333: 3278: 3180: 2767: 2710: 2552: 2532: 2374: 2293: 2103: 2092: 2063: 2028: 1903:

Owing to the mutinies, the ANC's second consultative conference, held in

1891: 1556: 1198: 1085: 806: 801: 786: 721: 269: 93: 88:

and educated, religious professionals, and it was staunchly loyal to the

57: 9575:

After the Party: Corruption, the ANC and South Africa's Uncertain Future

8041: 8017: 6580: 6548: 5560:"Mkatashinga: Narratives of the Mutiny in ANC Camps in Angola (1983/84)" 5289:"State of Exile: The African National Congress of South Africa, 1976-86" 3644: 3612: 2420:(NNP), narrowly won the Western Cape; and Inkatha, by then known as the 170:

By 1965, pursuant to the imprisonment of many of its top leaders in the

12687: 12225: 11338: 11283: 11143: 11127: 9897: 9852: 9799: 9740: 9227: 8998:"Cyril Ramaphosa hails 'new era' as he begins South African presidency" 8501:"Local government minister dismisses claims of failed service delivery" 8481: 7492: 7460: 6985:"49th National Conference: National Executive Committee Voting Results" 6797: 6765: 6699:"Chris Hani's Assassination Put South Africa On the Brink of Civil War" 6513: 6463: 5320: 5288: 4972: 3613:"The African National Congress centenary: a long and difficult journey" 3436: 3382: 3339: 3284: 3176: 2853: 2475: 2361: 2301: 1935: 1642: 1633: 1616: 1595:

camp, one of its four Tanzanian military bases. According to historian

1393: 914: 881: 756: 741: 726: 583: 318: 49: 5673: 5641: 5204: 5162: 4956: 4677: 4645: 4612: 4025: 2766:. By 2006, both the SACP and COSATU had accused the ANC of becoming a 2692:

ruled that the disbanding of the Scorpions had been unconstitutional.

221:. The ANC has retained control of the national government since then. 12146: 12137: 12068: 11474: 11451: 11440: 10767: 10656: 10410: 10063: 9526:

The African National Congress and the Regeneration of Political Power

8340:

The African National Congress and the Regeneration of Political Power

7461:"South Africa's 1999 Election: Consolidating a Dominant Party System" 7391:

The African National Congress and the Regeneration of Political Power

6496: 6356:"Probing the roots of political violence in KwaZulu-Natal since 1979" 5187: 5015:"Report On The Strategy And Tactics Of The African National Congress" 3958: 2866: 2573: 1985: 1880: 1806: 1758: 1645:

as culprits. All seven signatories to the memorandum were suspended.

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Franchise Action Council began planning for a joint campaign of mass

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until his death in 1967 (though he was permitted to accept his 1960

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The ANC and the Liberation Struggle: A Critical Political Biography

8656:"52nd National Conference: National Executive Committee as elected" 8307: 5963:

Shades of Difference: Mac Maharaj and the Struggle for South Africa

2617: 2479: 2304:. There were also violent clashes, especially in the Transvaal and 2285: 2016: 1919: 1887: 1860: 1779: 1624: 1580: 1525: 1328: 1234: 183: 164: 7359:"1997 Conference, leadership dynamics and Presidential transition" 3143:

Finally, the Government of National Unity (GNU) was formed by the

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In December 1994, newly appointed to government, the ANC held its

2229:

the ANC was in exile. Also elected to the NEC were leaders of the

1834:

then also in Angola. Concerns included drug smuggling, car theft,

1677:, until it was replaced by the Politico-Military Council in 1983. 229: 11324: 9556:

Precarious Power: Compliance and Discontent under Ramaphosa’s ANC

9280:

One Hundred Years of the ANC: Debating Liberation Histories Today

5414:

One Hundred Years of the ANC: Debating Liberation Histories Today

4124:

Lodge, Tom (1983). "African political organisations, 1953-1960".

3545:"#ANC107: A brief history of Africa's oldest liberation movement" 2917: 2648: 2519: 2150: 2004: 1840: 1823: 1524:

The launch of MK was marked by the inauguration of a campaign of

1399: 1380: 1221:, launched on 26 June 1952. It targeted six laws – including the 1178: 440: 9502:

Inside Quatro: Uncovering the Exile History of the ANC and SWAPO

8928:"Cyril Ramaphosa chosen to lead South Africa's ruling ANC party" 5797:"US government considered Nelson Mandela a terrorist until 2008" 2927: 1120:

and launched the British "Boycott South Africa" movement there.

217:

and most of the provincial governments, and Mandela was elected

12051: 11207: 10986: 8152:"The Polokwane Decade Is Over: 'Comrades, Comrades: Sit Down!'" 4590:"The Turn to Sabotage by The Congress Movement in South Africa" 2221: 2193: 2032: 1856: 1584: 1117: 925: 187: 3109:(PA), agreed to form a coalition which they referred to as a ' 3028: 2672:. The ANC itself has been accused of profiting from the deal. 2059: 11199: 6005:

International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence

5452:

Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

3201:

National Executive Committee of the African National Congress

3095:

negotiations between parties on the formation of a government

2296:(so-called self-defence units and self-protection units) and 1995: 1904: 1835: 1729: 1714: 244:

on 8 January 1912, in the aftermath of the foundation of the

179: 9325:

Unity in Diversity: 100 Years of ANC Leadership, (1912-2012)

8876:

Thinking Faith: The online journal of the Jesuits in Britain

7619:"Two and a half cheers for the Arms Deal terms of reference" 2183:

became a prominent ANC figure after the latter was unbanned.

6464:"The Historical Significance of South Africa's Third Force" 5410:"Shishita: A Crisis in the ANC in Exile in Zambia, 1980–81" 3132: 2497: 1466: 9454:

The Lusaka Years: The ANC in Exile in Zambia, 1963 to 1994

9187:"South Africa's ex-President Jacob Zuma expelled from ANC" 9050:"South Africa elections final results: What happens next?" 7076:

Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report

6730:"Address to the nation following the murder of Chris Hani" 2897: 1101:(NEC) were banned; and by 1955, 42 ANC leaders, including 36: 9066: 8965:"MPs elect Cyril Ramaphosa as new South Africa president" 8947:"Cyril Ramaphosa elected as leader of South Africa's ANC" 8889:

Prevost, Gary Francis; Mtimka, Ongama (10 October 2023).

8022:

Labour, Capital and Society / Travail, capital et société

7169: 4813: 4512:

Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela

3061:

55th National Conference of the African National Congress

3010:

54th National Conference of the African National Congress

2806:

52nd National Conference of the African National Congress

2535:

for the establishment of a commission to investigate all

2452:

49th National Conference of the African National Congress

2212:

48th National Conference of the African National Congress

332:, including the growing popularity of bodies such as the 8420: 6388:

People's War: New light on the struggle for South Africa

4961:

Transformation: Critical Perspectives on Southern Africa

4538:"Opening Address at the Africanist Inaugural Convention" 2846:, but the ANC ultimately performed well in the election. 2385: 9031:"uMkhonto Wesizwe: What we know about Zuma's new party" 8983:"South Africa election: ANC wins with reduced majority" 8719:"South African unions pledge to rally support for Zuma" 7214:. Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation. 2592: 1680: 1441:, because we think in terms of individuals, not groups. 7831:"The ANC's political thuggery will lead to its demise" 7429:"The ANC's 50th Conference: A House of Many Mansions?" 7299:"Minister fired after allegations to Truth Commission" 2904:

Congress of the People (South African political party)

2508: 2091:; and ANC representatives, especially Tambo's protégé 2066:

led the ANC's secret "talks about talks" in the 1980s.

10975: 5928:"How Operation Vula Became an Underground within ANC" 5089:

The Unbreakable Thread: Non-racialism in South Africa

4230:

The Unbreakable Thread: Non-racialism in South Africa

2655:, one of the four frigates procured in the Arms Deal. 1591:, and by 1965 MK activities were concentrated at its 1292:

The Doors of Learning And of Culture Shall Be Opened!

72:

since 1994. The ANC was founded on 8 January 1912 in

9131: 9083: 8909:"SA elections results: from the polls to Parliament" 7173:

Statement to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission

6177:"National Consultative Conference 1990: Resolutions" 6124:

Buhlungu, Sakhela; Ellis, Stephen (1 January 2013).

3525:

National Conference of the African National Congress

2942: 2721: 1809:, were targeted for assassination during the 1980s. 1571:. Luthuli remained banned and under house arrest in 9069:"ANC and DA agree on South Africa unity government" 7269:"Holomisa says his expulsion from ANC is confirmed" 2464:– Mandela's political report to the 49th Conference 1541: 1327:was held, with the cooperation of other groups, in 1161:and emphasising indigenous leadership and national 340:(CPSA) – a growing number of Congress members were 9541:Dominance and Decline: The ANC in the Time of Zuma 4957:"The 'Hani Memorandum' – introduced and annotated" 2019:divide, the ANC had a close relationship with the 1718:List of major attacks attributed to MK, 1980–1983. 1284:The Land Shall Be Shared Among Those Who Work It! 351:The ANC, having been renamed in 1923, was led by 13026: 10532:People Against Suffering, Oppression and Poverty 9310:South Africa Belongs to Us: A History of the ANC 7984:"Mbeki & the left: the souring of relations" 7079:. Vol. 2. Cape Town: The Commission. 1999. 3907:Lodge, Tom (1983). "Black protest before 1950". 2187: 1920:1985: Expulsion of the Marxist Workers' Tendency 1406:History of the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania 415: 388:. In response to the publication in 1941 of the 11765:Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre 10427:Congress of Traditional Leaders of South Africa 8182:"Labour leaders slam Harare's 'Hitler tactics'" 7130: 6838:Southall, Roger; Daniel, John (1 August 2009). 5448: 5044:Maloka, Eddy (2002). "The Morogoro Aftermath". 4851: 4703:Vinson, Robert Trent; Carton, Benedict (2018). 2842:, which were also preceded by service delivery 1429:(PAC), under the leadership of the charismatic 1282:The People Shall Share in the Country's Wealth! 1264: 1209:In 1951, the ANC, the Indian Congress, and the 96:. It was in the early 1950s, shortly after the 8553:"Polokwane and Mangaung: Shades of difference" 8423:"Alliance cracks widen as Zuma goes for broke" 7329:"Mandela says he will not stand a second term" 6837: 6766:"'Negotiated Elections' in South Africa, 1994" 4858:. Vol. 1. Zebra Press. pp. 435–492. 2731:(GEAR) programme, which leftists perceived as 2151:1990: Formalisation of the Tripartite Alliance 2085:National African Federated Chamber of Commerce 1454:On 21 March 1960, in what became known as the 1400:1959: Breakaway of the Pan Africanist Congress 379:, foreword to the 1943 African Claims document 276:(Treasurer), of whom historian Tom Lodge says: 10961: 10204: 9640: 9626: 9439:External Mission: The ANC in Exile, 1960-1990 8888: 7527:"Arms deal a turning point for SA: activists" 6123: 4185:How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa 4181: 3712:External Mission: The ANC in Exile, 1960-1990 2675:Arms Deal corruption was investigated by the 2369: 2255:Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa 1187: 1046: 10218: 8421:Terreblanche, Christelle (16 October 2005). 8336:"Aluta continua, from Polokwane to Mangaung" 7981: 7588:"De Lille weighs in on arms deal court case" 7275:. Department of Justice. 30 September 1996. 7134:State of the Nation: South Africa, 2003-2004 5959: 5488:"Torture Allegations Bedevil ANC Leadership" 5047:The South African Communist Party, 1963-1990 4702: 3955:South Africa: The Rise and Fall of Apartheid 3953:Clark, Nancy L.; Worger, William H. (2016). 3014:Jacob Zuma was replaced as ANC president by 2624:The 1999 elections, conducted under the new 2075:, the Soweto Parents' Crisis Committee, the 2003:– Tambo in 1986, following a meeting at the 1673:political and military aspects of the ANC's 1648: 1294:There Shall Be Houses, Security And Comfort! 1280:All National Groups Shall Have Equal Rights! 1136: 190:, and primarily supported by Sweden and the 10471:South African Liberal Students' Association 9484:Umkhonto we Sizwe: The ANC’s Armed Struggle 9323:Schoeman, Renier; Swanepoel, Daryl (2012). 8872:"South African elections 2009: an analysis" 8477:"ANC poll rebels 'have as good as resigned" 7680:"ID leader alleges more graft in arms deal" 7650:"ANC's apartheid-era hero jailed for fraud" 5883:"Thabo Mbeki and the Afrikaners, 1986-2004" 5416:, Wits University Press, pp. 233–254, 5163:"Mbokodo: Security in ANC Camps, 1961-1990" 4372:. Oxford University Press, UK. p. 54. 3952: 3029:2018–present: Presidency of Cyril Ramaphosa 2834:had been suspended for illegally spying on 2054: 1461: 10968: 10954: 10211: 10197: 9633: 9619: 8273:"Mbeki fires deputy in corruption scandal" 7860:Wild, Franz; Cohen, Mike (17 March 2011). 7711:"BAE faces corruption claims around world" 6696: 6426: 6081:Twala, Chitja; Kompi, Buti (1 June 2012). 6080: 5085: 4438:"Jacob Zuma, the James Moroka of our time" 4227:Frederikse, Julie (2015). "Class of '44". 4226: 4153:"Building the Academic Boycott in Britain" 2526:'s testimony to the TRC was controversial. 2445: 2205: 1954: 1080:, an explicit policy of institutionalised 1053: 1039: 406:Asiatic Land Tenure and Representation Act 336:and, after its establishment in 1921, the 68:(ANC) has been the governing party of the 18:President of the African National Congress 9113:"GNU now comprises ten political parties" 8695:. Polokwane, South Africa. Archived from 8684: 8588:Southern Journal for Contemporary History 8342:, Wits University Press, pp. 33–84, 7859: 6855: 6495: 5998: 5442: 5407: 5371: 5186: 4954: 4895: 4611: 4601: 4469: 4270:Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945 4127:Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945 4007: 3910:Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945 2118: 1951:– and were permanently expelled in 1985. 1898: 1368: 27:Aspect of South African political history 13035:History of the African National Congress 11838:Reconstruction and Development Programme 8550: 8381: 8118: 8079: 8011: 8009: 7458: 7236: 6238:"Address to the Nation on Radio Freedom" 5999:Henderson, Robert D. (1 December 1997). 5701: 5238: 5119:"The Enemy Hidden Under the Same Colour" 3133:Government of National Unity (GNU) 2024- 3086:(14.58 percent) and EFF (9.52 percent). 3074: 3033: 2962: 2947: 2926: 2848: 2773: 2705: 2647: 2597: 2518: 2504:Reconstruction and Development Programme 2498:Reconstruction and Development Programme 2488:Reconstruction and Development Programme 2396: 2373: 2319: 2171: 2122: 2081:National Union of South African Students 2058: 1967:at van Agt's official residence in 1981. 1958: 1886: 1713: 1627:, were considerable failures. Following 1610: 1601: 1467:1961: Establishment of Umkhonto we Sizwe 1409: 1197: 1153:. The League had been formed in 1944 by 228: 35: 11434:1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike 8333: 8270: 8212:"Mbeki hails NNP's 'historic' ANC move" 8149: 8121:"ANC, SACP, Cosatu: Who moved my Left?" 8075: 8073: 8071: 8069: 8067: 8065: 8063: 7950: 7708: 7647: 7616: 7555: 7387: 7207: 7045:"49th National Conference: Resolutions" 6886: 6763: 6727: 6668:"Apartheid Foe Hani Slain in S. Africa" 6384: 6330: 5825: 5794: 5353: 4761: 4587: 4535: 4508: 4119: 4117: 4115: 3989: 3763:Journal of Contemporary African Studies 3610: 3542: 3139:2024 South African government formation 2898:Breakaway of the Congress of the People 2856:ascended to the ANC presidency in 2007. 2799: 1859:. Known as Mkatashinga (derived from a 1846: 1776:Johannesburg Magistrate's Court bombing 994:Music in the movement against apartheid 404:), who at the time were protesting the 248:and not long before the passage of the 14: 13027: 11915:2012 Western Cape farm workers' strike 10155:Congress of South African Trade Unions 9654: 9159: 9060: 8780:"Motlanthe: South Africa's safe hands" 8015: 7922:"Mbeki: ANC has no problems with SACP" 7892:"Mbeki in new rift with SA communists" 7454: 7452: 7450: 7363:Nelson Mandela: The Presidential Years 7203: 7201: 7199: 7197: 7195: 7126: 7124: 7122: 7120: 7118: 7116: 6833: 6831: 6829: 6827: 6825: 6823: 6821: 6819: 6759: 6757: 6755: 6665: 6546: 6422: 6420: 6269: 6265: 6263: 6171: 6169: 6049: 5955: 5953: 5938:from the original on 25 September 2021 5922: 5920: 5763: 5759: 5757: 5697: 5695: 5639: 5635: 5633: 5631: 5629: 5627: 5625: 5623: 5621: 5557: 5553: 5551: 5549: 5517: 5515: 5485: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5397: 5395: 5393: 5391: 5234: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5226: 5156: 5154: 5152: 5150: 5086:Frederikse, Julie (2015). "The Lull". 5043: 4809: 4807: 4805: 4803: 4801: 4799: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4583: 4465: 4463: 4407:"The ANC should charge and expel Zuma" 4262: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4097: 4095: 3902: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3840: 3836: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3606: 3604: 3602: 3600: 3598: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3051:African National Congress Youth League 2988: 2979:2016 South African municipal elections 2167:Congress of South African Trade Unions 2077:Congress of South African Trade Unions 236:, the founding President of the SANNC. 10949: 10192: 9614: 9486:. Penguin Random House South Africa. 9278:Lissoni, Arianna; Soske, Jon (2012). 9252:. Penguin Random House South Africa. 9250:100 Years of Struggle - Mandela's ANC 9105: 9029:Njilo, Nonkululeko (9 January 2024). 9028: 8995: 8925: 8852:from the original on 10 December 2021 8839: 8821:from the original on 10 December 2021 8808: 8790:from the original on 28 December 2014 8760:from the original on 10 December 2021 8747: 8729:from the original on 10 December 2021 8685:Wolmarans, Riaan (18 December 2007). 8636:from the original on 10 December 2021 8581: 8563:from the original on 10 December 2021 8551:Munusamy, Ranjeni (1 November 2012). 8511:from the original on 29 December 2021 8457:from the original on 28 December 2021 8402:from the original on 10 December 2021 8364:from the original on 10 December 2021 8283:from the original on 22 December 2021 8252:from the original on 28 December 2021 8222:from the original on 28 December 2021 8192:from the original on 29 December 2021 8162:from the original on 10 December 2021 8131:from the original on 29 December 2021 8100:from the original on 28 December 2021 8048:from the original on 29 December 2021 8006: 7963:from the original on 10 December 2021 7932:from the original on 29 December 2021 7902:from the original on 31 December 2021 7853: 7801:"Battle over future of the Scorpions" 7781:from the original on 13 December 2021 7751:from the original on 13 December 2021 7721:from the original on 28 December 2021 7690:from the original on 20 December 2021 7660:from the original on 20 December 2021 7629:from the original on 23 December 2021 7598:from the original on 21 December 2021 7568:from the original on 20 December 2021 7537:from the original on 20 December 2021 7507:from the original on 29 December 2021 7426: 7408:from the original on 28 December 2021 7369:from the original on 11 December 2021 7309:from the original on 31 December 2021 7218:from the original on 31 December 2021 7151:from the original on 31 December 2021 7101:from the original on 29 December 2021 7055:from the original on 11 December 2021 6929:from the original on 11 December 2021 6804:from the original on 28 December 2021 6740:from the original on 28 December 2021 6709:from the original on 28 December 2021 6647:from the original on 28 December 2021 6617:from the original on 28 December 2021 6587:from the original on 28 December 2021 6528:from the original on 29 November 2021 6461: 6443:from the original on 31 December 2021 6405:from the original on 31 December 2021 6353: 6312:from the original on 31 December 2021 6248:from the original on 28 December 2021 6235: 6187:from the original on 28 December 2021 6154:from the original on 28 December 2021 6105:from the original on 31 December 2021 6062:from the original on 28 December 2021 6031:from the original on 31 December 2021 5980:from the original on 31 December 2021 5905:from the original on 27 December 2021 5880: 5838:from the original on 27 December 2021 5807:from the original on 27 December 2021 5776:from the original on 27 December 2021 5742:from the original on 31 December 2021 5680:from the original on 27 December 2021 5606:from the original on 27 December 2021 5534:from the original on 27 December 2021 5521: 5500:from the original on 31 December 2021 5430:from the original on 31 December 2021 5335:from the original on 27 December 2021 5286: 5282: 5280: 5278: 5276: 5274: 5272: 5270: 5211:from the original on 27 December 2021 5160: 5135:from the original on 27 December 2021 5113: 5111: 5096:from the original on 26 November 2021 5081: 5079: 5064:from the original on 27 December 2021 5025:from the original on 27 December 2021 4936:from the original on 31 December 2021 4891: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4883: 4881: 4879: 4877: 4862:from the original on 31 December 2021 4855:The Road to Democracy in South Africa 4847: 4845: 4843: 4841: 4839: 4824:from the original on 14 December 2021 4743:from the original on 31 December 2021 4684:from the original on 26 December 2021 4643: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4565: 4563: 4548:from the original on 28 December 2021 4448:from the original on 28 December 2021 4417:from the original on 28 December 2021 4386:from the original on 31 December 2021 4365: 4317:from the original on 27 December 2021 4287:from the original on 31 December 2021 4266: 4237:from the original on 26 November 2021 4208:from the original on 28 December 2021 4123: 4080:from the original on 27 December 2021 4050:from the original on 27 December 2021 3996:The Journal of Modern African Studies 3992:"The Mahatma Gandhi and South Africa" 3927:from the original on 31 December 2021 3906: 3894: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3886: 3884: 3882: 3880: 3878: 3876: 3861:from the original on 31 December 2021 3822: 3820: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3789:from the original on 31 December 2021 3756: 3729:from the original on 31 December 2021 3708: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3686: 3651:from the original on 27 December 2021 3580: 3578: 3576: 3574: 3572: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3562: 2729:Growth, Employment and Redistribution 2386:1994–99: Presidency of Nelson Mandela 2259: 1110:sanctions against the apartheid state 10465:People Against Gangsterism and Drugs 9605:The African National Congress at 100 8666:from the original on 4 December 2021 8606:from the original on 8 December 2021 8327: 8150:Du Toit, Pieter (11 December 2017). 8143: 8119:Munusamy, Ranjeni (22 August 2013). 8060: 7811:from the original on 8 February 2012 7793: 7763: 7672: 7641: 7617:Grootes, Stephen (28 October 2011). 7558:"SA's 'original sin': the arms deal" 7420: 7321: 7237:Laurence, Patrick (31 August 1996). 7015:"Amendments to the ANC Constitution" 6995:from the original on 4 December 2021 6941: 6887:Mandela, Nelson (17 December 1994). 6840:"The South African Election of 2009" 6697:Simanowitz, Stefan (11 April 2013). 5992: 5708:Journal of Asian and African Studies 5702:Friedman, Steven (1 February 2012). 5658:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007713 5179:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098712 5050:. Africa Institute of South Africa. 4896:Macmillan, Hugh (1 September 2009). 4662:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098442 4435: 4329: 4150: 3948: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3678: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3543:Daniels, Lou-Anne (8 January 2019). 3369: 3296: 3003: 2593:1999–2008: Presidency of Thabo Mbeki 2381:casts his vote in the 1994 election. 2134:On 2 February 1990, State President 1851:In December 1983, at the MK camp in 1812: 1681:1975: Expulsion of the Gang of Eight 1621:Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army 1563:, with still others joining them on 1296:There Shall Be Peace And Friendship! 1084:. Upon his election, Prime Minister 128:, which – along with the subsequent 11845:Truth and Reconciliation Commission 11491:Coloured-vote constitutional crisis 10553:Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign 8840:Johns, Lynnette (26 October 2008). 8382:Gevisser, Mark (12 December 2007). 8303:"Jacob Zuma's ANC duties suspended" 7702: 7610: 7447: 7381: 7351: 7279:from the original on 20 August 2021 7192: 7180:from the original on 16 August 2020 7176:. Pretoria: Department of Justice. 7113: 6911: 6816: 6770:Review of African Political Economy 6752: 6468:Journal of Southern African Studies 6417: 6333:"South Africa: The Lost Generation" 6331:Macleod, Scott (18 February 1991). 6270:Pandey, Vimal Nayan (1 July 2012). 6260: 6199: 6166: 6050:De Wet, Phillip (15 October 2015). 5950: 5917: 5795:Windrem, Robert (7 December 2013). 5754: 5692: 5618: 5546: 5512: 5479: 5388: 5255:from the original on 4 October 2018 5223: 5147: 4820:. Pretoria: Department of Justice. 4790: 4460: 4404: 4249: 4092: 3129:in the 400 seat parliament (72%). 3091:2024 South African general election 3081:2024 South African general election 3040:2019 South African general election 2975:2014 South African general election 2969:2014 South African general election 2954:2009 South African general election 2780:2004 South African general election 2762:, whose government was then led by 2604:1999 South African general election 2541:Truth and Reconciliation Commission 2515:Truth and Reconciliation Commission 2509:Truth and Reconciliation Commission 2403:1994 South African general election 2037:Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1926:Marxist Workers Tendency of the ANC 1703: 1288:All Shall Enjoy Equal Human Rights! 1259:South African Congress of Democrats 469:Coloured vote constitutional crisis 24: 10488:Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front 10433:Congress of South African Students 10282: 9858:Horatio L. Bud-M'belle (1919–1923) 9200: 9047: 8842:"Hundreds burn ANC cards in Paarl" 8809:Plaut, Martin (16 December 2008). 7994:from the original on 16 April 2021 7951:Carroll, Rory (16 December 2002). 7339:from the original on 14 April 2018 7239:"ANC expels former Transkei ruler" 7170:African National Congress (1996). 6052:"Shell House sold to pay ANC debt" 6001:"Operation Vula against apartheid" 5960:O'Malley, Padraig (1 April 2008). 5826:McSmith, Andy (10 December 2013). 5764:Waxman, Olivia B. (18 July 2018). 5522:Ellis, Stephen (6 November 2009). 5267: 5108: 5076: 4874: 4836: 4628: 4588:Stevens, Simon (1 November 2019). 4560: 4343:. 15 December 1952. Archived from 3873: 3801: 3559: 2702:HIV/AIDS denialism in South Africa 2695: 1318:At an ANC meeting in August 1953, 1286:All Shall Be Equal Before The Law! 1112:. In 1958 in Ghana, ANC President 100:’s adoption of a formal policy of 25: 13051: 12997:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania 12632:South African Party (Cape Colony) 9591: 8926:Burke, Jason (18 December 2017). 8485:. 20 January 2006. Archived from 8315:from the original on 7 April 2008 7872:from the original on 8 March 2012 7837:. 24 October 2008. Archived from 7556:Marrian, Natasha (15 July 2021). 6965:from the original on 9 April 2018 6728:Mandela, Nelson (13 April 1993). 6678:from the original on 23 July 2019 6207:"Report of the Secretary-General" 5092:. South African History Archive. 4995:from the original on 10 June 2021 4509:Mandela, Nelson (11 March 2008). 4470:Bernstein, Hilda (1 April 1987). 3939: 3741: 3663: 3165:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania 2943:2009–18: Presidency of Jacob Zuma 2722:Strain in the Tripartite Alliance 1290:There Shall Be Work And Security! 1229:enabled the government to call a 13009: 13008: 10930: 10929: 10723:"Dubul' ibhunu" (Shoot the Boer) 10459:Lesbian and Gay Equality Project 10171: 10170: 10120:Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College 9369:. University Press of Kentucky. 9179: 9153: 9041: 9022: 9008: 8989: 8975: 8957: 8944: 8938: 8919: 8901: 8882: 8864: 8833: 8802: 8772: 8748:Mbeki, Thabo (31 October 2008). 8741: 8711: 8678: 8648: 8626:"ANC elections: No race in 2002" 8618: 8575: 8544: 8523: 8493: 8469: 8439: 8414: 8375: 8295: 8271:Vasagar, Jeevan (14 June 2005). 8264: 8242:"NNP deputy ministers appointed" 8234: 8204: 8174: 8112: 7975: 7944: 7914: 7884: 7823: 7741:"Scorpions 'not part of police'" 7733: 7249:from the original on 10 May 2021 6919:"Bloemfontein: ANC Taking Stock" 6607:"10 days that shook our country" 6087:Journal for Contemporary History 5524:"When the ANC refuses to listen" 5486:Taylor, Paul (26 October 1992). 4764:South African Historical Journal 4536:Sobukwe, Robert (4 April 1959). 4436:Diko, Yonela (10 January 2018). 4405:Mde, Vukani (15 February 2018). 4233:. South African History Online. 4151:Rose, Hilary (5 December 2004). 4040:"African Claims in South Africa" 3957:(3rd ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: 3629:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01098.x 3097:. On 14 June 2024, the ANC, the 2130:left prison on 11 February 1990. 1675:internal anti-apartheid struggle 1542:Founding of the external mission 1449: 1022: 1021: 984:Internal resistance to apartheid 439: 12646:South African Party (1977–1980) 12639:South African Party (1911–1934) 12555:Progressive Party (Cape Colony) 12352:Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners 10477:South African Students Congress 10038:Provincial Executive Committees 9598:Historical documents of the ANC 9482:Simpson, Thula (1 March 2016). 9160:Ludidi, Velani (12 July 2024). 8531:Thabo Mbeki: The Dream Deferred 8529:Gevisser, Mark (2007). "Home". 8083:Thabo Mbeki: The Dream Deferred 7648:Carroll, Rory (20 March 2003). 7580: 7549: 7519: 7291: 7261: 7230: 7163: 7137:. HSRC Press. pp. 78–104. 7067: 7037: 7007: 6977: 6880: 6721: 6690: 6659: 6629: 6599: 6540: 6455: 6385:Jeffrey, Anthea (15 May 2019). 6378: 6354:Ntuli, H. S. (1 October 2016). 6347: 6324: 6229: 6117: 6074: 6043: 5874: 5850: 5819: 5788: 5373:10.17159/2309-8392/2015/V60N2A3 5347: 5037: 5007: 4948: 4755: 4696: 4529: 4502: 4429: 4398: 4359: 4299: 4273:. Ravan Press. pp. 33–66. 4220: 4175: 4144: 4130:. Ravan Press. pp. 67–90. 4062: 2248: 2027:(also a senior ANC member) and 1963:Tambo and Dutch Prime Minister 1801:. Several ANC members, such as 494:Church Street, Pretoria bombing 338:Communist Party of South Africa 11964:2019 service delivery protests 11950:#FeesMustFall student protests 11695:1983 constitutional referendum 10391:South Africa political parties 8582:Twala, Chitja (30 June 2012). 8447:"New ANC spy vs spy bombshell" 7709:Carroll, Rory (14 June 2003). 6666:Taylor, Paul (11 April 1993). 6427:Van Baalen, Sebastian (2014). 6236:Tambo, Oliver (22 July 1985). 4709:The Journal of African History 4515:. Little, Brown. p. 149. 4032: 3983: 3913:. Ravan Press. pp. 1–32. 3551:. South Africa. Archived from 3536: 3437:Philemon Pearce Dumasile Nokwe 2681:National Prosecuting Authority 2490:(RDP), and the Health Plan on 334:International Socialist League 290:South African Indian community 260:and professionals educated at 13: 1: 12422:Johannesburg Reform Committee 11651:Israel–South Africa Agreement 11044: 11029: 11006: 10999: 10627:(Don't) touch me on my studio 10483:South African Wine Initiative 10160:South African Communist Party 9312:. Zimbabwe Publishing House. 9232:The African National Congress 7021:. 24 May 2008. Archived from 3530: 3205: 3194: 3125:of ten parties, with jointly 2668:pleaded guilty to fraud in a 2433:, the ANC formed a coalition 2327:, the longstanding leader of 2188:1990: Johannesburg conference 2113:negotiations to end apartheid 1734:Koeberg nuclear power station 1479:South African Communist Party 1362:South Africa's mineral wealth 1270:Section headings of the 1955 416:Early opposition to apartheid 157:South African Communist Party 12077:Black Consciousness Movement 11831:Government of National Unity 10575:Unemployed Peoples' Movement 10421:Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging 10033:National Executive Committee 9408:. Indiana University Press. 8996:Burke, Jason (25 May 2019). 7953:"All is not well at the ANC" 6391:. Jonathan Ball Publishers. 6242:South African History Online 5564:Journal of Global Faultlines 5126:South African History Online 4776:10.1080/02582473.2010.519939 4542:South African History Online 4044:South African History Online 3111:Government of National Unity 3020:2017 ANC national conference 2934:, the ANC's headquarters in 2832:National Intelligence Agency 2637: 2435:Government of National Unity 2392:Presidency of Nelson Mandela 2308:, between groups aligned to 1747:– ANC statement on the 1983 1335:. The congress ratified the 1265:1955: Congress of the People 1131:– Dan Tloome, ANC NEC member 1099:National Executive Committee 1091:Suppression of Communism Act 959:Apartheid in popular culture 264:. Its founding leaders were 7: 11788:Saint James Church massacre 11674:Weapons of mass destruction 10803:No Land! No House! No Vote! 10717:No Land! No House! No Vote! 9441:. Oxford University Press. 8687:"Zuma is new ANC President" 7459:Lanegran, Kimberly (2001). 7208:Fullard, Madeleine (2004). 5592:10.13169/jglobfaul.6.1.0090 5576:10.13169/jglobfaul.6.1.0090 3715:. Oxford University Press. 3478: 2353:assassination of Chris Hani 1930:In 1979, eminent historian 1787:South African Defence Force 1782:to the negotiating table". 529:Saint James Church massacre 524:Assassination of Chris Hani 10: 13056: 13040:History by political party 11528:1957 Alexandra bus boycott 11406:South West Africa campaign 11305:Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 11270:French Huguenot settlement 10028:National Working Committee 9699:Zacharias Richard Mahabane 9681:Zacharias Richard Mahabane 9404:Davis, Stephen R. (2018). 9293:McKinley, Dale T. (1997). 9115:. Algoa FM. Archived from 7982:O'Malley, Padraig (2008). 6949:"ANC shuffles its leaders" 6857:10.1177/000203970904400206 5857:A-Z of Islington's Plaques 5354:Van Wyk, Jo-Ansie (2015). 3990:Du Toit, Brian M. (1996). 3243:Zacharias Richard Mahabane 3225:Zacharias Richard Mahabane 3198: 3173:United Democratic Movement 3136: 3113:' (GNU), led by the ANC's 3078: 3049:, former president of the 3037: 3007: 2992: 2966: 2951: 2901: 2820:his own corruption charges 2803: 2777: 2760:foreign policy on Zimbabwe 2699: 2641: 2601: 2512: 2501: 2449: 2409:first democratic elections 2400: 2389: 2370:Government of South Africa 2252: 2209: 2154: 1923: 1913:military command structure 1707: 1652: 1470: 1403: 1372: 1307: 1301: 1191: 1188:1952–53: Defiance Campaign 534:1994 Bophuthatswana crisis 224: 178:, the ANC was forced into 13006: 12983:African National Congress 12972: 12878: 12711: 12443:Liberal Party (1953–1968) 12166: 12157: 12015: 11811: 11781:1992 apartheid referendum 11450: 11395: 11314: 11252: 11225: 11218: 10984: 10927: 10816: 10743: 10701: 10600: 10583: 10570:Treatment Action Campaign 10548:Landless Peoples Movement 10516:South Africa trade unions 10501: 10398: 10381: 10305: 10294: 10280: 10226: 10168: 10143: 10073: 10020: 9951: 9833: 9756: 9661: 9650: 9643:African National Congress 9467:Shubin, Vladimir (2008). 9422:; Sechaba, Tsepo (1992). 9393:. Ohio University Press. 7771:"Scorpions support grows" 7394:. Wits University Press. 7049:African National Congress 7019:African National Congress 6989:African National Congress 6893:African National Congress 6782:10.1080/03056249408704075 6488:10.1080/03057079808708577 6181:African National Congress 6138:10.1163/9789004214606_013 6130:COSAtu's Contested Legacy 6017:10.1080/08850609708435358 5640:Shubin, Vladimir (1996). 5305:10.1080/01436598708419960 5019:African National Congress 4914:10.1080/02533950903076386 4721:10.1017/S0021853717000718 4488:10.1080/01436598708419993 4311:African National Congress 4074:African National Congress 4009:10.1017/S0022278X00055816 3775:10.1080/02589008308729424 3611:Suttner, Raymond (2012). 3467:Elias Sekgobelo Magashule 3340:Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma 3322:Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela 3310:Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela 3285:Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma 3273:Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela 3145:African National Congress 3119:President of South Africa 2983:Economic Freedom Fighters 2492:national health insurance 2275:– ANC President Tambo on 2073:Progressive Federal Party 2015:On the other side of the 1945:Marxist Workers' Tendency 1884:almost ten years later. 1649:1969: Morogoro conference 1137:1949: Youth League putsch 782:Winnie Madikizela-Mandela 398:Transvaal Indian Congress 311:Natives (Urban Areas) Act 288:and his followers in the 209:in 1991. Pursuant to the 132:– cemented its so-called 124:. In 1955, it signed the 84:centralised coalition of 66:African National Congress 12436:Labour Party (1969–1994) 12429:Labour Party (1910–1958) 11985:2020 Phala Phala Robbery 11943:#RhodesMustFall protests 11542:1960 republic referendum 10889:Political assassinations 10565:Social Justice Coalition 10527:Mandela Park Backyarders 10220:Politics of South Africa 9452:Macmillan, Hugh (2013). 9212:Butler, Anthony (2012). 6764:Szeftel, Morris (1994). 6290:10.1177/0975087814411153 5720:10.1177/0021909611429436 5465:10.1215/1089201X-25-1-63 5408:MacMillan, Hugh (2012), 5245:Military History Journal 5239:Williams, Rocky (2000). 4955:Macmillan, Hugh (2009). 4369:Mandela: A Critical Life 3841:Butler, Anthony (2012). 3455:Kgalema Petrus Motlanthe 3449:Matamela Cyril Ramaphosa 3425:Walter Max Ulyate Sisulu 3364:Paul Shipokosa Mashatile 3352:Matamela Cyril Ramaphosa 3346:Kgalema Petrus Motlanthe 3328:Walter Max Ulyate Sisulu 3291:Matamela Cyril Ramaphosa 2863:52nd National Conference 2737:51st National Conference 2614:50th National Conference 2471:49th National Conference 2218:48th National Conference 2055:Preliminary negotiations 1785:During this period, the 1751:, which killed 19 people 1606:Southern Africa in 1973. 1462:Exile and armed struggle 1278:The People Shall Govern! 969:Cape Qualified Franchise 70:Republic of South Africa 12881:terrorist organisations 11971:2019 Johannesburg riots 11584:Constructive engagement 11549:International isolation 11367:Witwatersrand Gold Rush 10729:One Settler, One Bullet 9904:Alfred Baphethuxolo Nzo 9687:Josiah Tshangana Gumede 9669:John Langalibalele Dube 9554:Booysen, Susan (2021). 9539:Booysen, Susan (2015). 9524:Booysen, Susan (2011). 9469:ANC: A View from Moscow 9437:Ellis, Stephen (2013). 9093:. Reuters. 14 June 2024 8811:"How ANC came to split" 8630:The Mail & Guardian 8384:"South Africa Grows Up" 8334:Booysen, Susan (2011), 6462:Ellis, Stephen (1998). 6056:The Mail & Guardian 5867:22 October 2014 at the 5558:Zantsi, Luvuyo (2019). 5528:The Mail & Guardian 5161:Ellis, Stephen (1994). 4644:Ellis, Stephen (1991). 4411:The Mail & Guardian 3709:Ellis, Stephen (2013). 3505:Anti-Apartheid Movement 3485:History of South Africa 3443:Alfred Baphethuxolo Nzo 3231:Josiah Tshangana Gumede 3213:John Langalibalele Dube 2818:. Though he soon faced 2679:, an elite unit of the 2644:South African Arms Deal 2446:Bloemfontein conference 2231:United Democratic Front 2206:1991: Durban conference 1955:International relations 1828:detention without trial 1514:statement from the dock 1427:Pan Africanist Congress 1159:Pan Africanist Congress 999:Nostalgia for apartheid 313:. Possibly inspired by 145:Pan Africanist Congress 11894:Attack on Kennedy Road 11505:Congress of the People 11096:South African Republic 10687:Anti-Chinese sentiment 10672:White monopoly capital 10538:Poor People's Alliance 10288: 10090:Congress of the People 9389:Cherry, Janet (2012). 9308:Meli, Francis (1988). 9267:. H. Zell Publishers. 8358:10.18772/12011115423.5 8016:Pillay, Devan (2008). 7433:Southern Africa Report 6213:. 1994. Archived from 3304:Walter Benson Rubusana 3219:Sefako Mapogo Makgatho 2939: 2910:Congress of the People 2857: 2816:Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka 2718: 2656: 2563: 2527: 2461: 2382: 2367: 2332: 2272: 2184: 2131: 2119:Return to South Africa 2067: 2000: 1968: 1899:1985: Kabwe conference 1895: 1830:, and even execution. 1744: 1719: 1670: 1607: 1505: 1443: 1422: 1369:1956–61: Treason Trial 1354: 1325:Congress of the People 1304:Congress of the People 1299: 1206: 1128: 974:Disinvestment campaign 699:State Security Council 372: 294: 237: 61: 12464:Natal Indian Congress 12184:Afrikaner Broederbond 12038:Afrikaner nationalism 11824:1994 general election 11795:Bophuthatswana crisis 11688:Church Street bombing 11468:Apartheid legislation 11461:1948 general election 11381:South Africa Act 1909 11176:Union of South Africa 10996:Kingdom of Mapungubwe 10976:Political history of 10874:Legacies of apartheid 10735:"Each One, Teach One" 10692:Anti-Indian sentiment 10637:Proudly South African 10543:Abahlali baseMjondolo 10318:Afrikaner nationalism 10286: 8786:. 25 September 2008. 8489:on 27 September 2007. 7988:The O'Malley Archives 6547:Kynoch, Gary (2013). 6433:Pax et Bellum Journal 5881:Brits, J. P. (2008). 5293:Third World Quarterly 4476:Third World Quarterly 4472:"The freedom charter" 4070:"Three Doctors' Pact" 3617:International Affairs 3461:Samson Gwede Mantashe 3431:Oliver Reginald Tambo 3316:Oliver Reginald Tambo 3267:Oliver Reginald Tambo 3157:Inkatha Freedom Party 3103:Inkatha Freedom Party 3075:2024 general election 3066:On 7 September 2023, 3034:2019 general election 2963:2014 general election 2948:2009 general election 2930: 2852: 2822:(and from December a 2786:2004 general election 2774:2004 general election 2709: 2651: 2610:1999 general election 2598:1999 general election 2566:– ANC statement, 1998 2558: 2522: 2456: 2422:Inkatha Freedom Party 2397:1994 general election 2377: 2357: 2323: 2264: 2216:In July 1991, at its 2175: 2126: 2062: 1991: 1962: 1916:inside South Africa. 1890: 1764:Church Street bombing 1749:Church Street bombing 1739: 1717: 1665: 1611:1969: Hani memorandum 1605: 1497: 1435: 1413: 1349: 1275: 1201: 1123: 1071:Afrikaner nationalist 1069:brought to power the 1067:1948 general election 964:Apartheid legislation 954:Afrikaner nationalism 514:Cape Town peace march 504:Trojan Horse Incident 464:1948 general election 402:Natal Indian Congress 367: 278: 246:Union of South Africa 232: 39: 12098:Greater South Africa 11936:2014 platinum strike 11802:Shell House massacre 11730:Transkei coup d'état 11535:Sharpeville massacre 11298:Battle of Blaauwberg 11291:Battle of Muizenberg 11243:Battle of Salt River 11026:Mthethwa Paramountcy 10894:Political repression 10789:Long Walk to Freedom 10287:Flag of South Africa 10146:Allied organisations 10135:Shell House massacre 10105:Little Rivonia Trial 10053:ANC Veterans' League 9954:National Conferences 9693:Pixley ka Isaka Seme 9518:Post-apartheid years 9347:Limb, Peter (2010). 9263:Limb, Peter (1993). 8725:. 29 December 2007. 8505:The New Humanitarian 7807:. 10 February 2008. 7533:. 27 February 2014. 7477:10.1353/at.2001.0035 7335:. 16 February 1995. 6958:. 21 December 1994. 6925:. 13 December 1994. 6613:. 24 February 2011. 6565:10.1093/afraf/adt014 6360:Gender and Behaviour 6183:. 16 December 1990. 4603:10.1093/pastj/gtz030 4313:. 17 December 1949. 3495:Separate development 3473:Fikile April Mbalula 3334:Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki 3279:Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki 3237:Pixley ka Isaka Seme 2840:2006 local elections 2800:Polokwane conference 2715:World Economic Forum 2690:Constitutional Court 2431:interim Constitution 2342:Shell House massacre 2325:Mangosuthu Buthelezi 1941:socialist revolution 1847:1983–84: Mkatashinga 1629:armed confrontations 1569:Little Rivonia trial 1456:Sharpeville massacre 1145:, including Sisulu, 862:Eugène Terre'Blanche 732:Mangosuthu Buthelezi 539:Shell House massacre 509:Khotso House bombing 479:Sharpeville massacre 274:Pixley ka Isaka Seme 176:Little Rivonia Trial 153:Sharpeville massacre 12990:Democratic Alliance 12167:Civic and political 12031:Afrikaner Calvinism 12024:African nationalism 11873:African Renaissance 11563:UNSC Resolution 591 11484:Internal resistance 11385:National Convention 11353:Transvaal Civil War 11277:Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars 11160:Orange River Colony 10884:Phala Phala robbery 10782:I Write What I Like 10607:African Renaissance 10333:Black consciousness 10313:African nationalism 10021:Structure and wings 9214:The Idea of the ANC 9018:. 19 December 2022. 8750:"Letter to the ANC" 8699:on 19 December 2007 8692:Mail & Guardian 8453:. 23 October 2005. 8435:on 13 October 2006. 8311:. 7 December 2005. 8248:. 4 November 2002. 8188:. 5 November 2004. 7805:Mail & Guardian 7686:. 9 November 2007. 7439:(2). Archived from 7427:Lodge, Tom (1998). 6899:on 22 February 2017 6480:1998JSAfS..24..261E 6372:10520/EJC-59f91d677 6343:on 17 October 2007. 5493:The Washington Post 5287:Lodge, Tom (1987). 4366:Lodge, Tom (2006). 4347:on 13 February 2009 4337:"Death the Leveler" 3844:The Idea of the ANC 3757:Lodge, Tom (1983). 3419:James Arthur Calata 3358:David Dabede Mabuza 3261:Albert John Luthuli 3149:Democratic Alliance 3117:who was re-elected 3099:Democratic Alliance 2989:Corruption scandals 2977:, and later in the 2790:Democratic Alliance 2579:command-and-control 2537:human rights abuses 2351:In April 1993, the 2163:Tripartite Alliance 2157:Tripartite Alliance 1772:Magoo's Bar bombing 1768:Amanzimtoti bombing 1661:Morogoro Conference 1655:Morogoro Conference 1636:, who had been the 1551:. Mandela, Sisulu, 1487:Spear of the Nation 1205:burns his passbook. 1171:African nationalism 1105:, had been banned. 1009:Sullivan Principles 346:national conference 330:class consciousness 215:national government 207:National Conference 203:formal negotiations 86:traditional leaders 78:liberation movement 11737:Ciskei coup d'état 11556:UN Resolution 1761 11521:Women's March 1956 11374:South African Wars 11360:Mineral Revolution 10289: 10043:ANC Women's League 9705:Alfred Bitini Xuma 9048:Haddad, Mohammed. 8428:Independent Online 8388:The New York Times 5932:Sunday Independent 4973:10.1353/trn.0.0026 4646:"The ANC in Exile" 4594:Past & Present 3555:on 8 January 2019. 3549:Independent Online 3413:Elijah H. Mdolomba 3389:R. V. Selope Thema 3249:Alfred Bitini Xuma 3169:Freedom Front Plus 3153:Patriotic Alliance 3107:Patriotic Alliance 2940: 2867:Polokwane, Limpopo 2858: 2719: 2657: 2528: 2418:New National Party 2383: 2338:Boipatong massacre 2333: 2260:Political violence 2185: 2132: 2068: 1969: 1943:. They formed the 1896: 1820:the Grinding Stone 1720: 1608: 1581:Morogoro, Tanzania 1423: 1375:1956 Treason Trial 1231:state of emergency 1215:civil disobedience 1207: 1163:self-determination 1082:racial segregation 594:Conservative Party 474:1956 Treason Trial 386:Alfred Bitini Xuma 323:passive resistance 238: 219:national president 184:Morogoro, Tanzania 110:civil disobedience 76:and is the oldest 62: 13022: 13021: 12975:political parties 12968: 12967: 12945:Orde van die Dood 12562:Progressive Party 12268:Congress Alliance 12084:Cape Independence 12016:Political culture 12011: 12010: 11978:COVID-19 pandemic 11908:Marikana massacre 11744:Venda coup d'état 11498:Defiance Campaign 11088:Orange Free State 11018:Dutch Cape Colony 10943: 10942: 10834:Cape Independence 10812: 10811: 10754:African Communist 10710:Amandla Ngawethu! 10612:Alternative media 10601:Political culture 10593:South African law 10497: 10496: 10383:Political parties 10186: 10185: 10110:uMkhonto we Sizwe 10085:Defiance Campaign 9947: 9946: 9943: 9942: 9916:Kgalema Motlanthe 9834:Secretary-General 9806:Kgalema Motlanthe 9584:978-1-84467-356-8 9570:Feinstein, Andrew 9564:978-1-77614-647-5 9549:978-1-86814-885-1 9534:978-1-86814-781-6 9510:978-1-77009-776-6 9492:978-1-77022-842-9 9477:978-1-77009-631-8 9462:978-1-4314-0987-7 9447:978-0-19-933061-4 9432:978-0-85255-353-4 9414:978-0-253-03228-7 9399:978-0-8214-4443-6 9375:978-0-8131-4314-9 9357:978-1-86888-882-5 9333:978-0-620-51866-6 9318:978-0-85255-331-2 9303:978-0-7453-1282-8 9288:978-1-86814-848-6 9273:978-1-873836-95-8 9258:978-0-14-352913-2 9240:978-0-7509-2193-0 9222:978-1-4314-0578-7 9206:General histories 8539:978-1-86842-301-9 8533:. Jonathan Ball. 8349:978-1-86814-542-3 8218:. 4 August 2004. 8093:978-1-86842-301-9 8086:. Jonathan Ball. 7401:978-1-77614-166-1 7144:978-0-7969-2024-9 7086:978-0-333-77615-5 6923:Los Angeles Times 6643:. 19 April 1993. 6641:Los Angeles Times 6398:978-1-86842-997-4 6277:Insight on Africa 6147:978-90-04-21460-6 5973:978-0-14-023224-0 5934:. 29 April 2007. 5861:Islington Council 5423:978-1-86814-600-0 5299:(1): 1, 282–310. 5057:978-0-7983-0155-8 5021:. 26 April 1969. 4522:978-0-7595-2104-9 4379:978-0-19-280568-3 4280:978-0-86975-152-7 4198:978-1-4039-1591-7 4163:on 1 October 2006 4157:Palestina Dossier 4137:978-0-86975-152-7 3968:978-1-138-12444-8 3920:978-0-86975-152-7 3854:978-1-4314-0578-7 3722:978-0-19-933061-4 3500:Africa Hinterland 3401:T. D. Mweli Skota 3395:H. L. Bud M'belle 3370:Secretary-General 3297:Deputy Presidents 3255:James Sebe Moroka 3004:Nasrec conference 2888:Kgalema Motlanthe 2414:National Assembly 2009:Mikhail Gorbachev 1982:Margaret Thatcher 1949:African Communist 1869:Angolan Civil War 1865:exhausted soldier 1813:1980–81: Shishita 1710:UMkhonto we Sizwe 1697:African Communist 1692:Central Committee 1688:Tennyson Makiwane 1577:Nobel Peace Prize 1501:Umkhonto we Sizwe 1483:Umkhonto we Sizwe 1473:UMkhonto we Sizwe 1417:leads a march to 1333:Congress Alliance 1314:Congress Alliance 1227:Public Safety Act 1219:Defiance Campaign 1194:Defiance Campaign 1063: 1062: 920:South-West Africa 272:(Secretary), and 161:Umkhonto we Sizwe 134:Congress Alliance 106:Defiance Campaign 16:(Redirected from 13047: 13012: 13011: 12999: 12992: 12985: 12961: 12954: 12947: 12940: 12933: 12926: 12919: 12912: 12905: 12898: 12891: 12879:Paramilitary and 12871: 12869:Umkosi Wezintaba 12864: 12857: 12850: 12843: 12836: 12829: 12822: 12815: 12808: 12801: 12794: 12787: 12780: 12773: 12766: 12759: 12752: 12745: 12738: 12731: 12724: 12714:social movements 12712:Trade unions and 12704: 12697: 12690: 12683: 12676: 12669: 12662: 12655: 12648: 12641: 12634: 12627: 12620: 12613: 12606: 12599: 12592: 12585: 12578: 12571: 12564: 12557: 12550: 12543: 12536: 12529: 12522: 12515: 12508: 12501: 12494: 12487: 12480: 12473: 12466: 12459: 12452: 12445: 12438: 12431: 12424: 12417: 12410: 12403: 12396: 12389: 12382: 12375: 12368: 12361: 12354: 12347: 12340: 12333: 12326: 12319: 12312: 12305: 12298: 12291: 12284: 12277: 12270: 12263: 12256: 12249: 12242: 12235: 12233:Boerestaat Party 12228: 12221: 12214: 12207: 12200: 12193: 12186: 12179: 12164: 12163: 12150: 12141: 12132: 12123: 12116: 12107: 12100: 12093: 12086: 12079: 12072: 12063: 12054: 12047: 12040: 12033: 12026: 12004: 11994: 11987: 11980: 11973: 11966: 11959: 11952: 11945: 11938: 11931: 11924: 11917: 11910: 11903: 11896: 11889: 11882: 11875: 11868: 11861: 11854: 11847: 11840: 11833: 11826: 11804: 11797: 11790: 11783: 11776: 11767: 11760: 11753: 11746: 11739: 11732: 11725: 11723:Dakar Conference 11718: 11711: 11704: 11697: 11690: 11683: 11676: 11669: 11662: 11653: 11646: 11644:Israeli alliance 11639: 11632: 11625: 11614: 11607: 11600: 11598:Sporting boycott 11593: 11586: 11579: 11572: 11570:Academic boycott 11565: 11558: 11551: 11544: 11537: 11530: 11523: 11514: 11507: 11500: 11493: 11486: 11477: 11470: 11463: 11443: 11436: 11429: 11427:Great Depression 11422: 11415: 11413:Maritz rebellion 11408: 11388: 11376: 11369: 11362: 11355: 11348: 11341: 11334: 11327: 11307: 11300: 11293: 11286: 11279: 11272: 11265: 11263:Dutch settlement 11245: 11238: 11236:Bantu migrations 11223: 11222: 11211: 11203: 11195: 11187: 11179: 11171: 11168:Transvaal Colony 11163: 11155: 11147: 11139: 11136:Nieuwe Republiek 11131: 11123: 11115: 11107: 11099: 11091: 11083: 11075: 11072:Natalia Republic 11067: 11059: 11051: 11049: 11046: 11041:Ndwandwe Kingdom 11036: 11034: 11031: 11021: 11013: 11011: 11008: 11004: 11001: 10970: 10963: 10956: 10947: 10946: 10933: 10932: 10869:Land occupations 10864:Labour brokering 10796:Molotov Cocktail 10699: 10698: 10560:Reclaim the City 10508:Social movements 10439:Earthlife Africa 10338:Environmentalism 10303: 10302: 10213: 10206: 10199: 10190: 10189: 10179: 10174: 10173: 10147: 10077: 10048:ANC Youth League 9955: 9757:Deputy President 9659: 9658: 9652: 9651: 9644: 9635: 9628: 9621: 9612: 9611: 9504:. Jacana Media. 9471:. Jacana Media. 9426:. James Currey. 9216:. Jacana Media. 9195: 9194: 9183: 9177: 9176: 9174: 9172: 9157: 9151: 9150: 9148: 9146: 9135: 9129: 9128: 9126: 9124: 9109: 9103: 9102: 9100: 9098: 9087: 9081: 9080: 9078: 9076: 9064: 9058: 9057: 9045: 9039: 9038: 9026: 9020: 9019: 9012: 9006: 9005: 8993: 8987: 8986: 8979: 8973: 8972: 8961: 8955: 8954: 8942: 8936: 8935: 8923: 8917: 8916: 8905: 8899: 8898: 8895:The Conversation 8886: 8880: 8879: 8868: 8862: 8861: 8859: 8857: 8837: 8831: 8830: 8828: 8826: 8806: 8800: 8799: 8797: 8795: 8776: 8770: 8769: 8767: 8765: 8745: 8739: 8738: 8736: 8734: 8715: 8709: 8708: 8706: 8704: 8682: 8676: 8675: 8673: 8671: 8652: 8646: 8645: 8643: 8641: 8632:. 29 June 2001. 8622: 8616: 8615: 8613: 8611: 8579: 8573: 8572: 8570: 8568: 8548: 8542: 8527: 8521: 8520: 8518: 8516: 8507:. 14 June 2007. 8497: 8491: 8490: 8473: 8467: 8466: 8464: 8462: 8443: 8437: 8436: 8431:. Archived from 8418: 8412: 8411: 8409: 8407: 8379: 8373: 8372: 8371: 8369: 8331: 8325: 8324: 8322: 8320: 8299: 8293: 8292: 8290: 8288: 8268: 8262: 8261: 8259: 8257: 8238: 8232: 8231: 8229: 8227: 8208: 8202: 8201: 8199: 8197: 8178: 8172: 8171: 8169: 8167: 8147: 8141: 8140: 8138: 8136: 8116: 8110: 8109: 8107: 8105: 8077: 8058: 8057: 8055: 8053: 8013: 8004: 8003: 8001: 7999: 7979: 7973: 7972: 7970: 7968: 7948: 7942: 7941: 7939: 7937: 7928:. 25 July 2002. 7918: 7912: 7911: 7909: 7907: 7898:. 25 July 2002. 7888: 7882: 7881: 7879: 7877: 7857: 7851: 7850: 7848: 7846: 7827: 7821: 7820: 7818: 7816: 7797: 7791: 7790: 7788: 7786: 7767: 7761: 7760: 7758: 7756: 7737: 7731: 7730: 7728: 7726: 7706: 7700: 7699: 7697: 7695: 7676: 7670: 7669: 7667: 7665: 7645: 7639: 7638: 7636: 7634: 7614: 7608: 7607: 7605: 7603: 7594:. 12 June 2019. 7584: 7578: 7577: 7575: 7573: 7553: 7547: 7546: 7544: 7542: 7523: 7517: 7516: 7514: 7512: 7456: 7445: 7444: 7443:on 14 July 2014. 7424: 7418: 7417: 7415: 7413: 7385: 7379: 7378: 7376: 7374: 7355: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7344: 7325: 7319: 7318: 7316: 7314: 7305:. 27 July 1996. 7295: 7289: 7288: 7286: 7284: 7265: 7259: 7258: 7256: 7254: 7234: 7228: 7227: 7225: 7223: 7205: 7190: 7189: 7187: 7185: 7167: 7161: 7160: 7158: 7156: 7128: 7111: 7110: 7108: 7106: 7071: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7060: 7041: 7035: 7034: 7032: 7030: 7011: 7005: 7004: 7002: 7000: 6981: 6975: 6974: 6972: 6970: 6964: 6953: 6945: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6934: 6915: 6909: 6908: 6906: 6904: 6895:. Archived from 6884: 6878: 6877: 6859: 6835: 6814: 6813: 6811: 6809: 6761: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6745: 6725: 6719: 6718: 6716: 6714: 6694: 6688: 6687: 6685: 6683: 6663: 6657: 6656: 6654: 6652: 6633: 6627: 6626: 6624: 6622: 6603: 6597: 6596: 6594: 6592: 6559:(447): 283–303. 6544: 6538: 6537: 6535: 6533: 6499: 6459: 6453: 6452: 6450: 6448: 6424: 6415: 6414: 6412: 6410: 6382: 6376: 6375: 6366:(2): 7254–7262. 6351: 6345: 6344: 6339:. Archived from 6328: 6322: 6321: 6319: 6317: 6267: 6258: 6257: 6255: 6253: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6224: 6222: 6203: 6197: 6196: 6194: 6192: 6173: 6164: 6163: 6161: 6159: 6121: 6115: 6114: 6112: 6110: 6078: 6072: 6071: 6069: 6067: 6047: 6041: 6040: 6038: 6036: 5996: 5990: 5989: 5987: 5985: 5957: 5948: 5947: 5945: 5943: 5924: 5915: 5914: 5912: 5910: 5878: 5872: 5854: 5848: 5847: 5845: 5843: 5823: 5817: 5816: 5814: 5812: 5792: 5786: 5785: 5783: 5781: 5761: 5752: 5751: 5749: 5747: 5699: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5685: 5637: 5616: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5555: 5544: 5543: 5541: 5539: 5519: 5510: 5509: 5507: 5505: 5483: 5477: 5476: 5446: 5440: 5438: 5437: 5435: 5405: 5386: 5385: 5375: 5351: 5345: 5344: 5342: 5340: 5284: 5265: 5264: 5262: 5260: 5236: 5221: 5220: 5218: 5216: 5190: 5173:(371): 279–298. 5158: 5145: 5144: 5142: 5140: 5134: 5123: 5115: 5106: 5105: 5103: 5101: 5083: 5074: 5073: 5071: 5069: 5041: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5030: 5011: 5005: 5004: 5002: 5000: 4952: 4946: 4945: 4943: 4941: 4893: 4872: 4871: 4869: 4867: 4849: 4834: 4833: 4831: 4829: 4811: 4788: 4787: 4759: 4753: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4700: 4694: 4693: 4691: 4689: 4656:(360): 439–447. 4641: 4626: 4625: 4615: 4605: 4596:(245): 221–255. 4585: 4558: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4533: 4527: 4526: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4467: 4458: 4457: 4455: 4453: 4433: 4427: 4426: 4424: 4422: 4402: 4396: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4363: 4357: 4356: 4354: 4352: 4333: 4327: 4326: 4324: 4322: 4303: 4297: 4296: 4294: 4292: 4264: 4247: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4224: 4218: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4207: 4190: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4170: 4168: 4159:. Archived from 4148: 4142: 4141: 4121: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4076:. 9 March 1947. 4066: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4055: 4036: 4030: 4029: 4011: 3987: 3981: 3980: 3950: 3937: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3904: 3871: 3870: 3868: 3866: 3847:. Jacana Media. 3838: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3769:(1–2): 153–180. 3754: 3739: 3738: 3736: 3734: 3706: 3661: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3608: 3557: 3556: 3540: 3068:uMkhonto Wesizwe 2995:Zondo Commission 2828:cadre deployment 2631:Democratic Party 2567: 2465: 2280: 2011: 1977:State Department 1932:Martin Legassick 1803:Dulcie September 1799:raid on Gaborone 1757:councillors and 1752: 1704:Armed resistance 1567:pursuant to the 1516: 1329:Kliptown, Soweto 1143:ANC Youth League 1132: 1055: 1048: 1041: 1025: 1024: 822:Albertina Sisulu 817:Benjamin Moloise 752:Arthur Goldreich 443: 420: 419: 394:Atlantic Charter 380: 250:Natives Land Act 21: 13055: 13054: 13050: 13049: 13048: 13046: 13045: 13044: 13025: 13024: 13023: 13018: 13002: 12995: 12988: 12981: 12974: 12964: 12957: 12950: 12943: 12936: 12929: 12922: 12915: 12908: 12901: 12894: 12887: 12880: 12874: 12867: 12860: 12853: 12846: 12839: 12832: 12825: 12818: 12811: 12804: 12797: 12790: 12783: 12776: 12769: 12762: 12755: 12748: 12741: 12734: 12727: 12720: 12713: 12707: 12700: 12693: 12686: 12679: 12672: 12665: 12658: 12651: 12644: 12637: 12630: 12623: 12616: 12609: 12602: 12595: 12588: 12581: 12574: 12567: 12560: 12553: 12546: 12539: 12532: 12525: 12518: 12511: 12504: 12497: 12490: 12483: 12476: 12469: 12462: 12455: 12448: 12441: 12434: 12427: 12420: 12413: 12406: 12399: 12392: 12385: 12380:HNP (Herstigte) 12378: 12373:HNP (Herenigde) 12371: 12364: 12357: 12350: 12343: 12336: 12329: 12322: 12315: 12308: 12301: 12294: 12287: 12280: 12273: 12266: 12259: 12252: 12245: 12238: 12231: 12224: 12217: 12210: 12203: 12196: 12191:Afrikaner Party 12189: 12182: 12175: 12168: 12159: 12153: 12144: 12135: 12126: 12119: 12110: 12105:Honorary whites 12103: 12096: 12089: 12082: 12075: 12066: 12057: 12050: 12043: 12036: 12029: 12022: 12007: 11997: 11990: 11983: 11976: 11969: 11962: 11955: 11948: 11941: 11934: 11927: 11920: 11913: 11906: 11899: 11892: 11885: 11878: 11871: 11866:Soweto bombings 11864: 11857: 11850: 11843: 11836: 11829: 11822: 11814: 11807: 11800: 11793: 11786: 11779: 11772: 11763: 11756: 11749: 11742: 11735: 11728: 11721: 11714: 11707: 11700: 11693: 11686: 11679: 11672: 11667:Soweto Uprising 11665: 11658: 11649: 11642: 11635: 11628: 11621: 11610: 11603: 11596: 11591:Tar Baby Option 11589: 11582: 11575: 11568: 11561: 11554: 11547: 11540: 11533: 11526: 11519: 11512:Freedom Charter 11510: 11503: 11496: 11489: 11482: 11473: 11466: 11459: 11446: 11439: 11432: 11425: 11418: 11411: 11404: 11391: 11379: 11372: 11365: 11358: 11351: 11344: 11337: 11330: 11323: 11310: 11303: 11296: 11289: 11282: 11275: 11268: 11261: 11248: 11241: 11234: 11214: 11206: 11198: 11190: 11182: 11174: 11166: 11158: 11150: 11142: 11134: 11126: 11118: 11112:Griqualand West 11110: 11104:Griqualand East 11102: 11094: 11086: 11078: 11070: 11062: 11054: 11047: 11039: 11032: 11024: 11016: 11009: 11002: 10994: 10980: 10974: 10944: 10939: 10923: 10904:Sexual violence 10824:Corrective rape 10808: 10745: 10739: 10697: 10677:Ungovernability 10632:Freedom Charter 10596: 10579: 10522:Equal Education 10506: 10493: 10402: 10394: 10377: 10297: 10290: 10278: 10222: 10217: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10164: 10145: 10139: 10095:Freedom Charter 10075: 10069: 10016: 9953: 9939: 9910:Cyril Ramaphosa 9874:Elijah Mdolomba 9829: 9812:Cyril Ramaphosa 9764:Walter Rubusana 9752: 9747:Cyril Ramaphosa 9675:Sefako Makgatho 9646: 9642: 9639: 9594: 9589: 9515: 9380: 9363:Odendaal, André 9351:. Unisa Press. 9338: 9297:. Pluto Press. 9203: 9201:Further reading 9198: 9185: 9184: 9180: 9170: 9168: 9158: 9154: 9144: 9142: 9137: 9136: 9132: 9122: 9120: 9119:on 23 June 2024 9111: 9110: 9106: 9096: 9094: 9089: 9088: 9084: 9074: 9072: 9065: 9061: 9046: 9042: 9027: 9023: 9014: 9013: 9009: 8994: 8990: 8981: 8980: 8976: 8963: 8962: 8958: 8943: 8939: 8924: 8920: 8907: 8906: 8902: 8887: 8883: 8870: 8869: 8865: 8855: 8853: 8838: 8834: 8824: 8822: 8807: 8803: 8793: 8791: 8778: 8777: 8773: 8763: 8761: 8746: 8742: 8732: 8730: 8717: 8716: 8712: 8702: 8700: 8683: 8679: 8669: 8667: 8654: 8653: 8649: 8639: 8637: 8624: 8623: 8619: 8609: 8607: 8580: 8576: 8566: 8564: 8549: 8545: 8528: 8524: 8514: 8512: 8499: 8498: 8494: 8475: 8474: 8470: 8460: 8458: 8445: 8444: 8440: 8419: 8415: 8405: 8403: 8380: 8376: 8367: 8365: 8350: 8332: 8328: 8318: 8316: 8301: 8300: 8296: 8286: 8284: 8269: 8265: 8255: 8253: 8240: 8239: 8235: 8225: 8223: 8210: 8209: 8205: 8195: 8193: 8180: 8179: 8175: 8165: 8163: 8148: 8144: 8134: 8132: 8117: 8113: 8103: 8101: 8094: 8078: 8061: 8051: 8049: 8014: 8007: 7997: 7995: 7980: 7976: 7966: 7964: 7949: 7945: 7935: 7933: 7920: 7919: 7915: 7905: 7903: 7896:The Irish Times 7890: 7889: 7885: 7875: 7873: 7858: 7854: 7844: 7842: 7841:on 4 March 2012 7829: 7828: 7824: 7814: 7812: 7799: 7798: 7794: 7784: 7782: 7777:. 21 May 2008. 7769: 7768: 7764: 7754: 7752: 7739: 7738: 7734: 7724: 7722: 7707: 7703: 7693: 7691: 7678: 7677: 7673: 7663: 7661: 7646: 7642: 7632: 7630: 7615: 7611: 7601: 7599: 7586: 7585: 7581: 7571: 7569: 7554: 7550: 7540: 7538: 7525: 7524: 7520: 7510: 7508: 7457: 7448: 7425: 7421: 7411: 7409: 7402: 7386: 7382: 7372: 7370: 7357: 7356: 7352: 7342: 7340: 7333:The Independent 7327: 7326: 7322: 7312: 7310: 7303:The Irish Times 7297: 7296: 7292: 7282: 7280: 7267: 7266: 7262: 7252: 7250: 7243:The Irish Times 7235: 7231: 7221: 7219: 7206: 7193: 7183: 7181: 7168: 7164: 7154: 7152: 7145: 7129: 7114: 7104: 7102: 7087: 7073: 7072: 7068: 7058: 7056: 7043: 7042: 7038: 7028: 7026: 7013: 7012: 7008: 6998: 6996: 6983: 6982: 6978: 6968: 6966: 6962: 6951: 6947: 6946: 6942: 6932: 6930: 6917: 6916: 6912: 6902: 6900: 6885: 6881: 6844:Africa Spectrum 6836: 6817: 6807: 6805: 6776:(61): 457–470. 6762: 6753: 6743: 6741: 6726: 6722: 6712: 6710: 6695: 6691: 6681: 6679: 6672:Washington Post 6664: 6660: 6650: 6648: 6635: 6634: 6630: 6620: 6618: 6605: 6604: 6600: 6590: 6588: 6553:African Affairs 6545: 6541: 6531: 6529: 6460: 6456: 6446: 6444: 6425: 6418: 6408: 6406: 6399: 6383: 6379: 6352: 6348: 6329: 6325: 6315: 6313: 6268: 6261: 6251: 6249: 6234: 6230: 6220: 6218: 6205: 6204: 6200: 6190: 6188: 6175: 6174: 6167: 6157: 6155: 6148: 6122: 6118: 6108: 6106: 6099:10520/EJC133152 6079: 6075: 6065: 6063: 6048: 6044: 6034: 6032: 5997: 5993: 5983: 5981: 5974: 5958: 5951: 5941: 5939: 5926: 5925: 5918: 5908: 5906: 5879: 5875: 5869:Wayback Machine 5855: 5851: 5841: 5839: 5832:The Independent 5824: 5820: 5810: 5808: 5793: 5789: 5779: 5777: 5762: 5755: 5745: 5743: 5700: 5693: 5683: 5681: 5646:African Affairs 5638: 5619: 5609: 5607: 5556: 5547: 5537: 5535: 5520: 5513: 5503: 5501: 5484: 5480: 5447: 5443: 5433: 5431: 5424: 5406: 5389: 5352: 5348: 5338: 5336: 5285: 5268: 5258: 5256: 5237: 5224: 5214: 5212: 5167:African Affairs 5159: 5148: 5138: 5136: 5132: 5121: 5117: 5116: 5109: 5099: 5097: 5084: 5077: 5067: 5065: 5058: 5042: 5038: 5028: 5026: 5013: 5012: 5008: 4998: 4996: 4953: 4949: 4939: 4937: 4902:Social Dynamics 4894: 4875: 4865: 4863: 4850: 4837: 4827: 4825: 4812: 4791: 4760: 4756: 4746: 4744: 4701: 4697: 4687: 4685: 4650:African Affairs 4642: 4629: 4586: 4561: 4551: 4549: 4534: 4530: 4523: 4507: 4503: 4468: 4461: 4451: 4449: 4434: 4430: 4420: 4418: 4403: 4399: 4389: 4387: 4380: 4364: 4360: 4350: 4348: 4335: 4334: 4330: 4320: 4318: 4305: 4304: 4300: 4290: 4288: 4281: 4265: 4250: 4240: 4238: 4225: 4221: 4211: 4209: 4205: 4199: 4188: 4180: 4176: 4166: 4164: 4149: 4145: 4138: 4122: 4093: 4083: 4081: 4068: 4067: 4063: 4053: 4051: 4038: 4037: 4033: 3988: 3984: 3969: 3951: 3940: 3930: 3928: 3921: 3905: 3874: 3864: 3862: 3855: 3839: 3802: 3792: 3790: 3755: 3742: 3732: 3730: 3723: 3707: 3664: 3654: 3652: 3609: 3560: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3490:Security Branch 3481: 3372: 3299: 3208: 3203: 3197: 3141: 3135: 3123:grand coalition 3115:Cyril Ramaphosa 3089:Because in the 3083: 3077: 3042: 3036: 3031: 3016:Cyril Ramaphosa 3012: 3006: 3001: 2991: 2971: 2965: 2956: 2950: 2945: 2906: 2900: 2879:Chris Nicholson 2808: 2802: 2782: 2776: 2756:HIV/AIDS policy 2752:Zwelinzima Vavi 2727:especially the 2724: 2704: 2698: 2696:HIV/AIDS policy 2646: 2640: 2606: 2600: 2595: 2569: 2565: 2517: 2511: 2506: 2500: 2467: 2463: 2454: 2448: 2407:South Africa's 2405: 2399: 2394: 2388: 2372: 2298:kangaroo courts 2282: 2274: 2268:Freedom Charter 2262: 2257: 2251: 2233:(UDF), such as 2226:Cyril Ramaphosa 2214: 2208: 2190: 2181:Cyril Ramaphosa 2159: 2153: 2121: 2057: 2013: 2002: 1957: 1928: 1922: 1901: 1849: 1815: 1774:, and the 1987 1754: 1746: 1725:Soweto uprising 1712: 1706: 1683: 1657: 1651: 1613: 1583:, and later in 1549:Liliesleaf farm 1544: 1518: 1507: 1475: 1469: 1464: 1452: 1439:minority rights 1408: 1402: 1377: 1371: 1358:nationalisation 1337:Freedom Charter 1316: 1310:Freedom Charter 1306: 1300: 1295: 1293: 1291: 1289: 1287: 1285: 1283: 1281: 1279: 1274: 1272:Freedom Charter 1267: 1223:Group Areas Act 1196: 1190: 1139: 1134: 1130: 1059: 1014: 1013: 989:Kairos Document 979:Freedom Charter 949: 941: 940: 924: 895: 887: 886: 717:Vernon Berrangé 712: 704: 703: 664:Security Branch 554: 544: 543: 489:Soweto uprising 459: 458: 418: 382: 374: 298:Raymond Suttner 262:mission schools 227: 196:Soweto uprising 159:(SACP) founded 149:Freedom Charter 126:Freedom Charter 94:First World War 46:Thomas Mapikela 42:Walter Rubusana 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 13053: 13043: 13042: 13037: 13020: 13019: 13007: 13004: 13003: 13001: 13000: 12993: 12986: 12978: 12976: 12970: 12969: 12966: 12965: 12963: 12962: 12955: 12948: 12941: 12938:Ossewabrandwag 12934: 12927: 12920: 12913: 12906: 12899: 12892: 12884: 12882: 12876: 12875: 12873: 12872: 12865: 12858: 12851: 12844: 12837: 12830: 12823: 12816: 12809: 12802: 12795: 12788: 12781: 12774: 12767: 12760: 12753: 12746: 12739: 12732: 12725: 12717: 12715: 12709: 12708: 12706: 12705: 12698: 12691: 12684: 12681:Unionist Party 12677: 12670: 12663: 12660:Torch Commando 12656: 12649: 12642: 12635: 12628: 12621: 12614: 12607: 12600: 12593: 12586: 12579: 12572: 12565: 12558: 12551: 12544: 12537: 12534:Orde Boerevolk 12530: 12523: 12516: 12509: 12502: 12495: 12488: 12481: 12474: 12467: 12460: 12453: 12446: 12439: 12432: 12425: 12418: 12411: 12404: 12397: 12390: 12383: 12376: 12369: 12362: 12355: 12348: 12341: 12334: 12327: 12320: 12313: 12310:DP (1989–2000) 12306: 12303:DP (1973–1977) 12299: 12296:Dominion Party 12292: 12285: 12278: 12271: 12264: 12257: 12250: 12243: 12236: 12229: 12222: 12215: 12208: 12201: 12194: 12187: 12180: 12177:Afrikaner Bond 12172: 12170: 12161: 12155: 12154: 12152: 12151: 12142: 12133: 12124: 12117: 12108: 12101: 12094: 12091:Day of the Vow 12087: 12080: 12073: 12064: 12055: 12048: 12041: 12034: 12027: 12019: 12017: 12013: 12012: 12009: 12008: 12006: 12005: 11995: 11988: 11981: 11974: 11967: 11960: 11953: 11946: 11939: 11932: 11925: 11918: 11911: 11904: 11897: 11890: 11883: 11876: 11869: 11862: 11859:Floor crossing 11855: 11848: 11841: 11834: 11827: 11819: 11817: 11809: 11808: 11806: 11805: 11798: 11791: 11784: 11777: 11774:Bisho massacre 11770: 11769: 11768: 11754: 11747: 11740: 11733: 11726: 11719: 11716:Operation Vula 11712: 11709:Rubicon speech 11705: 11702:Langa massacre 11698: 11691: 11684: 11677: 11670: 11663: 11656: 11655: 11654: 11640: 11633: 11626: 11619: 11618: 11617: 11616: 11615: 11608: 11594: 11587: 11580: 11573: 11566: 11559: 11545: 11538: 11531: 11524: 11517: 11516: 11515: 11501: 11494: 11487: 11480: 11479: 11478: 11464: 11456: 11454: 11448: 11447: 11445: 11444: 11437: 11430: 11423: 11420:Rand Rebellion 11416: 11409: 11401: 11399: 11393: 11392: 11390: 11389: 11377: 11370: 11363: 11356: 11349: 11346:Boer Republics 11342: 11335: 11328: 11320: 11318: 11312: 11311: 11309: 11308: 11301: 11294: 11287: 11280: 11273: 11266: 11258: 11256: 11250: 11249: 11247: 11246: 11239: 11231: 11229: 11220: 11216: 11215: 11213: 11212: 11204: 11196: 11192:Bophuthatswana 11188: 11180: 11172: 11164: 11156: 11152:Klein Vrystaat 11148: 11140: 11132: 11124: 11116: 11108: 11100: 11092: 11084: 11076: 11068: 11060: 11052: 11037: 11022: 11014: 10991: 10989: 10982: 10981: 10973: 10972: 10965: 10958: 10950: 10941: 10940: 10928: 10925: 10924: 10922: 10921: 10916: 10911: 10906: 10901: 10896: 10891: 10886: 10881: 10876: 10871: 10866: 10861: 10856: 10851: 10846: 10841: 10836: 10831: 10826: 10820: 10818: 10814: 10813: 10810: 10809: 10807: 10806: 10799: 10792: 10785: 10778: 10771: 10764: 10757: 10749: 10747: 10741: 10740: 10738: 10737: 10732: 10725: 10720: 10713: 10705: 10703: 10696: 10695: 10694: 10689: 10679: 10674: 10669: 10664: 10659: 10654: 10652:Tenderpreneurs 10649: 10644: 10642:Rainbow nation 10639: 10634: 10629: 10624: 10619: 10614: 10609: 10604: 10602: 10598: 10597: 10589: 10587: 10581: 10580: 10578: 10577: 10572: 10567: 10562: 10557: 10556: 10555: 10550: 10545: 10535: 10529: 10524: 10512: 10510: 10499: 10498: 10495: 10494: 10492: 10491: 10485: 10480: 10474: 10468: 10462: 10456: 10451: 10449:Khanya College 10446: 10441: 10436: 10430: 10424: 10418: 10413: 10407: 10405: 10396: 10395: 10387: 10385: 10379: 10378: 10376: 10375: 10370: 10365: 10363:Pan-Africanism 10360: 10358:Libertarianism 10355: 10350: 10345: 10340: 10335: 10330: 10325: 10320: 10315: 10309: 10307: 10300: 10292: 10291: 10281: 10279: 10277: 10276: 10271: 10266: 10261: 10256: 10251: 10246: 10241: 10236: 10230: 10228: 10224: 10223: 10216: 10215: 10208: 10201: 10193: 10184: 10183: 10169: 10166: 10165: 10163: 10162: 10157: 10151: 10149: 10141: 10140: 10138: 10137: 10132: 10130:Bisho massacre 10127: 10125:Operation Vula 10122: 10117: 10112: 10107: 10102: 10097: 10092: 10087: 10081: 10079: 10071: 10070: 10068: 10067: 10060: 10055: 10050: 10045: 10040: 10035: 10030: 10024: 10022: 10018: 10017: 10015: 10014: 10008: 10002: 9996: 9990: 9984: 9978: 9972: 9966: 9959: 9957: 9949: 9948: 9945: 9944: 9941: 9940: 9938: 9937: 9936:(2022–present) 9934:Fikile Mbalula 9931: 9925: 9922:Gwede Mantashe 9919: 9913: 9907: 9901: 9895: 9889: 9883: 9877: 9871: 9865: 9862:TD Mweli Skota 9859: 9856: 9850: 9844: 9837: 9835: 9831: 9830: 9828: 9827: 9826:(2022–present) 9824:Paul Mashatile 9821: 9815: 9809: 9803: 9797: 9791: 9785: 9782:Nelson Mandela 9779: 9773: 9770:Nelson Mandela 9767: 9760: 9758: 9754: 9753: 9751: 9750: 9749:(2017–present) 9744: 9738: 9732: 9729:Nelson Mandela 9726: 9720: 9717:Albert Luthuli 9714: 9708: 9702: 9696: 9690: 9684: 9678: 9672: 9665: 9663: 9656: 9648: 9647: 9638: 9637: 9630: 9623: 9615: 9609: 9608: 9600: 9593: 9592:External links 9590: 9588: 9587: 9567: 9552: 9537: 9521: 9514: 9513: 9498:Trewhela, Paul 9495: 9480: 9465: 9450: 9435: 9420:Ellis, Stephen 9417: 9402: 9386: 9379: 9378: 9360: 9344: 9337: 9336: 9321: 9306: 9291: 9276: 9261: 9246:Holland, Heidi 9243: 9225: 9209: 9202: 9199: 9197: 9196: 9178: 9166:Daily Maverick 9152: 9141:. 30 June 2024 9130: 9104: 9082: 9059: 9040: 9035:Daily Maverick 9021: 9007: 8988: 8974: 8956: 8937: 8918: 8900: 8881: 8863: 8832: 8801: 8771: 8740: 8710: 8677: 8647: 8617: 8594:(1): 213–231. 8574: 8557:Daily Maverick 8543: 8522: 8492: 8468: 8438: 8413: 8374: 8348: 8326: 8294: 8263: 8233: 8203: 8173: 8142: 8125:Daily Maverick 8111: 8092: 8059: 8005: 7974: 7943: 7913: 7883: 7852: 7822: 7792: 7762: 7747:. 7 May 2008. 7732: 7701: 7671: 7640: 7623:Daily Maverick 7609: 7579: 7548: 7518: 7446: 7419: 7400: 7380: 7350: 7320: 7290: 7260: 7229: 7191: 7162: 7143: 7112: 7085: 7066: 7036: 7025:on 24 May 2008 7006: 6976: 6940: 6910: 6879: 6850:(2): 111–124. 6815: 6751: 6720: 6689: 6658: 6628: 6598: 6539: 6474:(2): 261–299. 6454: 6416: 6397: 6377: 6346: 6323: 6284:(2): 137–152. 6259: 6228: 6217:on 24 May 2008 6198: 6165: 6146: 6116: 6093:(1): 171–190. 6073: 6042: 6011:(4): 418–455. 5991: 5972: 5949: 5916: 5873: 5849: 5818: 5787: 5753: 5691: 5617: 5545: 5511: 5478: 5441: 5422: 5387: 5346: 5266: 5222: 5146: 5107: 5075: 5056: 5036: 5006: 4967:(1): 106–129. 4947: 4908:(2): 295–311. 4873: 4835: 4789: 4770:(4): 693–715. 4754: 4695: 4627: 4559: 4528: 4521: 4501: 4482:(2): 672–677. 4459: 4442:Daily Maverick 4428: 4397: 4378: 4358: 4328: 4298: 4279: 4248: 4219: 4197: 4174: 4143: 4136: 4091: 4061: 4031: 4002:(4): 643–660. 3982: 3967: 3938: 3919: 3872: 3853: 3800: 3740: 3721: 3662: 3623:(4): 719–738. 3558: 3534: 3532: 3529: 3528: 3527: 3522: 3517: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3480: 3477: 3476: 3475: 3471:2022–present: 3469: 3463: 3457: 3451: 3445: 3439: 3433: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3409: 3403: 3397: 3391: 3385: 3379: 3371: 3368: 3367: 3366: 3362:2022–present: 3360: 3354: 3348: 3342: 3336: 3330: 3324: 3318: 3312: 3306: 3298: 3295: 3294: 3293: 3289:2017–present: 3287: 3281: 3275: 3269: 3263: 3257: 3251: 3245: 3239: 3233: 3227: 3221: 3215: 3207: 3204: 3199:Main article: 3196: 3193: 3137:Main article: 3134: 3131: 3105:(IFP) and the 3079:Main article: 3076: 3073: 3038:Main article: 3035: 3032: 3030: 3027: 3008:Main article: 3005: 3002: 2990: 2987: 2967:Main article: 2964: 2961: 2952:Main article: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2941: 2902:Main article: 2899: 2896: 2892:2009 elections 2804:Main article: 2801: 2798: 2794:floor crossing 2778:Main article: 2775: 2772: 2748:Blade Nzimande 2723: 2720: 2697: 2694: 2642:Main article: 2639: 2636: 2602:Main article: 2599: 2596: 2594: 2591: 2557: 2524:Winnie Mandela 2513:Main article: 2510: 2507: 2502:Main article: 2499: 2496: 2484:Bantu Holomisa 2455: 2450:Main article: 2447: 2444: 2401:Main article: 2398: 2395: 2387: 2384: 2379:Nelson Mandela 2371: 2368: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2253:Main article: 2250: 2247: 2243:Cheryl Carolus 2210:Main article: 2207: 2204: 2199:Kenneth Kaunda 2189: 2186: 2155:Main article: 2152: 2149: 2136:F. W. De Klerk 2128:Nelson Mandela 2120: 2117: 2108:Ronnie Kasrils 2100:Operation Vula 2089:Anglo American 2056: 2053: 1990: 1956: 1953: 1921: 1918: 1900: 1897: 1877:Hermanus Loots 1848: 1845: 1814: 1811: 1795:raid on Maputo 1791:raid on Maputo 1738: 1705: 1702: 1682: 1679: 1653:Main article: 1650: 1647: 1612: 1609: 1585:Lusaka, Zambia 1553:Ahmed Kathrada 1543: 1540: 1510:Nelson Mandela 1496: 1471:Main article: 1468: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1451: 1448: 1431:Robert Sobukwe 1415:Robert Sobukwe 1401: 1398: 1373:Main article: 1370: 1367: 1320:Z. K. Matthews 1302:Main article: 1269: 1268: 1266: 1263: 1255:Yusuf Cachalia 1203:Nelson Mandela 1192:Main article: 1189: 1186: 1147:Nelson Mandela 1138: 1135: 1122: 1114:Albert Luthuli 1095:banning orders 1074:National Party 1061: 1060: 1058: 1057: 1050: 1043: 1035: 1032: 1031: 1030: 1029: 1016: 1015: 1012: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 981: 976: 971: 966: 961: 956: 950: 948:Related topics 947: 946: 943: 942: 939: 938: 933: 928: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 896: 893: 892: 889: 888: 885: 884: 879: 874: 872:H. F. Verwoerd 869: 864: 859: 854: 852:Adelaide Tambo 849: 844: 842:Robert Sobukwe 839: 834: 832:J. G. Strijdom 829: 824: 819: 814: 812:Raymond Mhlaba 809: 804: 799: 797:Nelson Mandela 794: 789: 784: 779: 777:Albert Luthuli 774: 772:Ahmed Kathrada 769: 764: 762:Bantu Holomisa 759: 754: 749: 744: 739: 737:F. W. de Klerk 734: 729: 724: 719: 713: 710: 709: 706: 705: 702: 701: 696: 691: 686: 681: 676: 671: 666: 661: 656: 654:National Party 651: 646: 641: 636: 631: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 555: 550: 549: 546: 545: 542: 541: 536: 531: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 460: 457: 456: 450: 449: 448: 445: 444: 436: 435: 429: 428: 417: 414: 366: 317:'s concept of 315:Mahatma Gandhi 226: 223: 211:1994 elections 188:Lusaka, Zambia 186:, and then in 138:anti-apartheid 114:Nelson Mandela 98:National Party 32: 31: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13052: 13041: 13038: 13036: 13033: 13032: 13030: 13017: 13016: 13005: 12998: 12994: 12991: 12987: 12984: 12980: 12979: 12977: 12971: 12960: 12956: 12953: 12949: 12946: 12942: 12939: 12935: 12932: 12928: 12925: 12921: 12918: 12914: 12911: 12907: 12904: 12900: 12897: 12893: 12890: 12886: 12885: 12883: 12877: 12870: 12866: 12863: 12859: 12856: 12855:Die Spoorbund 12852: 12849: 12845: 12842: 12838: 12835: 12831: 12828: 12824: 12821: 12817: 12814: 12810: 12807: 12803: 12800: 12796: 12793: 12789: 12786: 12782: 12779: 12775: 12772: 12768: 12765: 12761: 12758: 12754: 12751: 12747: 12744: 12740: 12737: 12733: 12730: 12726: 12723: 12719: 12718: 12716: 12710: 12703: 12699: 12696: 12695:Workers Party 12692: 12689: 12685: 12682: 12678: 12675: 12671: 12668: 12664: 12661: 12657: 12654: 12650: 12647: 12643: 12640: 12636: 12633: 12629: 12626: 12622: 12619: 12615: 12612: 12608: 12605: 12601: 12598: 12594: 12591: 12587: 12584: 12580: 12577: 12576:Radio Freedom 12573: 12570: 12566: 12563: 12559: 12556: 12552: 12549: 12545: 12542: 12538: 12535: 12531: 12528: 12527:Oranjewerkers 12524: 12521: 12517: 12514: 12510: 12507: 12503: 12500: 12496: 12493: 12489: 12486: 12482: 12479: 12475: 12472: 12468: 12465: 12461: 12458: 12454: 12451: 12447: 12444: 12440: 12437: 12433: 12430: 12426: 12423: 12419: 12416: 12412: 12409: 12405: 12402: 12398: 12395: 12391: 12388: 12384: 12381: 12377: 12374: 12370: 12367: 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11895: 11891: 11888: 11884: 11881: 11877: 11874: 11870: 11867: 11863: 11860: 11856: 11853: 11849: 11846: 11842: 11839: 11835: 11832: 11828: 11825: 11821: 11820: 11818: 11816: 11810: 11803: 11799: 11796: 11792: 11789: 11785: 11782: 11778: 11775: 11771: 11766: 11762: 11761: 11759: 11755: 11752: 11748: 11745: 11741: 11738: 11734: 11731: 11727: 11724: 11720: 11717: 11713: 11710: 11706: 11703: 11699: 11696: 11692: 11689: 11685: 11682: 11681:Project Coast 11678: 11675: 11671: 11668: 11664: 11661: 11660:Mafeje affair 11657: 11652: 11648: 11647: 11645: 11641: 11638: 11634: 11631: 11630:Durban Moment 11627: 11624: 11623:Rivonia Trial 11620: 11613: 11609: 11606: 11602: 11601: 11599: 11595: 11592: 11588: 11585: 11581: 11578: 11577:Disinvestment 11574: 11571: 11567: 11564: 11560: 11557: 11553: 11552: 11550: 11546: 11543: 11539: 11536: 11532: 11529: 11525: 11522: 11518: 11513: 11509: 11508: 11506: 11502: 11499: 11495: 11492: 11488: 11485: 11481: 11476: 11472: 11471: 11469: 11465: 11462: 11458: 11457: 11455: 11453: 11449: 11442: 11438: 11435: 11431: 11428: 11424: 11421: 11417: 11414: 11410: 11407: 11403: 11402: 11400: 11398: 11394: 11386: 11382: 11378: 11375: 11371: 11368: 11364: 11361: 11357: 11354: 11350: 11347: 11343: 11340: 11336: 11333: 11332:1820 Settlers 11329: 11326: 11322: 11321: 11319: 11317: 11313: 11306: 11302: 11299: 11295: 11292: 11288: 11285: 11281: 11278: 11274: 11271: 11267: 11264: 11260: 11259: 11257: 11255: 11251: 11244: 11240: 11237: 11233: 11232: 11230: 11228: 11224: 11221: 11217: 11209: 11205: 11201: 11197: 11193: 11189: 11185: 11181: 11177: 11173: 11169: 11165: 11161: 11157: 11153: 11149: 11145: 11141: 11137: 11133: 11129: 11125: 11121: 11117: 11113: 11109: 11105: 11101: 11097: 11093: 11089: 11085: 11081: 11077: 11073: 11069: 11065: 11061: 11057: 11053: 11042: 11038: 11027: 11023: 11019: 11015: 10997: 10993: 10992: 10990: 10988: 10983: 10979: 10971: 10966: 10964: 10959: 10957: 10952: 10951: 10948: 10938: 10937: 10926: 10920: 10917: 10915: 10912: 10910: 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10136: 10133: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10121: 10118: 10116: 10115:Radio Freedom 10113: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10100:Rivonia Trial 10098: 10096: 10093: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10083: 10082: 10080: 10078: 10072: 10066: 10065: 10061: 10059: 10058:Luthuli House 10056: 10054: 10051: 10049: 10046: 10044: 10041: 10039: 10036: 10034: 10031: 10029: 10026: 10025: 10023: 10019: 10012: 10009: 10006: 10003: 10000: 9997: 9994: 9991: 9988: 9985: 9982: 9979: 9976: 9973: 9970: 9967: 9964: 9961: 9960: 9958: 9956: 9950: 9935: 9932: 9929: 9928:Ace Magashule 9926: 9923: 9920: 9917: 9914: 9911: 9908: 9905: 9902: 9899: 9896: 9893: 9890: 9887: 9886:Walter Sisulu 9884: 9881: 9878: 9875: 9872: 9869: 9866: 9863: 9860: 9857: 9854: 9851: 9848: 9845: 9842: 9839: 9838: 9836: 9832: 9825: 9822: 9819: 9816: 9813: 9810: 9807: 9804: 9801: 9798: 9795: 9792: 9789: 9788:Walter Sisulu 9786: 9783: 9780: 9777: 9774: 9771: 9768: 9765: 9762: 9761: 9759: 9755: 9748: 9745: 9742: 9739: 9736: 9733: 9730: 9727: 9724: 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Vorster 875: 873: 870: 868: 865: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 835: 833: 830: 828: 827:Walter Sisulu 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 730: 728: 725: 723: 720: 718: 715: 714: 708: 707: 700: 697: 695: 692: 690: 687: 685: 682: 680: 677: 675: 672: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 657: 655: 652: 650: 647: 645: 642: 640: 637: 635: 632: 630: 627: 625: 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 602: 600: 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 585: 582: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 556: 553: 552:Organisations 548: 547: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 527: 525: 522: 520: 517: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 502: 500: 499:Vaal uprising 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 484:Rivonia Trial 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 461: 455: 452: 451: 447: 446: 442: 438: 437: 434: 431: 430: 426: 422: 421: 413: 411: 407: 403: 400:and Gandhi's 399: 395: 391: 390:Allied Powers 387: 381: 378: 371: 365: 363: 359: 354: 353:Josiah Gumede 349: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 326: 324: 320: 316: 312: 307: 303: 299: 293: 291: 287: 283: 282:conservatives 277: 275: 271: 268:(President), 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 235: 231: 222: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 199: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 172:Rivonia Trial 168: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 141: 139: 135: 131: 130:Treason Trial 127: 123: 122:Walter Sisulu 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 90:British crown 87: 81: 79: 75: 71: 67: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 38: 34: 30: 29: 19: 13013: 12982: 12973:Histories of 12674:United Party 12583:Reform Party 12520:Orangia Unie 12145: 12136: 12129:Swart gevaar 12127: 12111: 12067: 12058: 11999: 11901:Blikkiesdorp 11227:Pre-colonial 11080:Natal Colony 11064:Zulu Kingdom 10978:South Africa 10934: 10854:Gupta family 10849:Farm attacks 10801: 10794: 10787: 10780: 10773: 10766: 10759: 10752: 10590: 10513: 10503:Trade unions 10429:(CONTRALESA) 10388: 10274:Western Cape 10234:Eastern Cape 10175: 10074: 10062: 9892:Oliver Tambo 9880:James Calata 9868:E. J. Khaile 9847:Selope Thema 9818:David Mabuza 9776:Oliver Tambo 9723:Oliver Tambo 9711:James Moroka 9604: 9603:Web dossier 9573: 9555: 9540: 9525: 9517: 9516: 9501: 9483: 9468: 9453: 9438: 9423: 9405: 9390: 9382: 9381: 9366: 9348: 9340: 9339: 9327:. BM Books. 9324: 9309: 9294: 9279: 9264: 9249: 9231: 9213: 9205: 9204: 9190: 9181: 9169:. Retrieved 9165: 9155: 9143:. Retrieved 9133: 9121:. Retrieved 9117:the original 9107: 9095:. Retrieved 9085: 9073:. Retrieved 9062: 9053: 9043: 9034: 9024: 9010: 9002:The Observer 9001: 8991: 8977: 8968: 8959: 8950: 8945:Essa, Azad. 8940: 8932:The Guardian 8931: 8921: 8912: 8903: 8894: 8884: 8875: 8866: 8854:. Retrieved 8845: 8835: 8823:. Retrieved 8814: 8804: 8792:. Retrieved 8783: 8774: 8762:. Retrieved 8753: 8743: 8731:. Retrieved 8722: 8713: 8701:. Retrieved 8697:the original 8690: 8680: 8668:. Retrieved 8659: 8650: 8638:. Retrieved 8629: 8620: 8608:. Retrieved 8591: 8587: 8577: 8565:. Retrieved 8556: 8546: 8530: 8525: 8513:. 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