2370:'s views of civil resistance into their rebellions. The strike drew a lot attention and encouraged other workers to strike. Strikes for higher wages, improved working conditions and the end of exploitation occurred throughout this period. Other industrial and municipal workers were inspired by the brick and tile workers and also walked off their jobs. A month later, 30,000 black labour workers were on strike in Durban. The entire apartheid system, relied on black labour workers to keep its economy growing, thus the strikes strategically disrupted the system of power. Not only did these strikes distort the nation's economy, they also inspired students to strike on their own. The Durban labour strikes were a foundation for rebellions such as the Soweto Uprising.
1620:. The size of the crowd was estimated to be 20,000 people. The crowd converged on the Sharpeville police station, singing and offering themselves up for arrest for not carrying their pass books. A group of police officers panicked and opened fire on the demonstrators shortly after the crowd approached the police station, killing 69 people and injuring 186. All the victims were black, and most of them had been shot in the back. Many witnesses stated that the crowd was not violent, but Colonel J. Pienaar, the senior police officer in charge on the day, said: "Hordes of natives surrounded the police station. My car was struck with a stone. If they do these things they must learn their lesson the hard way." The event became known as the
2393:'s accession to power, black trade unions were legalised and their role in the resistance struggle grew to all-new proportions. Before 1979, black trade unions had had no legal clout in dealings with employers. All strikes that took place were illegal, but they did help to establish the trade unions and their collective cause. Although the legalisation of black trade unions gave workers the legal right to strike, it also gave the government a degree of control over them, as they had to be registered and hand in their membership records to the government. They were not allowed to support political parties either, though some trade unions did not comply.
1795:(LLA) and the Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA) in Libya. American pressures split the PAC into a "reformist-diplomatic" group under Sibeko, Make, and Pokela, and a Ghanaian Maoist group led by Leballo. APLA was destroyed by the Tanzanian military at Chunya on 11 March 1980 for refusing to accept the reformist-diplomatic leadership by Make. Leballo was influential in the South African 1985 student risings and pivotal in removing Leabua Jonathan's regime in Lesotho, the stress of which caused his death. The PAC never recovered from the 1980 massacre of Leballo's troops and his death and only won 1.2% of the vote in the 1994 South African election.
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people and injuring more than 200. The attack was one of the deadliest in the ANC's armed struggle against
Apartheid. On 30 January 1981, ANC guerrillas launched a surprise attack on the SADF base in Matola, Mozambique, killing 16 SADF soldiers and wounding more than 40. On 8 December 1982, ANC guerrillas attacked the South African embassy in Maseru, Lesotho, killing three people and injuring several others and on 14 November 1987, the ANC targeted the Vlakplaas police station in Pretoria with a car bomb, killing three police officers and injuring 18 others. Vlakplaas was notorious for its role in the repression of anti-apartheid activists.
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zenith in
September 1952, more than 2,500 people from 24 different towns were arrested for defying various laws. After five months, the African and Indian Congresses decided to call off the campaign because of the increasing number of riots, strikes and heavier sentences on participants. During the campaign, almost 8,000 black and Indian people had been detained; at the same time, ANC membership grew from 7,000 to 100,000, and the number of subdivisions went from 14 at the campaign's beginning to 87 at its end. There was also a change in leadership: shortly before the campaign ended, Albert Luthuli was elected as the new ANC president.
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1787:, and became the PAC's acting president. Soon after he was elected as acting president, he made a public statement that he would launch an attack on South African Police with an army of 150.000 cadres. A few days after that statement, he send two women PAC couriers, Cynthia Lichaba and Thabisa Lethala, to post letters in Ladybrand, a South African town near Lesotho. The letters contained instructions and details of Poqo cadres. The two women were arrested by Basutoland police and correspondence addressed to poqo cells was confiscated. 3,246 PAC and Poqo members were arrested.
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1498:(SACOD) and the South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU) met and founded the National Action Council for the Congress of the People. Delegates were drawn from each of these establishments and a nationwide organiser was assigned. A campaign was publicised for the drafting of a freedom charter, and asked for 10,000 volunteers to help with the conscription of views across the country and the Congress of the People. Demands were documented and sent to the local board of the National Action Council in preparation for drafting the Charter.
2016:(NUSAS) was the first organisation to represent students in South Africa, but it had a principally white membership, and black students saw this as an impediment. White students' concerns were more scholastic than political, and although the administration was multiracial, it was not addressing many of the issues of the mounting number of black students since 1960. This resulted in the 1967 creation of the University Christian Movement (UCM), an organisation rooted in African-American philosophy.
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2929:. These anti-apartheid organisations led protests that were both active (e.g. marching through the streets with torches) and passive (e.g. standing silently in black). Two Jewish organisations were formed in 1985: Jews for Justice (in Cape Town) and Jews for Social Justice (in Johannesburg). They tried to reform South African society and build bridges between the white and black communities. The South African Jewish Board also passed a resolution rejecting apartheid in 1985.
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1471:, the Public Safety Act and the Criminal Procedures Act. Criminal Law Amendment Act No 8 stated that " person who in any way whatsoever advises, encourages, incites, commands, aids or procures any other person ... or uses language calculated to cause any other person to commit an offence by way of protest against the law... shall be guilty of an offence." In December 1952, Mandela, Sisulu and 18 others were tried under the Suppression of Communism Act for leading the
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English-speaking white South
Africans, Jews supported either the Progressive Party or the United Party. One organisation, the Union of Jewish Women, sought to alleviate the suffering of blacks through charitable projects and self-help schemes. Fourteen of the 23 whites involved in the 1956 Treason Trial were Jewish and all five whites of the 17 members of the African National Congress who were arrested for anti-apartheid activities in 1963 were Jewish.
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1684:. Slovo and the SACP were instrumental in bolstering MK and developing its tactics for guerrilla warfare, inciting insurrection and urban sabotage. White SACP members such as Jack Hodgson, who had served in the South African Army during World War II, were instrumental in training MK recruits. The SACP was also able to secure promises of military aid from the Soviet Union for the fledgling guerrilla army, and purchased
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Anglicans had generally followed a conciliatory approach to attempt to gain prior government approval. The
Catholics also announced they were laying the groundwork to extend their approach to hospitals, homes and orphanages. In contrast, the Dutch Reformed Church continued to offer biblical justifications for segregation in 1977, although some reformers within the denomination challenged those rationales.
3023:(FSAW or FedSAW) was founded with the objectives to fight against racism and oppression of women and to make African women understand that they had rights both as human beings and as women. While female activists fought along men and participated to demonstrations and guerrilla movements, FSAW and ANCWL also acted independently and organised bus boycotts and campaigns against restrictive passes in
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gave attention to the more global issues of black communities. School learners began to confront the Bantu education policy, which was designed to prepare them to be second-class citizens. They created the South
African Student's Movement (SASM). It was particularly popular in Soweto, where the 1976 insurrection against Bantu Education would prove to be a crossroads in the fight against apartheid.
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recruited from the marginalised white intellectual scene. Many of ARM's members had been part of the
National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Unlike pro-peace opposition NUSAS, ARM was a radical organisation. Its backing came mostly from Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. By 1964, ARM ceased to exist, as most of its members having been arrested or fled the country.
2849:. Only white males were conscripted, but volunteers from other races were also drawn in. The army was used to fight battles on South African borders and in neighbouring states, against the liberation movements and the countries that supported them. During the 1980s, the military was also used to suppress township uprisings, which saw support for the ECC increase markedly.
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communist government. The charge was based on statements and speeches made during the
Defiance Campaign and the Congress of the People. The Freedom Charter was used as proof of the Alliance's communist intent and their conspiracy to oust the government. The State greatly relied on the evidence of Professor Arthur Murray, an ostensible authority on
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changes to its apartheid policies. Trade unions filled the gap left by banned political parties; they assumed tremendous importance because they could act on a wide variety of issues and problems for their people beyond those that were work-related, as links between work issues and broader community grievances became more palpable.
2038:(BPC) and the South African Students Movement (SASM), which represented high-school learners. The BPC originally attempted to unite charitable associations like the Education and Cultural Advancement of African People of South Africa before expanding into a political administration with Biko as its honorary president.
2009:
and merchandise that were meant to make black people "whiter", such as hair straighteners and skin lighteners. Western culture was criticised to be destructive and alien to Africa. Black people became conscious of their own distinctive identity and self-worth and grew more outspoken about their right to freedom.
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Johannesburg's Oxford
Synagogue and Cape Town's Temple Israel established nurseries, medical clinics and adult education programs in the townships and provided legal aid for victims of apartheid laws. Many Jewish lawyers acted as nominees for non-whites who were not allowed to buy properties in white areas.
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1953, at the Cape ANC conference in
Cradock, Professor Z. K. Matthews proposed a national convention of the people to study the national problems on an all-inclusive basis and outline a manifesto of amity. In March 1954, the ANC, the South African Indian Congress (SAIC), the Coloured People's Congress, the
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opinionated elements were prohibited during the 1970s because the government saw them as dangerous. Black
Consciousness in South Africa adopted a drastic theory, much like socialism, as the liberation movement progressed to challenging class divisions and shifting from an ethnic stress to focusing more on
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was the only MP consistently voting against apartheid legislation for many years. Suzman's critics argue that she did not achieve any notable political successes, but helped to shore up claims by the Nationalists that internal, public criticism of apartheid was permitted. Suzman's supporters point to
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was another general secretary of the SACC. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in 1984 and used his position and popularity to denounce the government and its policies. On 29 February 1988 Tutu and some other church leaders were arrested during a protest in front of the parliamentary
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Growing displeasure among black students and the expansion of Black Consciousness led to the incarnation of the South African Students Organisation (SASO) at Turfloop. In July 1969, Steve Biko became the organisation's inaugural head, which boosted the mood of the students and the Black Consciousness
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The BCM drew most of its backing from high schools and tertiary institutions. Black Consciousness ethics were crucial in lifting consciousness amongst black people of their value and right to a better existence, along with the need to insist on these. The BCM's non-violent approach subsided in favour
1733:
Mandela began planning for MK members to be given military training outside South Africa and slipped past authorities as he himself moved in and out of the country, earning him the moniker "The Black Pimpernel". Mandela initially avoided arrest within South Africa, but in August 1962, after receiving
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in Pretoria and protested against the pass laws. On the morning of 5 December 1956, the police detained 156 Congress Alliance leaders: 104 African, 23 white, 21 Indian and eight Coloured people. They were charged with high treason and plotting a violent overthrow of the state, and replacing it with a
1493:
Although the movement was subjected to increasing restrictions, it was still able to struggle against the oppressive instruments of the state. Collaboration between the ANC and NIC increased and strengthened through the Defiance Campaign. Support for the ANC and its endeavours increased. On 15 August
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Some of the first violent incidents of resistance to the system was organised by the African Resistance Movement (ARM), which was founded in the 1960s and were responsible for setting off bombs at power stations (for example, the Park Station bomb). The membership of this group was almost completely
2407:
The establishment of the trade union federations led to greater unity amongst the workers. The tremendous size of the federations gave them increased voice and power. In 1980 many black high-school and university students boycotted their schools and there was a country-wide protest over wages, rents
1756:
The PAC's secretive martial arm was called Poqo, meaning "go it alone". It was prepared to take lives in the quest for liberation: it murdered whites, police informants and black people who supported the government. It sought to arrange a national revolution to conquer the white government, but poor
1478:
The government also tightened the regulation of separate amenities. Protesters had argued to the courts that different amenities for different races ought to be of an equal standard. The Separate Amenities Act removed the façade of mere separation; it gave the owners of public amenities the right to
1422:
When the ANCYL took control of the ANC, the organisation advocated a policy of open defiance and resistance for the first time, which unleashed the 1950s Programme of Action, instituted in 1949, that emphasised the right of the African people to freedom under the flag of African Nationalism. It laid
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in 1954, the Federation of South African Women adopted the "Women's Charter", which focused on rights specific to women both as women and mothers. The Charter referred both to human rights and women's rights and asked for universal equality and national liberation. In 1955, in a document drafted in
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The MDM emerged very late into the resistance, but it added to the effective resistance that the government faced. It organised a series of protests and further united the opposition movement. It was characteristic of the "mass resistance" that characterised the 1980s: many organisations united and
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There were still divides amongst the trade-union faction, which had the membership of only ten per cent of the country's workforce. Not all trade unions joined the federations, while agricultural and domestic workers did not have a trade union to join and were thus more liable. Nevertheless, by the
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Fewer trade-union officials (harassed less by the police and army) were jailed than political leaders in the townships. Union members could meet and make plans within the factory. In this way, trade unions played a pivotal role in the struggle against apartheid, and their efforts generally had wide
2381:
After 1976, trade unions and their workers began to play a massive role in the fight against apartheid. With their thousands of members, the trade unions had great strength in numbers, which they used to their advantage to campaign for the rights of black workers and to force the government to make
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Police employed tear gas and violence against the strikers, but could not apprehend the masses of people involved. The strikers never chose individuals to stand for them because they would be the first to be detained. Blacks were not permitted trade unions, which meant that the government could not
2239:
On 13 June 1976, nearly 400 SASM associates gathered to start a movement for mass action. An Action Committee was created with two agents from each school in Soweto. The committee became known as the Soweto Students' Representatives Council (SSRC). The protest was scheduled for 16 June 1976 and the
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and Orlando West Secondary Schools vented their grievances on school books and refused to attend their schools. This form of protest spread quickly to other schools in Soweto and peaked around 8 June 1976. When law enforcement officers attempted to arrest a regional SASM secretary, they were stoned
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The Azanian People's Organisation was the leading Black Consciousness group of the 1980s. Most of its support came from young black men and women—many of whom were educated at colleges and universities. The organisation received a lot of support in Soweto and also amongst journalists, who helped to
2057:
With Black Consciousness increasing throughout black communities, a number of other organisations were formed to combat apartheid. In 1972, the Black People's Convention was founded, and the black Allied Worker's Union, formed in 1973, focused on black labour matters. The black community programmes
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which heavily influenced SACP and ANC political theory to a lesser extent. MK commanders hoped that through their actions, they could appeal to the masses and inspire a popular uprising against the South African regime. A popular uprising would compensate for the MK's weaknesses as it offered a way
2227:
SASM supported its members with school work, exams and progress from lower school levels to university. Security forces continuously harassed its members until some of its leaders fled the country in 1973. In 1974 and 1975, some affiliates were captured and tried under the Suppression of Communism
2084:
The Black Consciousness Movement began to change its focus during the 1980s from issues of nation and community to issues of class; as a result, they may have made of an impact than in the mid-1970s, though there is some evidence to suggest that it retained at least some influence, particularly in
2008:
movement in the USA. The motto of the movement was "Black is Beautiful", first made popular by boxer Mohammed Ali. BCM endorsed black pride and African customs, and did much to alter feelings of inadequacy while raising awareness of the fallacy of blacks being seen as inferior. It defied practices
1695:
Throughout the 1960s, MK was still a relatively small unit of poorly equipped guerrilla fighters incapable of taking significant action against the South African security forces. Success of the MK's strategy depended on its ability to stoke the anger of a politically conscious black underclass and
2936:
In 1980, South Africa's National Congress of the Jewish Board of Deputies passed a resolution urging "all concerned and, in particular, members of our community to cooperate in securing the immediate amelioration and ultimate removal of all unjust discriminatory laws and practices based on race,
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The influence of the Durban strikes extended to other parts of the country. In 1973 and 1974 opposition to labour expanded to the entire country. There was also a growing resilience among black workers as they found that the state did not retort as harshly as they had expected. They began to form
2282:
The Congress of South African Students (COSAS) was aimed at co-ordinating the education struggle and organised strikes, boycotts and mass protests around community issues. After 1976 it made a number of demands from the Department of Education and Training (DET), including the scrapping of matric
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The government was able to dismantle the ANC's power within South Africa's borders by incarcerating leaders of MK and the ANC, and greatly affect its efficiency outside of them. The ANC faced many problems in the aftermath of the Rivonia Trial, as its inner administration was severely damaged. By
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From 1961 to 1963, the ground in South Africa was slowly being readied for armed revolution. A hierarchical network of covert ANC cells was created for underground operations, military aid solicited from sympathetic African states and the Soviet Union, and a guerrilla training camp established in
1632:
The Sharpeville Massacre persuaded several anti-apartheid movements that nonviolent civil disobedience alone was ineffective at encouraging the National Party government to seek reform. The resurgent tide of armed revolutions in many developing nations and European colonial territories during the
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after the 11 pm curfew that forbade black people's presence. The group was apprehended, but the rest of the country followed its example. Defiance spread throughout the country and black people disregarded racial laws; for example, they walked through "whites only" entries. At the campaign's
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On 24 July 1964, Frederick John Harris, an associate of ARM, planted a time bomb in the Johannesburg station. One person was killed and 22 were injured. Harris explained that he had wanted to show that ARM still existed, but both ARM and the ANC slammed his actions. He was sentenced to death and
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The government's suppression of anti-apartheid political parties limited their influence but not church activism. The government was far less likely to attack or arrest religious leaders, allowing them to potentially be more politically active in the resistance, though the government took action
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In 1986, the National Education Crisis Committee (NECC) was created from parents, teachers and students after the school boycotts. It encouraged students to return to their studies and protest in less disruptive ways to their education. Consumer boycotts were recommended instead and teachers and
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against the South African government. After Sharpeville the ANC and PAC were banned. The SACP denied it existed, having dissolved in 1950 to escape banning as the CPSA. Leaders like Mandela and Sobukwe were either in jail or in exile. Consequently, there were serious mutinies in Angolan camps by
2258:
By 1963, one of the few envoys for tertiary students was the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). Although the organisation was meant to be non-racial and anti-government, it was primarily made up of white English students from customarily broad-minded universities such as those in
2204:
Student organisations played a significant role in the Soweto uprisings, and after 1976 protests by school children became frequent. There were two major urban school boycotts in 1980 and 1983 that continued for months. Both involved black, Indian and coloured children. There were also extended
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The resentment grew until 30 April 1976, when children at Orlando West Junior School in Soweto went on strike and refused to go to school. Their rebellion spread to many other schools in Soweto. Students formed an Action Committee (later known as the Soweto Students' Representative Council) and
2110:
In 1974 the Afrikaans Medium Decree forced all black schools to use Afrikaans and English in a 50–50 mix as languages of instruction. The intention was to forcibly promote the use of Afrikaans among black Africans. The Afrikaner-dominated government used the clause of the 1909 Constitution that
2088:
The role of Black Consciousness could be clearly seen in the approach of the National Forum, which believed that the struggle should hold little or no place for whites. The ideal of blacks leading the resistance campaign was an important aim of the traditional Black Consciousness groups, and it
1863:
Despite these developments, the ANC was able to launch several successful guerrilla attacks against the South African Defense Force from their locations in-hiding. For example, On 20 May 1983, the ANC detonated a car bomb outside the South African Air Force headquarters in Pretoria, killing 19
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After apartheid began, South Africa economically flourished due to its newly found trade relations. Products such as gold and coal were being traded along the nation's coastal lines to western countries. The products were mined by black labour workers, who were split up by Bantustan law, which
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were instrumental in persuading the ANC's executive to adopt armed struggle. Mandela first advocated this option during the Defiance Campaign of 1952, but his proposal was rejected by his fellow activists for being too radical. However, with the subsequent success of revolutionary struggles in
2917:
Many Jewish South Africans, both individuals and organisations, helped support the anti-apartheid movement. It was estimated that Jews were disproportionately represented (some sources maintain by as much as 2,500%) among whites involved in anti-apartheid political activities. Much like other
2589:
Later in 1989, the MDM organised a number of peaceful marches against the State of Emergency (extended to four years now) in the major cities. Even though these marches were illegal, no-one was arrested—evidence that apartheid was coming to an end and that the government's hold was weakening.
2576:
article reported that the Catholic Church in South Africa had caught up and surpassed Protestant Churches by authorizing the admission of black students to previously all-white schools. This was done in disregard of South African law which required segregation. Protestant churches such as the
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that took hold of South Africa. Although these female activists were rarely at the head of the main organisations, at least at the beginning of the movement, they were prime actors. One of the earliest organisations was The Bantu Women's League founded in 1913. In the 1930s and 1940s, female
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in 1974, which enshrined the principles of peaceful negotiated transition of power and equality for all. It was the first of such agreements by black and white political leaders in South Africa. In 1975 he led a breakaway from the United Party due to its ineffective approach to criticism of
2049:
After the carnage in Soweto the ANC's Nelson Mandela grudgingly concurred that bloodshed was the only means left to convince the NP to accede to commands for an end to its apartheid policy. A subversive plan of terror was mapped out, with Biko and the BCM at the forefront. The BCM and other
2932:
In addition to the well-known high profile Jewish anti-apartheid personalities, there were very many ordinary Jews who expressed their revulsion of apartheid in diverse ways and contributed to its eventual downfall. Many Jews actively provided humanitarian assistance for black communities.
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The Mass Democratic Movement played a brief but very important role in the resistance. It was formed in 1989 as an alliance between the UDF and COSATU, and organised a campaign that aimed to end segregation in hospitals, schools and beaches. The campaign was successful and managed to bring
2041:
When the BCM's principles were revealed, a number of fresh organisations staunch in their endorsement of black liberation were founded. The Azanian People's Organisation was only launched in 1978, a long time after the birth of the Black Consciousness Movement, as a medium for its message.
1483:, other famous ANC members, Indian Congress, and trade union chiefs' activities were all proscribed under the Suppression of Communism Act. The proscription meant that the headship was restricted to their homes and adjacent areas and they were banned from attending public gatherings.
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23 people were killed on the first day of rioting. The following day 1,500 heavily armed police officers were deployed to Soweto. Crowd control methods used by South African police were primarily dispersal techniques. Many of the officers shot indiscriminately and killed 176 people.
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Natal, Cape Town, the Witwatersrand and Grahamstown. These students sympathised the effort against the state. By 1967, however, NUSAS was prohibited from functioning on black universities, which made it almost impossible for black Student Representative Councils to join the union.
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that had been endorsed by the ANC's National Executive on the eve of the Congress. Among the organisations present were the Indian Congress and the ANC. The Freedom Charter articulated a vision for South Africa that radically differed from the partition policy of apartheid. It:
1415:. They proposed that white authority could only be overthrown through mass campaigns. The ideals of the ANC and ANCYL are stated in the ANC official web site and state, concerning the Tripartite Alliance: "The Alliance is founded on a common commitment to the objectives of the
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Stones were thrown in a confrontation with police, who had barricaded the road along the intended route. Attempts to disperse the crowd with dogs and tear gas failed; pandemonium broke out when the police fired shots into the crowd after they were surrounded by the students.
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in 1985. The newly formed trade-union governing body, committed to improved working conditions and the fight against apartheid, organised a nationwide strike the following year, and a new State of Emergency was declared. COSATU's membership quickly grew to 500,000.
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in 1838. Over the next eighteen months, MK carried out 200 acts of sabotage, mostly targeting pass offices, power pylons, and police stations. In October 1962 the ANC publicly declared responsibility for the sabotage campaign and acknowledged the existence of MK.
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By the end of the campaign, the government was forced to temporarily relax its apartheid legislation. Once things had calmed down, however, the government responded harshly and took several extreme measures, among which were the Unlawful Organisations Act, the
1818:
charge was dropped and all eight were sentenced to life imprisonment. They did not get the death penalty, as it received too much international criticism. Goldberg was sent to the Pretoria Central Prison, and the other seven were imprisoned on Robben Island.
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became apathetic. A revival in anti-apartheid sentiment came in the late 1960s and mid-1970s from a more radical generation. During this epoch, new anti-apartheid ideas and establishments were created, and they gathered support from across South Africa.
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Prior to the 1960s, the NP government managed to quell much of the anti-apartheid opposition within South Africa by outlawing movements like the ANC and PAC, and driving their leaders into exile or captivity. Tertiary-education organisations such as the
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The army played a major role in the government's maintenance of its apartheid policies. It expanded considerably to fight the resistance, and more money was spent on increasing its effectiveness. It is estimated that between 4 billion and 5 billion
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in Copenhagen and in 1980 an essay on the role of women in the liberation movement was prepared for the United Nations World Conference, which was crucial for the recognition of Southern African women and their role in the anti-apartheid movement.
2027:. White students were permitted to live on university grounds, but black students were relegated to accommodation further away in a church vestibule, which led to the creation of the South African Students Organisation (SASO), under Biko, in 1969.
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The Programme of Action was launched with the Defiance Campaign in June 1952. By defying the laws, the organisation hoped to incite mass arrests that would overwhelm the government. Mandela led a crowd of 50 men down the streets of a white area in
1334:, but continued to deny political rights to black South Africans. The resulting controversy triggered a new wave of anti-apartheid social movements and community groups which articulated their interests through a national front in politics, the
1704:
On 16 December 1961, MK operatives bombed a number of public facilities in several major South African cities, namely Johannesburg, Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and Durban. This programme of controlled sabotage was timed to coincide with the
1823:, the defence trial attorney, was also arrested and tried shortly thereafter. The instructions that Mandela gave to make MK an African force were ignored: it continued to be organised and led by the SACP. The trial was condemned by the
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Although church leaders were not completely immune to prosecution, they were able to criticise the government more freely than the leaders of militant groups. They were pivotal in altering public opinion regarding apartheid policies.
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With South Africa facing an unprecedented shortage of skilled white labour, the government was forced to allow black people to fill the vacancies. This, in turn, led to an increase in spending on black, Coloured and Indian education.
1311:(MK). From 1976 to 1987 MK carried out a series of successful bomb attacks targeting government facilities, transportation lines, power stations, and other civil infrastructure. South Africa's military often retaliated by raiding ANC
1843:
The government's effort at defeating all opposition had been effective. The State of Emergency was de-proclaimed, the economy boomed and the government began implementing apartheid by building the infrastructures of the ten separate
1454:, the Bantu Administration Act and other legislation, warning that refusal to do so would be met with a campaign of defiance. Malan referred the Council to the Native Affairs Department and threatened to treat insolence callously.
2254:
After the Sharpeville Massacre, some black student organisations were founded but short-lived under state proscription and antagonism from university staff. They were also unsuccessful in cooperating effectively with one another.
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Biko was taken into custody on 18 August 1977 and brutally tortured by unidentified security personnel until he lapsed into a coma. He was not medically treated for three days and died in Pretoria. At the subsequent inquest, the
2778:'s lawyer until he was also arrested and charged. Through the 1970s and 1980s Schwarz was amongst the most forthright and effective campaigners against apartheid in Parliament who was feared by many National Party ministers.
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While the majority of white South African voters supported the apartheid system for the first few decades, a minority fervently opposed it. Although assassination attempts against government members were rare, Prime Minister
1578:. Halfway through the drawn-out trial, charges against 61 of the accused were withdrawn, and, five years after their arrest, the remaining 30 were acquitted after the court held that the state had failed to prove its case.
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preparation for the Congress of People, the FSAW made more demands, including free education for children, proper housing facilities and good working conditions, such as the abolition of child labour and a minimum wage.
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and bus fares. In 1982, there were 394 strikes involving 141,571 workers. FOSATU and CUSA grew from 70,000 members in 1979 to 320,000 by 1983, which is also the year that the National Forum and the UDF were established.
1949:
and Zululand University began to resist apartheid; they were fashioned by the Extension of University Education Act of 1959, which guaranteed that black and white students would be taught individually and inequitably.
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1964, the ANC went into hiding and planned guerilla activities from overseas. At the end of the 1960s, new organisations and ideas would form to confront apartheid. The next key act of opposition came in 1976 with the
1977:
suggested ideas of autonomy and Black Pride by means of their anti-colonialist writings. Scholars grew in assurance and became far more candid about the NP's bigoted policies and the repression of the black people.
2419:
in 1984 when the new constitution was established. COSAS and FOSATU organised the longest stay-away in South African history, and there were 469 strikes that year, amounting to 378,000 hours in lost business time.
2219:
Students from Soweto high schools Orlando West and Diepkloof created the African Students Movement in 1970, which spread to the Eastern Cape and Transvaal, encouraging other high schools. In March 1972, the
1790:
In 1968, PAC was expelled from Maseru (where it was allied with the opposition Basutoland Congress Party) and Zambia (which was friendlier to the ANC). Between 1974 and 1976 Leballo and Ntantala trained the
1806:
for trying to depose the government and sabotage. Mandela, along with those arrested at Lilliesleaf and another 24 co-conspirators, were tried. Many of them, including Tambo, had already fled the country.
1668:(abbreviated as MK) had been set up by the ANC to coordinate underground militant activity throughout South Africa. By the end of 1962 the ANC established an MK high command consisting of Mandela, Sisulu,
2728:
was in minority opposition politics for over 40 years and was one of the most prominent opponents of the National Party and its policy of apartheid. After assisting in the 1948 general election, Schwarz,
2586:
segregation to an end. Some historians, however, argue that this occurred because the government had planned to end segregation anyway and did not, therefore, feel at all threatened by the MDM's actions.
3042:
At the same time, South African women fought against gender discrimination and called for rights specific to women, such as family, children, gender equality and access to education. At a conference in
2833:. The latter was formed in 1983 to oppose the conscription of white males into the South African military. The ECC's support base was not particularly large, but the government still banned it in 1988.
1741:. They were detained and indicted with sabotage and attempting to bring down the government. At the same time, police collected evidence to be used in the trial that allowed them to arrest others like
2423:
In accordance with the State of Emergency in 1985, COSAS was banned and many UDF leaders were arrested. A meeting in Zambia between leaders of white businesses and the ANC influenced the formation of
2962:
Congress considers that in South Africa the first objective is the removal of discrimination based on race, and is prepared to co-operate with people of all groups who share this ideological outlook.
2114:
The decree was resented deeply by blacks as Afrikaans was widely viewed, in the words of Desmond Tutu and Dean of Johannesburg, as "the language of the oppressor". Teacher organisations such as the
2937:
creed, or colour". This inspired some Jews to intensify their anti-apartheid activism, but the bulk of the community either emigrated or avoided public conflict with the National Party government.
1349:
Secret bilateral negotiations to end apartheid commenced in 1987 as the National Party reacted to increased external pressure and the atmosphere of political unrest. Leading ANC officials such as
1534:
The congress delegates had consented to almost all the sections of the charter when the police announced that they suspected treason and recorded the names and addresses of all those present.
2362:
In 1973, labour action in South Africa was renewed as a result of the numerous strikes in Durban. Abuse of black workers was common, and many black people were consequently paid less than a
4555:
3134:
The ANC made its decision to begin passive resistance against the apartheid system on 17 December 1950. The first significant organised protests against apartheid did not occur until the
1772:
until he died in 1978. Police repeatedly lengthened his incarceration through the "Sobukwe clause", which permitted the state to detain people even after they had served their sentences.
3051:
Their actions and demands gradually attracted the attention of the United Nations and put pressure on the international community. In 1954, Ngoyi attended the World Congress of Women in
4191:
2089:
shaped the thinking of many 1980s activists, especially those in the workforce. Furthermore, the NF focused on workers' issues, which became more and more important to BC supporters.
1737:
In July 1963, the police found the location of the MK headquarters at Lilliesleaf. They raided the farm and arrested many major leaders of the ANC and MK, including Sisulu, Mbeki and
2054:. The BCM became more worried about the destiny of the black people as workers and believed that "economic and political exploitation has reduced the black people into a class".
2713:
for "handing out" too much South African land to the Bantustans. In parliamentary elections during the 1970s and 1980s between 15% and 20% of white voters voted for the liberal
3011:
activists were prevalent in trade union movements, which also served as a vehicle for future organisation. In the 1950s, women-exclusive organisations were created such as the
7420:
2603:
3605:"Historical Overview of Black Resistance, 1932–1952 –The Congress of the People and Freedom Charter Campaign by Ismail Vadi, New Delhi, 1995 | South African History Online"
2543:
was another general secretary of the SACC. He was detained four times because of his criticism of the government and once allegedly had an attempt on his life initiated by
1814:" speech. In June 1964, eight were found guilty of terrorism, sabotage, planning and executing guerrilla warfare and working towards an armed invasion of the country. The
5568:
2096:
Although it did not achieve quite the same level of support that it had in the late 1970s, Black Consciousness still influenced the thinking of a few resistance groups.
3075:. Ngoyi joined the ANC National Executive and was elected first vice-president and later president of FSAW in 1959. Many of these leaders served long prison sentences.
2921:
Some Jewish university students vehemently opposed the apartheid movement. A large number of Jews were also involved in organisations such as the Springbok Legion, the
2231:
When the Southern Transvaal local Bantu Education Department concluded that all junior secondary black students had to be taught in Afrikaans in 1974, SASM groups at
1419:, and the need to unite the largest possible cross-section of South Africans behind these objectives," citing the actionable intent and their goal to end oppression.
1280:
and environmental regulations perceived as unjust by black farmers resulted in a series of arsons targeting sugarcane plantations. Organisations such as the ANC, the
6198:
2374:
act against any particular individuals. Strikes usually concluded when income boosts were tendered, but these were generally lower than what had been insisted upon.
3604:
3656:
1369:. Further apartheid laws were abolished on 17 June 1991, and multiparty negotiations proceeded until the first multi-racial general election held in April 1994.
2283:
examination fees. COSAS barred many DET officials from entering schools, demanded that all students pass their exams—"pass one, pass all"—and disrupted exams.
1292:, some anti-apartheid movements, including the ANC and PAC, began a shift in tactics from peaceful non-cooperation to the formation of armed resistance wings.
2228:
and Terrorism Acts, which hindered the SASM's progress. Many headmasters and headmistresses forbade the organisation from becoming involved in their schools.
1342:(AZAPO), a third militant force, escalated into sectarian violence as the three groups fought for influence. The government took the opportunity to declare a
6987:
2825:
was also Chief of Staff of the ANC's armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe. Whites also played a significant role in opposing apartheid during the 1980s through the
2073:
There was a strong reaction both within and outside South Africa. Foreign countries imposed even more stringent sanctions, and the United Nations imposed an
1734:
some inside information, the police put up a roadblock and captured him. MK's success declined with his arrest and the police infiltrated the organisation.
1701:
to defeat the National Party politically without having to engage in a direct military confrontation which the guerrillas would have no hope of winning.
1319:
3973:
2274:
Movement. Under the unified configuration of SASO, the principles of Black Consciousness came to the forefront as a fresh incentive for the strugglers.
6445:
6149:
2741:, an ex-soldiers' movement to protest against the disenfranchisement of the coloured people in South Africa. From the 1960s, when he was Leader of the
2705:(the official opposition in 1948–1977) initially opposed the Nationalists' apartheid program and favoured the dismantling of racial segregation by the
2537:(SACC), a religious association that supported anti-apartheid activities. It also notably refused to condemn violence as a means of ending apartheid.
2359:
designated different black South African tribes to work in give areas. It was a strategic move that allowed the white people to easily direct labour.
1760:
The PAC did not have adequate direction. Many PAC principals were taken into custody on 21 March 1960, and those released were hampered by bans. When
7590:
7524:
2641:
2467:
2323:
2165:
1905:
1407:, elected to the ANC's National Executive that year, the ANCYL advocated a radical black nationalist programme that combined the Africanist ideas of
5060:
4580:
4028:. Jansen, Martin,, Thompson, Lynn., Ward, Donovan., Shapiro Jonathan., Mayibuye centre. Cape Town: Workers’ World Media Productions. pp. II-4.
2205:
protests in rural areas in 1985 and 1986. In all of these areas, schools were closed and thousands of students, teachers and parents were arrested.
7645:
7597:
2115:
697:
2366:. In January, 2,000 workers of the Coronation Brick and Tile Company went on strike for a pay raise (from under R10 to R20 a week), incorporating
1612:. The PAC called for blacks to demonstrate against pass books on 21 March 1960. One of the mass demonstrations organised by the PAC took place at
654:
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5129:
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5344:
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1391:(ANC) became the primary force in opposition to the government after its moderate leadership was superseded by the organisation's more radical
1633:
early 1960s gave ANC and PAC leaders the idea that nonviolent civil disobedience should be complemented by acts of insurrection and sabotage.
7008:
6358:
2565:(WARC). He influenced the founding the UDF and was once jailed for a month after organising a march demanding the release of Nelson Mandela.
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87:
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were released from prison between 1987 and 1989, and in 1990 the ANC and PAC were formally delisted as banned organisations by President
1439:, boycotts, strikes and occasional violent clashes. The 1950 May Day stay-away was a strong, successful expression of black grievances.
7650:
7615:
7057:
6413:
6034:
5554:
5419:
3016:
5460:
4164:
2077:. Young blacks inside South Africa committed themselves even more fervently to the struggle against apartheid, under the catchphrase "
7441:
7302:
7225:
6515:
5440:
1957:
and the banning of the ANC and PAC, the struggle within South Africa was significantly suppressed. The age bracket that had seen the
1234:(NP) government, coupled with South Africa's growing international isolation and economic sanctions, were instrumental in leading to
599:
267:
4398:
1530:
that the people should "share in the country's wealth" – a statement often been interpreted as a call for socialist nationalisation.
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7371:
7106:
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2404:(CUSA), which was influenced strongly by the ideas of Black Consciousness and wanted to work to ensure black leadership of unions.
2397:
2249:
2013:
754:
2400:(FOSATU) was formed as the first genuinely national and non-racial trade union federation in South Africa. It was followed by the
7665:
7364:
7211:
7169:
6917:
6798:
6381:
5916:
5854:
4528:
1982:
1775:
The PAC's management difficulties also existed in exile. When they were outlawed, PAC leaders set up headquarters in places like
1295:
Mass strikes and student demonstrations continued into the 1970s, powered by growing black unemployment, the unpopularity of the
1139:
349:
5314:
7462:
7427:
6945:
6142:
2826:
2533:, Ben Marais and John de Gruchy. Naudé and the Institute were banned in 1977, but he later became the general secretary of the
2526:
1392:
1335:
1268:, and "petty apartheid" segregation in public facilities. Some anti-apartheid demonstrations resulted in widespread rioting in
1055:
804:
789:
278:
4135:
3910:. Saunders, Christopher C.,, Palgrave Connect (Online service) (5th ed.). Hampshire : Macmillan Press. pp. 403–405.
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6903:
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3915:
3669:
3432:
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demanded that apartheid be challenged by the United Nations, which led to the establishment of a UN commission on apartheid.
1479:
bar people on the basis of colour or race and made it lawful for different races to be treated inequitably. Sisulu, Mandela,
1654:, the ANC executive became increasingly more open to suggestions by Mandela and Sisulu that it was time for armed struggle.
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Slightly more contentious was the movement's decision to stop working with white liberals in multi-racial organisations.
4397:
Magubane, Bernard; Bonner, Philip; Sithole, Jabulane; Delius, Peter; Cherry, Janet; Gibbs, Patt; April, Thozama (2010).
1965:
The surfacing of the South African Black Consciousness Movement was influenced by its American equivalent, the American
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From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa
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her use of her parliamentary privileges to help the poorest and most disempowered South Africans in any way she could.
2685:, called the "architect of grand apartheid", had two attempts made on his life (the second of which was successful) by
1172:
739:
5146:
3031:. 20,000 women attended the demonstrations. Many participants were arrested, forced into exile or imprisoned, such as
7232:
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5105:
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3020:
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2534:
2489:
2401:
2345:
2191:
2067:
2030:
The BCM was an umbrella organisation for groups such as SASO. It was created in 1967, and among its members were the
1931:
1749:(Operation Comeback), a plan for bringing exiles back into the country. It also revealed that MK was planning to use
1605:
1595:
1538:
1285:
814:
784:
244:
4888:
Callinicos, Luli (1 September 2012). "Oliver Tambo and the Dilemma of the Camp Mutinies in Angola in the Eighties".
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that led to the realignment of opposition politics in South Africa. Schwarz was one of the defence attorneys in the
2649:
2173:
1913:
7162:
7001:
6170:
6027:
5260:
4665:
Lissoni, Arianna (1 June 2009). "Transformations in the ANC External Mission and Umkhonto we Sizwe, c. 1960–1969".
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2946:
2714:
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1446:
and the Coloured People's Congress, agreed on a plan for the defiance of unfair laws. They wrote to Prime Minister
1339:
759:
228:
5373:(International Defense and Aid Fund for Southern Africa. Revised and enlarged edition, London, March 1985), p. 86.
4957:
4711:
3422:
1288:(PAC) remained preoccupied with organising student strikes and work boycotts between 1959 and 1960. Following the
7392:
7155:
7071:
6952:
6938:
6910:
6177:
6121:
4581:"Police arrest members of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) High Command at Lilliesleaf Farm | South African History Online"
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1824:
1119:
744:
639:
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5242:
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6805:
6564:
2806:, an organisation of white women formed in 1955 to oppose the removal of Coloured (mixed-race) voters from the
2645:
2471:
2327:
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1909:
1416:
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in 1952, but organised destruction of property was not deliberately employed until 1959. That year, anger over
809:
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Vahed, Goolam (2013). ""f***ed and trussed rather securely by the law": The 1952 Defiance Campaign in Natal".
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its armed struggle was essentially a strategic attempt at mass socialisation.This reflected the principles of
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7043:
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2710:
1981:
During the 1970s, resistance grew stronger through trade unions and strikes, and was then spearheaded by the
1677:
1443:
1307:
radicalised a generation of black activists and greatly bolstered the strength of the ANC's guerrilla force,
1281:
1231:
962:
839:
824:
799:
215:
6337:
5225:"Legendary Heroes of Africa - Stamps to Commemorate Jewish anti Apartheid South African Liberation struggle"
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1990:
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The ANC used the lawsuit to draw international interest to its cause. During the trial, Mandela gave his "
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4862:
Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs (7 January 2008).
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Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present.
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was used to increase the size of the army, with stiff prison sentences imposed for draft evasion or
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voters' roll. Although they failed, the organisation continued to assist blacks with issues such as
2093:
popularise its views. It also focused on workers' issues, but refused to form any ties with whites.
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6237:
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3105:
2853:
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2436:
end of this period, the unions emerged as one of the most effective vehicles for black opposition.
2154:
1894:
1849:
1832:
Soweto and Cape student recruits angry at the corrupt and brutal consequences of minority control.
1769:
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1114:
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30:
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2502:
937:
6959:
6854:
6721:
6571:
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2754:
2749:, he became well-known and achieved prominence as a race relations and economic reformist in the
2634:
2460:
2316:
2158:
1946:
1898:
1828:
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was adopted as a formal South African government policy by the NP following their victory in the
1218:
originated from several independent sectors of South African society and took forms ranging from
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3169:
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1608:(PAC) in 1959. First on the PAC's agenda was a series of nationwide demonstrations against the
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4931:
4371:
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1989:'s leadership. A medical student, Biko was the main force behind the growth of South Africa's
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5393:
The Struggle For South Africa: A Reference Guide to Movements, Organizations and Institutions
4556:"Nelson Mandela conquered apartheid, united his country and inspired the world - Macleans.ca"
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2001:
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4168:
3036:
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1958:
1811:
1621:
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184:
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1624:. In the aftermath the government banned the African National Congress (ANC) and the PAC.
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Native vs Settler: Ethnic Conflict in Israel/Palestine, Northern Ireland and South Africa
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of a more radical element as its resolve to attain liberty was met with state hostility.
1857:
1154:
4994:"1960 - 1994: Armed Struggle and Popular Resistance | South African History Online"
2240:
organisers were determined to only use aggression if they were assaulted by the police.
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5123:
4913:
4690:
4165:"The Sharpeville Massacre: Its historic significance in the struggle against apartheid"
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and Communism. His evidence was that the ANC papers were full of communist terms like "
1432:
1343:
1243:
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111:
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students were encouraged to work together to develop an alternative education system.
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2020:
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A Military History of South Africa: From the Dutch-Khoi Wars to the End of Apartheid
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was notable among South African anti-apartheid activists from the Indian diaspora.
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1689:
1647:
1604:
In 1958 a group of disenchanted ANC members broke away from the ANC and formed the
1017:
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897:
411:
5475:
ANC, Secretariat for the World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women.
4026:
60 Years of the freedom charter : no cause to celebrate for the working class
2594:
dealt with different aspects of the fight against apartheid and its implications.
2122:
organised a mass rally for 16 June 1976. The protest was intended to be peaceful.
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6112:
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5712:
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5485:
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5423:
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4901:
3664:. Worger, William H. (2nd ed.). Harlow, England: Longman. pp. 141–143.
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2798:
2105:
2034:, the black Community Programme (which directed welfare schemes for blacks), the
1837:
1685:
1554:
1510:
1451:
1304:
1219:
1134:
1124:
634:
5345:"60 Iconic Women — The people behind the 1956 Women's March to Pretoria (11-20)"
5034:"Apartheid | South Africa, Definition, Facts, Beginning, & End | Britannica"
3838:"United Nations and Apartheid Timeline 1946-1994 | South African History Online"
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2518:
1365:
was released from prison. The same year, MK reached a formal ceasefire with the
1338:(UDF). Simultaneously, inter-factional rivalry between the ANC, the PAC and the
1318:
The NP made several attempts to reform the apartheid system, beginning with the
1264:
of passive resistance. Subsequent civil disobedience protests targeted curfews,
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3999:"Congress of the People and the Freedom Charter | South African History Online"
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Covert resistance was expressed by banned organisations like the largely white
2775:
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1974:
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1742:
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1634:
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Apartheid's Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and Mozambique
2881:
1779:, London and the United States. In 1962, Potlako Leballo left the country for
1475:. They received nine months' imprisonment, which was suspended for two years.
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2807:
2767:
2753:. As an early and powerful advocate of non-violent resistance, he signed the
2725:
2540:
2530:
2416:
2412:
2051:
2000:
The BCM faction was founded by Biko and materialised out of the ideas of the
1954:
1799:
1776:
1765:
1638:
1575:
1424:
1408:
1396:
1354:
1149:
1022:
972:
644:
629:
511:
489:
337:
4786:
4625:
4423:
3974:"South Africa's Freedom Charter campaign holds lessons for a fairer society"
3694:
3035:. In 1958, 2000 women were arrested during an anti-pass campaign. After the
2852:
Literary opposition to apartheid came from internationally known figures in
7120:
6729:
6550:
6501:
5664:
5578:
4712:"Pan Africanist Congress timeline 1959-2011 | South African History Online"
4470:
4160:
4084:"Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) | South African History Online"
3068:
3044:
3032:
2842:
2771:
2734:
2718:
2551:
2544:
1853:
1820:
1726:
1714:
1710:
1546:
1542:
1506:
1459:
1404:
1215:
1050:
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992:
892:
548:
500:
434:
392:
380:
368:
361:
356:
344:
332:
323:
314:
307:
302:
169:
73:
5476:
4769:
Africa today : a multi-disciplinary snapshot of the continent in 1995
4505:
South Africa's 'Border War': Contested Narratives and Conflicting Memories
2111:
recognised only English and Afrikaans as official languages as a pretext.
1442:
In 1952, the Joint Planning Council, made up of members from the ANC, the
6713:
5656:
5228:
5011:"List of uMkhonto weSizwe Operations | South African History Online"
3695:"Mandela, Luthuli, and Nonviolence in the South African Freedom Struggle"
3064:
3028:
2991:
2967:
2951:
2781:
2558:
2507:
2390:
2363:
2070:
eventually took action against the doctors who had failed to treat Biko.
2024:
2005:
1994:
1966:
1697:
1669:
1617:
1613:
1567:
1521:
called for a one-person-one-vote democracy within a single unified state,
1447:
1350:
952:
947:
932:
867:
544:
522:
385:
38:
5264:
3711:
3583:
3252:
The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC Since 1960
1764:(who was jailed following the Sharpeville massacre) was discharged from
7288:
6826:
5939:
5884:
5744:
5728:
5371:
For their Triumphs and for their Tears: Women in Apartheid South Africa
3631:"The defiance campaign by M. P. Naicker | South African History Online"
2926:
2861:
2803:
2793:
2607:
2474: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2330: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2063:
1986:
1784:
1509:. 3,000 delegates gathered under police watch to revise and accept the
1346:
in 1986 and detain thousands of its political opponents without trial.
1312:
1060:
1027:
902:
887:
872:
729:
478:
4480:
2693:, both legally considered white (although Tsafendas had a mother from
6747:
6738:
6669:
6075:
6052:
6041:
3193:
South Africa's Brittle Peace: The Problem of Post-Settlement Violence
3003:
2869:
2846:
2822:
2811:
2730:
2702:
1970:
1852:
was stabbed to death in parliament, but his policies continued under
1681:
1609:
1518:
emphasised that South Africa should be a just and non-racial society,
1436:
1327:
1277:
1265:
1249:
1081:
1045:
982:
578:
467:
102:
95:
4767:. In Alexander, Peter F; Hutchison, Ruth; Schreuder, Deryck (eds.).
4764:
4217:"Sharpeville Massacre, 21 March 1960 | South African History Online"
3039:, many organisations such as FSAW were banned and went into hiding.
2619:
2449:
2305:
2143:
1883:
7517:
7015:
6660:
5784:
5641:
4314:. Santa Barbara: Praeger Security International. pp. 159–169.
4110:"The 1956 Women's March in Pretoria | South African History Online"
4059:"The Freedom Charter by Norman Levy | South African History Online"
3299:
Tom Lodge, "Action against Apartheid in South Africa, 1983–94", in
3052:
3024:
2785:
1845:
1502:
47:
4242:
3812:"Nelson Mandela Timeline 1950–1959 | South African History Online"
3735:"Apartheid Legislation 1850s–1970s | South African History Online"
3483:. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press. pp. 114–117.
3311:
Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 213–30.
3063:
Among important activists during the anti-apartheid movement were
5925:
4192:"How the Sharpeville massacre changed the course of human rights"
3218:
Terrorists at the Table: Why Negotiating is the Only Way to Peace
2888:
1815:
1803:
1563:
1559:
1428:
1412:
586:
1524:
stated that all people should be treated equally before the law,
85:
Military stalemate between MK and South African security forces
6652:
5808:
5587:
5447:, Compiled in Preparation for the Congress of the People, 1955.
4454:"The Turn to Sabotage by The Congress Movement in South Africa"
2424:
1780:
1757:
organisation and in-house nuisances crippled the PAC and Poqo.
1071:
5800:
4610:. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. p. 181.
3536:. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, Publishers. pp. 197–199.
2709:, but eventually reverted its policy and even criticised the
1993:(BCM), which stressed the need for psychological liberation,
1721:
1487:
1238:, which began formally in 1990 and ended with South Africa's
4971:
2602:
1692:, just outside Johannesburg, to serve as MK's headquarters.
5091:
4932:"ANC Submission to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission"
4396:
4136:"What Happened at the Treason Trial? - Africa Media Online"
3943:(1st ed.). New York: PublicAffairs. pp. 129–130.
3420:
2243:
5478:
The Role of Women in the Struggle Against Apartheid, 1980.
5191:"Catholic Defiance of Apartheid Is Stirring South Africa,"
4804:"Rivonia Trial 1963 - 1964 | South African History Online"
4529:"uMkhoto weSizwe (MK) launches its first acts of sabotage"
4408:(1st ed.). Cape Town: Zebra Press. pp. 136–142.
4372:"Percy John "Jack" Hodgson | South African History Online"
3511:. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 194–196.
5147:"The Anti-Apartheid Struggle in South Africa (1912-1992)"
4554:
Macdonald, Nancy; Findlay, Stephanie (12 December 2013).
4167:. United Nations Centre against Apartheid. Archived from
3400:. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. pp. 94–96.
1745:. Particularly damaging was the information on Operation
1326:, which allowed for some parliamentary representation of
2378:
trade unions despite being illegitimate and unofficial.
1527:
that land should be "shared among those who work it" and
3786:"Defiance Campaign 1952 | South African History Online"
3368:
Sharpeville: An Apartheid Massacre and Its Consequences
2019:
In July 1967, the annual NUSAS symposium took place at
1501:
The Congress of the People was held 25–26 June 1955 in
560:
21,000 dead as a result of political violence (1948–94)
2286:
2262:
5576:
4404:. In South African Democracy Education Trust. (ed.).
3254:. London: Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 202–210.
3166:
South Africa: Overcoming Apartheid Building Democracy
2277:
1848:
and relocating blacks into these homelands. In 1966,
1709:, the anniversary of an important battle between the
4350:. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. pp. 121–124.
3454:. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. pp.
3398:
States of Emergency: Colonialism, Literature and Law
3335:. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. pp.
3082:
2981:: University Press. 1960. p. 53. Archived from
2784:, a white anti-apartheid activist, exposed a police
3905:
3424:
War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa
3195:. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 90–94.
5093:
3658:South Africa : the rise and fall of apartheid
3584:"A brief history of the African National Congress"
3534:International Terrorism and the Contemporary World
3220:. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 146–147.
2208:
1553:. On 9 August that year, the women marched to the
5205:"More Whites in South Africa Resisting the Draft"
5202:
4507:. London: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 142–146.
3938:
50:in 1960 as part of a civil disobedience campaign.
7627:
5511:Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in South Africa
5287:"The Jews of Africa -- the Jews of South Africa"
4553:
2081:". Black communities became highly politicised.
1627:
6366:Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre
5395:. Volume Two (London: Zed Books, 1984), p. 366.
5017:
4640:"Robert Sobukwe | South African History Online"
4159:
4023:
3055:, Switzerland. The ANC was present at the 1975
1867:
1802:began in October 1963. Ten men were accused of
1450:and demanded that he repeal the Pass Laws, the
64:(45 years, 11 months and 6 days)
4266:
1387:Although its creation predated apartheid, the
5562:
5070:
4305:
4303:
4301:
4299:
4297:
2116:African Teachers' Association of South Africa
1827:and was a major force in the introduction of
1768:in 1969, he was placed under house arrest in
1192:
5227:. Legendary Heroes of Africa. Archived from
4771:. Canberra: Goanna Press. pp. 172–192.
4605:
3371:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.
2580:
1570:", which are often found in the writings of
5391:Rob Davies, Dan O'Meara and Sipho Dlamini,
5128:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
4977:
3655:Clark, Nancy L; Worger, William H. (2011).
3654:
3502:
3500:
3279:. Denver: Outskirts Press. pp. 65–66.
3245:
3243:
3241:
3239:
3237:
3015:(ANCWL) and the Women's Council within the
2648:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2172:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1997:, and non-violent opposition to apartheid.
1912:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1590:Painting depicting the Sharpeville Massacre
1581:
5569:
5555:
5530:Apartheid Guns and Money. A Tale of Profit
5527:
5243:"South Africa Virtual Jewish History Tour"
4887:
4294:
3559:"South Africa ends racial classifications"
3556:
3451:South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order
3332:South Africa: The Struggle for a New Order
1539:Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW)
1199:
1185:
4830:"Anti-apartheid icon reconciled a nation"
4496:
4479:
4469:
4309:
3710:
3441:
2668:Learn how and when to remove this message
2490:Learn how and when to remove this message
2346:Learn how and when to remove this message
2192:Learn how and when to remove this message
1932:Learn how and when to remove this message
126:Integration of the bantustans, change of
16:1950–1994 social movement in South Africa
6439:Reconstruction and Development Programme
5171:"Tutu, Other Clergy Arrested in Protest"
5141:
5139:
5076:
5005:
5003:
4988:
4986:
4736:
4189:
3506:
3497:
3234:
3019:(SWAPO). In April 1954, the more global
3002:South African women participated in the
2762:apartheid, and became leader of the new
2601:
2501:
2398:Federation of South African Trade Unions
2250:National Union of South African Students
2244:National Union of South African Students
2133:
2066:ruled that no-one was culpable, but the
2014:National Union of South African Students
1720:
1585:
7646:Opposition to apartheid in South Africa
6035:1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike
5058:16 June 1976 Student Uprising in Soweto
4955:
4765:"THE PAN AFRICANIST CONGRESS OF AZANIA"
4706:
4704:
4664:
4451:
4348:The Rise, Fall, and Legacy of Apartheid
4341:
4339:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4331:
3971:
3761:"1953. Criminal Law Amendment Act No 8"
3628:
3447:
3360:
3358:
3356:
3328:
3190:
3116:
3017:South West Africa People's Organization
2841:was spent on defence in the mid-1980s.
2295:
1140:Music in the movement against apartheid
7628:
6516:2012 Western Cape farm workers' strike
5312:
5306:
5261:"South African Jews Against Apartheid"
4762:
4502:
3531:
3525:
3478:
3472:
3427:. New Africa Books. pp. 135–136.
3395:
3389:
3322:
3274:
3268:
3249:
3215:
3184:
2527:Christian Institute of Southern Africa
5550:
5508:
5136:
5000:
4983:
4798:
4796:
4737:Mataboge, Mmanaledi (19 March 2010).
4521:
4406:The road to democracy in South Africa
3862:
3699:Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies
3602:
3364:
3209:
2971:
1303:. The brutal suppression of the 1976
5337:
5096:The end of apartheid in South Africa
5092:Eades, Lindsay Michie 1962- (1999).
4701:
4345:
4328:
4056:
3908:South Africa : a modern history
3421:Jacklyn Cock, Laurie Nathan (1989).
3353:
3156:
3154:
2940:
2906:
2646:adding citations to reliable sources
2613:
2547:, former Minister of Law and Order.
2472:adding citations to reliable sources
2443:
2328:adding citations to reliable sources
2299:
2170:adding citations to reliable sources
2137:
1983:South African Students' Organisation
1910:adding citations to reliable sources
1877:
1725:List of attacks attributed to MK in
6446:Truth and Reconciliation Commission
6092:Coloured-vote constitutional crisis
5203:John D. Battersby (28 March 1988).
4958:"African National Congress (ANC) •"
4667:Journal of Southern African Studies
3692:
3414:
2954:, writing in 1960, observed of the
2597:
2563:World Alliance of Reformed Churches
2287:National Education Crisis Committee
2269:South African Students Organisation
2263:South African Students Organisation
1496:South African Congress of Democrats
615:Coloured vote constitutional crisis
13:
5502:
5313:Pillay, Taschica (12 March 2010).
4793:
4452:Stevens, Simon (1 November 2019).
4190:Wheatley, Stephen (4 April 2020).
3972:Roberts, Benjamin (26 June 2020).
3128:
2529:with other theologians, including
2278:Congress of South African Students
2099:
128:provincial borders in South Africa
14:
7677:
7651:Political history of South Africa
7598:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
7233:South African Party (Cape Colony)
3865:Journal of Natal and Zulu History
3603:Valdi, Ismail (16 January 2012).
3151:
3111:South African Musicians' Alliance
3101:List of massacres in South Africa
3021:Federation of South African Women
2535:South African Council of Churches
2402:Council of Unions of South Africa
2068:South African Medical Association
1606:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
1596:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
1320:Constitutional Referendum of 1983
1230:. Mass action against the ruling
7610:
7609:
4956:Adeleke, Tunde (16 April 2008).
4890:South African Historical Journal
4267:Guardian Staff (22 March 1960).
3085:
2997:
2755:Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith
2618:
2610:, assassinated by police in 1982
2448:
2304:
2215:South African Students' Movement
2142:
1882:
1212:Internal resistance to apartheid
1168:
1167:
1130:Internal resistance to apartheid
585:
538:
527:
516:
505:
494:
483:
472:
461:
450:
439:
428:
416:
405:
391:
379:
367:
355:
343:
331:
313:
301:
272:
261:
250:
234:
221:
201:
189:
178:
162:
148:
37:
24:Internal resistance to apartheid
7247:South African Party (1977–1980)
7240:South African Party (1911–1934)
7156:Progressive Party (Cape Colony)
6953:Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners
5490:
5469:
5450:
5428:
5407:
5398:
5385:
5376:
5363:
5279:
5253:
5235:
5217:
5196:
5180:
5164:
5085:
5051:
5026:
4949:
4924:
4881:
4855:
4822:
4756:
4730:
4658:
4632:
4599:
4573:
4547:
4445:
4390:
4364:
4269:"Police Fire Kills 63 Africans"
4260:
4235:
4209:
4183:
4153:
4128:
4102:
4076:
4050:
4017:
3991:
3965:
3932:
3899:
3856:
3830:
3804:
3778:
3753:
3727:
3686:
3648:
3622:
3596:
3577:
3550:
3532:Pandey, Satish Chandra (2006).
3057:United Nations Decade for Women
2506:Desmond Tutu makes a speech in
2459:needs additional citations for
2315:needs additional citations for
2222:South African Students Movement
2209:South African Students Movement
1825:United Nations Security Council
640:Church Street, Pretoria bombing
7666:Social history of South Africa
6565:2019 service delivery protests
6551:#FeesMustFall student protests
6296:1983 constitutional referendum
3877:10.1080/02590123.2013.11964196
3293:
3121:
1435:, resulting in mass protests,
1417:National Democratic Revolution
1:
7023:Johannesburg Reform Committee
6252:Israel–South Africa Agreement
5645:
5630:
5607:
5600:
5532:. London: C. Hurst & Co.
5513:. London: C. Hurst & Co.
4057:Levy, Norman (18 June 2015).
3629:Naicker, M.P (21 June 2019).
3145:
2913:Israel–South Africa relations
2819:South African Communist Party
2032:Azanian People's Organisation
1969:movement, and directors like
1678:South African Communist Party
1628:Armed resistance and sabotage
1444:South African Indian Congress
1372:
1340:Azanian People's Organisation
1282:South African Communist Party
1236:negotiations to end apartheid
282:(non-violent resistance only)
6678:Black Consciousness Movement
6432:Government of National Unity
5247:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
4902:10.1080/02582473.2012.675813
4533:South African History Online
4399:"The turn to armed struggle"
3906:Davenport, T. R. H. (2000).
2947:India–South Africa relations
2814:, housing and unemployment.
2236:and had their cars torched.
1991:Black Consciousness Movement
1874:Black Consciousness Movement
1868:Black Consciousness Movement
1469:Suppression of Communism Act
1301:Black Consciousness Movement
1256:. From the early 1950s, the
1105:Apartheid in popular culture
7:
7636:Anti-racism in South Africa
6389:Saint James Church massacre
6275:Weapons of mass destruction
5528:van Vuuren, Hennie (2018).
5382:Lachick and Urdang, p. 110.
4310:Stapleton, Timothy (2010).
3557:Myre, Greg (18 June 1991).
3078:
2439:
2079:Liberation before education
1367:South African Defence Force
1240:first multiracial elections
675:Saint James Church massacre
670:Assassination of Chris Hani
10:
7682:
6129:1957 Alexandra bus boycott
6007:South West Africa campaign
5906:Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814
5871:French Huguenot settlement
5067:. africanhistory.about.com
4243:"The Sharpeville Massacre"
3941:Mandela : a Biography
3939:Meredith, Martin. (2010).
2944:
2910:
2802:. Zille was active in the
2266:
2247:
2212:
2103:
1871:
1593:
1376:
680:1994 Bophuthatswana crisis
7641:Apartheid in South Africa
7607:
7584:African National Congress
7573:
7479:
7312:
7044:Liberal Party (1953–1968)
6767:
6758:
6616:
6412:
6382:1992 apartheid referendum
6051:
5996:
5915:
5853:
5826:
5819:
5585:
5509:Douek, Daniel L. (2020).
5079:The White Tribe of Africa
4679:10.1080/03057070902919850
4140:Google Arts & Culture
3765:omalley.nelsonmandela.org
3723:– via escholarship.
3507:Mitchell, Thomas (2008).
3216:Powell, Jonathan (2015).
2831:End Conscription Campaign
2581:Mass Democratic Movements
2036:Black People's Convention
1389:African National Congress
1379:African National Congress
1258:African National Congress
928:Winnie Madikizela-Mandela
559:
554:
291:
138:
62:4 June 1948 – 10 May 1994
54:
36:
28:
23:
7037:Labour Party (1969–1994)
7030:Labour Party (1910–1958)
6586:2020 Phala Phala Robbery
6544:#RhodesMustFall protests
6143:1960 republic referendum
5422:28 February 2008 at the
5193:John Burns, 6 Feb. 1977.
5077:Harrison, David (1987).
4763:Leeman, Bernard (1996).
4024:McKinley, Dale. (2015).
3479:Minter, William (1994).
3448:Ottoway, Marina (1993).
3396:Morton, Stephen (2013).
3329:Ottoway, Marina (1993).
3191:du Toit, Pierre (2001).
3106:Protests in South Africa
2854:South African literature
2737:, and others formed the
2606:Anti-apartheid activist
2555:buildings in Cape Town.
2411:The largest and longest
2389:In 1979, one year after
2118:objected to the decree.
2085:workers' organisations.
1850:Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd
1582:The Sharpeville Massacre
1395:(ANCYL) in 1949. Led by
1315:in neighbouring states.
1299:, and a newly assertive
1297:South African Border War
1115:Cape Qualified Franchise
170:Republic of South Africa
31:decolonisation of Africa
7482:terrorist organisations
6572:2019 Johannesburg riots
6185:Constructive engagement
6150:International isolation
5968:Witwatersrand Gold Rush
5496:Bernstein, pp. 100–101.
4978:Clark & Worger 2011
4743:The Mail & Guardian
3589:5 December 2013 at the
3162:"The Defiance Campaign"
2827:United Democratic Front
2788:regarding the death of
2521:left the pro-apartheid
2515:against some churches.
2224:(SASM) was instituted.
1947:University of the North
1829:international sanctions
1793:Lesotho Liberation Army
1541:was founded and led by
1336:United Democratic Front
1286:Pan Africanist Congress
1145:Nostalgia for apartheid
6495:Attack on Kennedy Road
6106:Congress of the People
5697:South African Republic
5456:ANC official website,
4864:"The End of Apartheid"
4346:Louw, P. Eric (1997).
3275:Ugorji, Basil (2012).
3250:Thomas, Scott (1995).
2989:
2974:Indian People in Natal
2796:as a reporter for the
2717:, whose main champion
2695:Portuguese East Africa
2611:
2511:
1798:The widely publicised
1730:
1729:between 1980 and 1983.
1591:
1322:. This introduced the
1120:Disinvestment campaign
845:State Security Council
292:Commanders and leaders
88:Bilateral negotiations
7065:Natal Indian Congress
6785:Afrikaner Broederbond
6639:Afrikaner nationalism
6425:1994 general election
6396:Bophuthatswana crisis
6289:Church Street bombing
6069:Apartheid legislation
6062:1948 general election
5982:South Africa Act 1909
5777:Union of South Africa
5597:Kingdom of Mapungubwe
5577:Political history of
5463:16 March 2008 at the
4739:"Almost a revolution"
4606:Okoth, Assa. (2006).
4503:Baines, Gary (2014).
2960:
2956:Natal Indian Congress
2605:
2523:Dutch Reformed Church
2505:
2134:Student organisations
2002:civil rights movement
1973:. African heads like
1724:
1589:
1486:On the global stage,
1324:Tricameral Parliament
1254:1948 general election
1110:Apartheid legislation
1100:Afrikaner nationalism
660:Cape Town peace march
650:Trojan Horse Incident
610:1948 general election
555:Casualties and losses
156:Union of South Africa
108:Multiracial elections
7661:Resistance movements
6699:Greater South Africa
6537:2014 platinum strike
6403:Shell House massacre
6331:Transkei coup d'état
6136:Sharpeville massacre
5899:Battle of Blaauwberg
5892:Battle of Muizenberg
5844:Battle of Salt River
5627:Mthethwa Paramountcy
5484:22 June 2008 at the
5443:2 March 2008 at the
5063:1 March 2017 at the
4808:www.sahistory.org.za
4716:www.sahistory.org.za
4644:www.sahistory.org.za
4585:www.sahistory.org.za
4471:10.1093/pastj/gtz030
4433:on 12 September 2013
4376:www.sahistory.org.za
4221:www.sahistory.org.za
4114:www.sahistory.org.za
4088:www.sahistory.org.za
4063:www.sahistory.org.za
4003:www.sahistory.org.za
3816:www.sahistory.org.za
3790:www.sahistory.org.za
3739:www.sahistory.org.za
3635:www.sahistory.org.za
3609:www.sahistory.org.za
3563:Southeast Missourian
3117:Notes and references
3037:Sharpeville massacre
3008:liberation movements
2866:Afrikaans literature
2759:Mangosuthu Buthelezi
2642:improve this section
2468:improve this article
2324:improve this article
2296:Trade union movement
2166:improve this section
1959:Sharpeville massacre
1906:improve this section
1812:I am prepared to die
1698:Leninist vanguardism
1662:. In June 1961, the
1622:Sharpeville massacre
1600:Sharpeville massacre
1290:Sharpeville massacre
1260:(ANC) initiated its
1008:Eugène Terre'Blanche
878:Mangosuthu Buthelezi
685:Shell House massacre
655:Khotso House bombing
625:Sharpeville massacre
423:Eugène Terre'Blanche
7591:Democratic Alliance
6768:Civic and political
6632:Afrikaner Calvinism
6625:African nationalism
6474:African Renaissance
6164:UNSC Resolution 591
6085:Internal resistance
5986:National Convention
5954:Transvaal Civil War
5878:Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars
5761:Orange River Colony
5349:Mail & Guardian
5175:The Harvard Crimson
5100:. Greenwood Press.
4868:2001-2009.state.gov
4836:. 5 December 2013.
4608:A history of Africa
3712:10.5070/F7381025021
3693:Lal, Vinay (2014).
3365:Lodge, Tim (2011).
3093:South Africa portal
2985:on 22 October 2016.
2886:Afrikaner Calvinist
2878:Breyten Breytenbach
2790:Black Consciousness
2396:Later in 1979, the
2386:community support.
1244:universal franchise
1155:Sullivan Principles
112:universal franchise
101:Dissolution of the
7656:Racial segregation
6338:Ciskei coup d'état
6157:UN Resolution 1761
6122:Women's March 1956
5975:South African Wars
5961:Mineral Revolution
5369:Bernstein, Hilda.
5315:"Fatima Meer dies"
5303:The Jews of Africa
5038:www.britannica.com
4936:www.justice.gov.za
4718:. 7 September 2011
4646:. 17 February 2011
4535:. 15 December 2014
4458:Past & Present
4378:. 17 February 2011
3305:Timothy Garton Ash
3172:on 1 December 2016
3013:ANC Women's League
2903:executed in 1965.
2612:
2512:
2233:Naledi High School
1731:
1616:, a township near
1592:
1433:civil disobedience
1344:state of emergency
1224:passive resistance
740:Conservative Party
620:1956 Treason Trial
7623:
7622:
7576:political parties
7569:
7568:
7546:Orde van die Dood
7163:Progressive Party
6869:Congress Alliance
6685:Cape Independence
6617:Political culture
6612:
6611:
6579:COVID-19 pandemic
6509:Marikana massacre
6345:Venda coup d'état
6099:Defiance Campaign
5689:Orange Free State
5619:Dutch Cape Colony
5404:Bernstein, p. 96.
4834:Los Angeles Times
4617:978-9966-25-357-6
4415:978-1-86888-501-5
4035:978-0-620-65513-2
3950:978-1-282-56267-7
3917:978-0-230-28754-9
3671:978-1-4082-4564-4
3434:978-0-86486-115-3
3317:978-0-19-955201-6
3136:Defiance Campaign
2941:Indian resistance
2907:Jewish resistance
2715:Progressive Party
2691:Dimitri Tsafendas
2678:
2677:
2670:
2500:
2499:
2492:
2356:
2355:
2348:
2202:
2201:
2194:
2021:Rhodes University
1942:
1941:
1934:
1751:guerrilla warfare
1665:uMkhonto we Sizwe
1473:Defiance Campaign
1383:Umkhonto we Sizwe
1309:uMkhonto we Sizwe
1262:Defiance Campaign
1228:guerrilla warfare
1209:
1208:
1066:South-West Africa
564:
563:
283:
134:
133:
90:to end apartheid
7673:
7613:
7612:
7600:
7593:
7586:
7562:
7555:
7548:
7541:
7534:
7527:
7520:
7513:
7506:
7499:
7492:
7480:Paramilitary and
7472:
7470:Umkosi Wezintaba
7465:
7458:
7451:
7444:
7437:
7430:
7423:
7416:
7409:
7402:
7395:
7388:
7381:
7374:
7367:
7360:
7353:
7346:
7339:
7332:
7325:
7315:social movements
7313:Trade unions and
7305:
7298:
7291:
7284:
7277:
7270:
7263:
7256:
7249:
7242:
7235:
7228:
7221:
7214:
7207:
7200:
7193:
7186:
7179:
7172:
7165:
7158:
7151:
7144:
7137:
7130:
7123:
7116:
7109:
7102:
7095:
7088:
7081:
7074:
7067:
7060:
7053:
7046:
7039:
7032:
7025:
7018:
7011:
7004:
6997:
6990:
6983:
6976:
6969:
6962:
6955:
6948:
6941:
6934:
6927:
6920:
6913:
6906:
6899:
6892:
6885:
6878:
6871:
6864:
6857:
6850:
6843:
6836:
6834:Boerestaat Party
6829:
6822:
6815:
6808:
6801:
6794:
6787:
6780:
6765:
6764:
6751:
6742:
6733:
6724:
6717:
6708:
6701:
6694:
6687:
6680:
6673:
6664:
6655:
6648:
6641:
6634:
6627:
6605:
6595:
6588:
6581:
6574:
6567:
6560:
6553:
6546:
6539:
6532:
6525:
6518:
6511:
6504:
6497:
6490:
6483:
6476:
6469:
6462:
6455:
6448:
6441:
6434:
6427:
6405:
6398:
6391:
6384:
6377:
6368:
6361:
6354:
6347:
6340:
6333:
6326:
6324:Dakar Conference
6319:
6312:
6305:
6298:
6291:
6284:
6277:
6270:
6263:
6254:
6247:
6245:Israeli alliance
6240:
6233:
6226:
6215:
6208:
6201:
6199:Sporting boycott
6194:
6187:
6180:
6173:
6171:Academic boycott
6166:
6159:
6152:
6145:
6138:
6131:
6124:
6115:
6108:
6101:
6094:
6087:
6078:
6071:
6064:
6044:
6037:
6030:
6028:Great Depression
6023:
6016:
6014:Maritz rebellion
6009:
5989:
5977:
5970:
5963:
5956:
5949:
5942:
5935:
5928:
5908:
5901:
5894:
5887:
5880:
5873:
5866:
5864:Dutch settlement
5846:
5839:
5837:Bantu migrations
5824:
5823:
5812:
5804:
5796:
5788:
5780:
5772:
5769:Transvaal Colony
5764:
5756:
5748:
5740:
5737:Nieuwe Republiek
5732:
5724:
5716:
5708:
5700:
5692:
5684:
5676:
5673:Natalia Republic
5668:
5660:
5652:
5650:
5647:
5642:Ndwandwe Kingdom
5637:
5635:
5632:
5622:
5614:
5612:
5609:
5605:
5602:
5571:
5564:
5557:
5548:
5547:
5543:
5524:
5497:
5494:
5488:
5473:
5467:
5454:
5448:
5432:
5426:
5416:Women's Charter.
5411:
5405:
5402:
5396:
5389:
5383:
5380:
5374:
5367:
5361:
5360:
5358:
5356:
5351:. 25 August 2016
5341:
5335:
5334:
5332:
5330:
5325:on 15 March 2010
5321:. Archived from
5310:
5304:
5302:
5300:
5298:
5293:on 25 April 2005
5289:. Archived from
5283:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5272:
5267:on 28 March 2013
5263:. Archived from
5257:
5251:
5250:
5239:
5233:
5232:
5231:on 5 March 2011.
5221:
5215:
5214:
5200:
5194:
5184:
5178:
5168:
5162:
5161:
5159:
5157:
5143:
5134:
5133:
5127:
5119:
5099:
5089:
5083:
5082:
5074:
5068:
5055:
5049:
5048:
5046:
5044:
5030:
5024:
5021:
5015:
5014:
5007:
4998:
4997:
4990:
4981:
4980:, p. 63-72.
4975:
4969:
4968:
4966:
4964:
4953:
4947:
4946:
4944:
4942:
4928:
4922:
4921:
4885:
4879:
4878:
4876:
4874:
4859:
4853:
4852:
4850:
4848:
4826:
4820:
4819:
4817:
4815:
4800:
4791:
4790:
4760:
4754:
4753:
4751:
4749:
4734:
4728:
4727:
4725:
4723:
4708:
4699:
4698:
4662:
4656:
4655:
4653:
4651:
4636:
4630:
4629:
4603:
4597:
4596:
4594:
4592:
4577:
4571:
4570:
4568:
4566:
4551:
4545:
4544:
4542:
4540:
4525:
4519:
4518:
4500:
4494:
4493:
4483:
4473:
4449:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4432:
4426:. Archived from
4403:
4394:
4388:
4387:
4385:
4383:
4368:
4362:
4361:
4343:
4326:
4325:
4307:
4292:
4291:
4289:
4287:
4264:
4258:
4257:
4255:
4253:
4239:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4228:
4213:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4187:
4181:
4180:
4178:
4176:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4148:
4146:
4132:
4126:
4125:
4123:
4121:
4106:
4100:
4099:
4097:
4095:
4080:
4074:
4073:
4071:
4069:
4054:
4048:
4047:
4021:
4015:
4014:
4012:
4010:
3995:
3989:
3988:
3986:
3984:
3969:
3963:
3962:
3936:
3930:
3929:
3903:
3897:
3896:
3860:
3854:
3853:
3851:
3849:
3842:sahistory.org.za
3834:
3828:
3827:
3825:
3823:
3808:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3782:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3771:
3757:
3751:
3750:
3748:
3746:
3731:
3725:
3724:
3714:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3663:
3652:
3646:
3645:
3643:
3641:
3626:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3615:
3600:
3594:
3581:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3570:
3565:. Cape Girardeau
3554:
3548:
3547:
3529:
3523:
3522:
3504:
3495:
3494:
3476:
3470:
3469:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3418:
3412:
3411:
3393:
3387:
3386:
3362:
3351:
3350:
3326:
3320:
3297:
3291:
3290:
3272:
3266:
3265:
3247:
3232:
3231:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3188:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3168:. Archived from
3158:
3139:
3132:
3095:
3090:
3089:
3088:
2987:
2986:
2707:Fagan Commission
2697:). The moderate
2683:Hendrik Verwoerd
2673:
2666:
2662:
2659:
2653:
2622:
2614:
2598:White resistance
2525:and founded the
2495:
2488:
2484:
2481:
2475:
2452:
2444:
2415:exploded in the
2351:
2344:
2340:
2337:
2331:
2308:
2300:
2197:
2190:
2186:
2183:
2177:
2146:
2138:
1937:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1917:
1886:
1878:
1680:(SACP) activist
1676:, and prominent
1648:French Indochina
1220:social movements
1201:
1194:
1187:
1171:
1170:
968:Albertina Sisulu
963:Benjamin Moloise
898:Arthur Goldreich
589:
566:
565:
543:
542:
541:
532:
531:
530:
521:
520:
519:
510:
509:
508:
499:
498:
497:
488:
487:
486:
477:
476:
475:
466:
465:
464:
455:
454:
453:
444:
443:
442:
433:
432:
431:
421:
420:
419:
412:Constand Viljoen
410:
409:
408:
396:
395:
384:
383:
372:
371:
360:
359:
350:H. van den Bergh
348:
347:
336:
335:
318:
317:
306:
305:
281:
277:
276:
275:
266:
265:
264:
255:
254:
253:
239:
238:
237:
226:
225:
224:
206:
205:
204:
194:
193:
192:
183:
182:
181:
168:
166:
165:
154:
152:
151:
56:
55:
41:
21:
20:
7681:
7680:
7676:
7675:
7674:
7672:
7671:
7670:
7626:
7625:
7624:
7619:
7603:
7596:
7589:
7582:
7575:
7565:
7558:
7551:
7544:
7537:
7530:
7523:
7516:
7509:
7502:
7495:
7488:
7481:
7475:
7468:
7461:
7454:
7447:
7440:
7433:
7426:
7419:
7412:
7405:
7398:
7391:
7384:
7377:
7370:
7363:
7356:
7349:
7342:
7335:
7328:
7321:
7314:
7308:
7301:
7294:
7287:
7280:
7273:
7266:
7259:
7252:
7245:
7238:
7231:
7224:
7217:
7210:
7203:
7196:
7189:
7182:
7175:
7168:
7161:
7154:
7147:
7140:
7133:
7126:
7119:
7112:
7105:
7098:
7091:
7084:
7077:
7070:
7063:
7056:
7049:
7042:
7035:
7028:
7021:
7014:
7007:
7000:
6993:
6986:
6981:HNP (Herstigte)
6979:
6974:HNP (Herenigde)
6972:
6965:
6958:
6951:
6944:
6937:
6930:
6923:
6916:
6909:
6902:
6895:
6888:
6881:
6874:
6867:
6860:
6853:
6846:
6839:
6832:
6825:
6818:
6811:
6804:
6797:
6792:Afrikaner Party
6790:
6783:
6776:
6769:
6760:
6754:
6745:
6736:
6727:
6720:
6711:
6706:Honorary whites
6704:
6697:
6690:
6683:
6676:
6667:
6658:
6651:
6644:
6637:
6630:
6623:
6608:
6598:
6591:
6584:
6577:
6570:
6563:
6556:
6549:
6542:
6535:
6528:
6521:
6514:
6507:
6500:
6493:
6486:
6479:
6472:
6467:Soweto bombings
6465:
6458:
6451:
6444:
6437:
6430:
6423:
6415:
6408:
6401:
6394:
6387:
6380:
6373:
6364:
6357:
6350:
6343:
6336:
6329:
6322:
6315:
6308:
6301:
6294:
6287:
6280:
6273:
6268:Soweto Uprising
6266:
6259:
6250:
6243:
6236:
6229:
6222:
6211:
6204:
6197:
6192:Tar Baby Option
6190:
6183:
6176:
6169:
6162:
6155:
6148:
6141:
6134:
6127:
6120:
6113:Freedom Charter
6111:
6104:
6097:
6090:
6083:
6074:
6067:
6060:
6047:
6040:
6033:
6026:
6019:
6012:
6005:
5992:
5980:
5973:
5966:
5959:
5952:
5945:
5938:
5931:
5924:
5911:
5904:
5897:
5890:
5883:
5876:
5869:
5862:
5849:
5842:
5835:
5815:
5807:
5799:
5791:
5783:
5775:
5767:
5759:
5751:
5743:
5735:
5727:
5719:
5713:Griqualand West
5711:
5705:Griqualand East
5703:
5695:
5687:
5679:
5671:
5663:
5655:
5648:
5640:
5633:
5625:
5617:
5610:
5603:
5595:
5581:
5575:
5540:
5521:
5505:
5503:Further reading
5500:
5495:
5491:
5486:Wayback Machine
5474:
5470:
5465:Wayback Machine
5455:
5451:
5445:Wayback Machine
5437:What Women Want
5433:
5429:
5424:Wayback Machine
5412:
5408:
5403:
5399:
5390:
5386:
5381:
5377:
5368:
5364:
5354:
5352:
5343:
5342:
5338:
5328:
5326:
5311:
5307:
5296:
5294:
5285:
5284:
5280:
5270:
5268:
5259:
5258:
5254:
5241:
5240:
5236:
5223:
5222:
5218:
5201:
5197:
5185:
5181:
5177:, 1 March 1988.
5169:
5165:
5155:
5153:
5145:
5144:
5137:
5121:
5120:
5108:
5090:
5086:
5075:
5071:
5065:Wayback Machine
5056:
5052:
5042:
5040:
5032:
5031:
5027:
5022:
5018:
5009:
5008:
5001:
4992:
4991:
4984:
4976:
4972:
4962:
4960:
4954:
4950:
4940:
4938:
4930:
4929:
4925:
4886:
4882:
4872:
4870:
4860:
4856:
4846:
4844:
4828:
4827:
4823:
4813:
4811:
4810:. 13 March 2011
4802:
4801:
4794:
4779:
4761:
4757:
4747:
4745:
4735:
4731:
4721:
4719:
4710:
4709:
4702:
4663:
4659:
4649:
4647:
4638:
4637:
4633:
4618:
4604:
4600:
4590:
4588:
4587:. 16 March 2011
4579:
4578:
4574:
4564:
4562:
4560:www.macleans.ca
4552:
4548:
4538:
4536:
4527:
4526:
4522:
4515:
4501:
4497:
4450:
4446:
4436:
4434:
4430:
4416:
4401:
4395:
4391:
4381:
4379:
4370:
4369:
4365:
4358:
4344:
4329:
4322:
4308:
4295:
4285:
4283:
4265:
4261:
4251:
4249:
4241:
4240:
4236:
4226:
4224:
4223:. 31 March 2011
4215:
4214:
4210:
4200:
4198:
4196:The Independent
4188:
4184:
4174:
4172:
4171:on 8 April 2005
4161:David M. Sibeko
4158:
4154:
4144:
4142:
4134:
4133:
4129:
4119:
4117:
4108:
4107:
4103:
4093:
4091:
4090:. 31 March 2011
4082:
4081:
4077:
4067:
4065:
4055:
4051:
4036:
4022:
4018:
4008:
4006:
4005:. 21 March 2011
3997:
3996:
3992:
3982:
3980:
3970:
3966:
3951:
3937:
3933:
3918:
3904:
3900:
3861:
3857:
3847:
3845:
3844:. 21 March 2011
3836:
3835:
3831:
3821:
3819:
3810:
3809:
3805:
3795:
3793:
3792:. 21 March 2011
3784:
3783:
3779:
3769:
3767:
3759:
3758:
3754:
3744:
3742:
3741:. 21 March 2011
3733:
3732:
3728:
3691:
3687:
3672:
3661:
3653:
3649:
3639:
3637:
3627:
3623:
3613:
3611:
3601:
3597:
3591:Wayback Machine
3582:
3578:
3568:
3566:
3555:
3551:
3544:
3530:
3526:
3519:
3505:
3498:
3491:
3477:
3473:
3466:
3446:
3442:
3435:
3419:
3415:
3408:
3394:
3390:
3383:
3363:
3354:
3347:
3327:
3323:
3298:
3294:
3287:
3273:
3269:
3262:
3248:
3235:
3228:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3189:
3185:
3175:
3173:
3160:
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3152:
3148:
3143:
3142:
3133:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3091:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3000:
2988:
2966:
2949:
2943:
2915:
2909:
2821:, whose leader
2799:Rand Daily Mail
2674:
2663:
2657:
2654:
2639:
2623:
2600:
2583:
2496:
2485:
2479:
2476:
2465:
2453:
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2341:
2335:
2332:
2321:
2309:
2298:
2289:
2280:
2271:
2265:
2252:
2246:
2217:
2211:
2198:
2187:
2181:
2178:
2163:
2147:
2136:
2108:
2106:Soweto uprising
2102:
2100:Soweto uprising
1938:
1927:
1921:
1918:
1903:
1887:
1876:
1870:
1838:Soweto uprising
1686:Liliesleaf Farm
1630:
1602:
1594:Main articles:
1584:
1555:Union Buildings
1511:Freedom Charter
1452:Group Areas Act
1385:
1377:Main articles:
1375:
1305:Soweto uprising
1205:
1160:
1159:
1135:Kairos Document
1125:Freedom Charter
1095:
1087:
1086:
1070:
1041:
1033:
1032:
863:Vernon Berrangé
858:
850:
849:
810:Security Branch
700:
690:
689:
635:Soweto uprising
605:
604:
547:
539:
537:
536:
528:
526:
525:
517:
515:
514:
506:
504:
503:
495:
493:
492:
484:
482:
481:
473:
471:
470:
462:
460:
459:
451:
449:
448:
440:
438:
437:
429:
427:
417:
415:
414:
406:
404:
403:
402:
390:
378:
366:
354:
342:
330:
312:
300:
284:
273:
271:
270:
262:
260:
259:
251:
249:
248:
235:
233:
232:
222:
220:
219:
202:
200:
190:
188:
187:
179:
177:
176:
175:
163:
161:
149:
147:
122:
86:
76:
63:
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7679:
7669:
7668:
7663:
7658:
7653:
7648:
7643:
7638:
7621:
7620:
7608:
7605:
7604:
7602:
7601:
7594:
7587:
7579:
7577:
7571:
7570:
7567:
7566:
7564:
7563:
7556:
7549:
7542:
7539:Ossewabrandwag
7535:
7528:
7521:
7514:
7507:
7500:
7493:
7485:
7483:
7477:
7476:
7474:
7473:
7466:
7459:
7452:
7445:
7438:
7431:
7424:
7417:
7410:
7403:
7396:
7389:
7382:
7375:
7368:
7361:
7354:
7347:
7340:
7333:
7326:
7318:
7316:
7310:
7309:
7307:
7306:
7299:
7292:
7285:
7282:Unionist Party
7278:
7271:
7264:
7261:Torch Commando
7257:
7250:
7243:
7236:
7229:
7222:
7215:
7208:
7201:
7194:
7187:
7180:
7173:
7166:
7159:
7152:
7145:
7138:
7135:Orde Boerevolk
7131:
7124:
7117:
7110:
7103:
7096:
7089:
7082:
7075:
7068:
7061:
7054:
7047:
7040:
7033:
7026:
7019:
7012:
7005:
6998:
6991:
6984:
6977:
6970:
6963:
6956:
6949:
6942:
6935:
6928:
6921:
6914:
6911:DP (1989–2000)
6907:
6904:DP (1973–1977)
6900:
6897:Dominion Party
6893:
6886:
6879:
6872:
6865:
6858:
6851:
6844:
6837:
6830:
6823:
6816:
6809:
6802:
6795:
6788:
6781:
6778:Afrikaner Bond
6773:
6771:
6762:
6756:
6755:
6753:
6752:
6743:
6734:
6725:
6718:
6709:
6702:
6695:
6692:Day of the Vow
6688:
6681:
6674:
6665:
6656:
6649:
6642:
6635:
6628:
6620:
6618:
6614:
6613:
6610:
6609:
6607:
6606:
6596:
6589:
6582:
6575:
6568:
6561:
6554:
6547:
6540:
6533:
6526:
6519:
6512:
6505:
6498:
6491:
6484:
6477:
6470:
6463:
6460:Floor crossing
6456:
6449:
6442:
6435:
6428:
6420:
6418:
6410:
6409:
6407:
6406:
6399:
6392:
6385:
6378:
6375:Bisho massacre
6371:
6370:
6369:
6355:
6348:
6341:
6334:
6327:
6320:
6317:Operation Vula
6313:
6310:Rubicon speech
6306:
6303:Langa massacre
6299:
6292:
6285:
6278:
6271:
6264:
6257:
6256:
6255:
6241:
6234:
6227:
6220:
6219:
6218:
6217:
6216:
6209:
6195:
6188:
6181:
6174:
6167:
6160:
6146:
6139:
6132:
6125:
6118:
6117:
6116:
6102:
6095:
6088:
6081:
6080:
6079:
6065:
6057:
6055:
6049:
6048:
6046:
6045:
6038:
6031:
6024:
6021:Rand Rebellion
6017:
6010:
6002:
6000:
5994:
5993:
5991:
5990:
5978:
5971:
5964:
5957:
5950:
5947:Boer Republics
5943:
5936:
5929:
5921:
5919:
5913:
5912:
5910:
5909:
5902:
5895:
5888:
5881:
5874:
5867:
5859:
5857:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5847:
5840:
5832:
5830:
5821:
5817:
5816:
5814:
5813:
5805:
5797:
5793:Bophuthatswana
5789:
5781:
5773:
5765:
5757:
5753:Klein Vrystaat
5749:
5741:
5733:
5725:
5717:
5709:
5701:
5693:
5685:
5677:
5669:
5661:
5653:
5638:
5623:
5615:
5592:
5590:
5583:
5582:
5574:
5573:
5566:
5559:
5551:
5545:
5544:
5539:978-1787380974
5538:
5525:
5520:978-1849048804
5519:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5498:
5489:
5468:
5449:
5427:
5406:
5397:
5384:
5375:
5362:
5336:
5305:
5278:
5252:
5234:
5216:
5210:New York Times
5195:
5187:New York Times
5179:
5163:
5135:
5106:
5084:
5069:
5050:
5025:
5016:
4999:
4982:
4970:
4948:
4923:
4896:(3): 587–621.
4880:
4854:
4821:
4792:
4777:
4755:
4729:
4700:
4673:(2): 287–301.
4657:
4631:
4616:
4598:
4572:
4546:
4520:
4514:978-1472509710
4513:
4495:
4464:(1): 221–255.
4444:
4414:
4389:
4363:
4356:
4327:
4321:978-0313365898
4320:
4293:
4259:
4234:
4208:
4182:
4163:(March 1976).
4152:
4127:
4101:
4075:
4049:
4034:
4016:
3990:
3964:
3949:
3931:
3916:
3898:
3855:
3829:
3818:. 4 April 2011
3803:
3777:
3752:
3726:
3685:
3670:
3647:
3621:
3595:
3576:
3549:
3543:978-8176256384
3542:
3524:
3518:978-0313313578
3517:
3496:
3490:978-1439216187
3489:
3471:
3465:978-0815767152
3464:
3440:
3433:
3413:
3407:978-1846318498
3406:
3388:
3382:978-0192801852
3381:
3352:
3346:978-0815767152
3345:
3321:
3292:
3286:978-1432788353
3285:
3267:
3261:978-1850439936
3260:
3233:
3227:978-1250069887
3226:
3208:
3202:978-0333779187
3201:
3183:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3140:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3114:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3097:
3096:
3080:
3077:
3073:Dorothy Nyembe
3004:anti-apartheid
2999:
2996:
2964:
2942:
2939:
2923:Torch Commando
2908:
2905:
2776:Nelson Mandela
2739:Torch Commando
2711:National Party
2676:
2675:
2658:September 2020
2626:
2624:
2617:
2599:
2596:
2582:
2579:
2574:New York Times
2498:
2497:
2480:September 2020
2456:
2454:
2447:
2441:
2438:
2413:black uprising
2368:Mahatma Gandhi
2354:
2353:
2336:September 2020
2312:
2310:
2303:
2297:
2294:
2288:
2285:
2279:
2276:
2267:Main article:
2264:
2261:
2248:Main article:
2245:
2242:
2213:Main article:
2210:
2207:
2200:
2199:
2182:September 2020
2150:
2148:
2141:
2135:
2132:
2104:Main article:
2101:
2098:
1975:Kenneth Kaunda
1940:
1939:
1890:
1888:
1881:
1872:Main article:
1869:
1866:
1762:Robert Sobukwe
1743:Denis Goldberg
1739:Ahmed Kathrada
1707:Day of the Vow
1674:Raymond Mhlaba
1652:French Algeria
1635:Nelson Mandela
1629:
1626:
1583:
1580:
1572:Vladimir Lenin
1551:Amina Cachalia
1532:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1481:Albert Luthuli
1423:out plans for
1401:Nelson Mandela
1374:
1371:
1363:Nelson Mandela
1359:F. W. de Klerk
1270:Port Elizabeth
1232:National Party
1207:
1206:
1204:
1203:
1196:
1189:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1096:
1094:Related topics
1093:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1042:
1039:
1038:
1035:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1018:H. F. Verwoerd
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
998:Adelaide Tambo
995:
990:
988:Robert Sobukwe
985:
980:
978:J. G. Strijdom
975:
970:
965:
960:
958:Raymond Mhlaba
955:
950:
945:
943:Nelson Mandela
940:
935:
930:
925:
923:Albert Luthuli
920:
918:Ahmed Kathrada
915:
910:
908:Bantu Holomisa
905:
900:
895:
890:
885:
883:F. W. de Klerk
880:
875:
870:
865:
859:
856:
855:
852:
851:
848:
847:
842:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
812:
807:
802:
800:National Party
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
707:
701:
696:
695:
692:
691:
688:
687:
682:
677:
672:
667:
662:
657:
652:
647:
642:
637:
632:
627:
622:
617:
612:
606:
603:
602:
596:
595:
594:
591:
590:
582:
581:
575:
574:
562:
561:
557:
556:
552:
551:
534:Raymond Mhlaba
457:Winnie Mandela
446:Nelson Mandela
425:
401:
400:
398:F. W. de Klerk
388:
376:
374:Eugene de Kock
364:
352:
340:
328:
320:H. F. Verwoerd
310:
297:
294:
293:
289:
288:
286:Torch Commando
198:
174:
173:
159:
144:
141:
140:
136:
135:
132:
131:
124:
118:
117:
116:
115:
105:
99:
82:
78:
77:
72:
70:
66:
65:
60:
52:
51:
44:Nelson Mandela
34:
33:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7678:
7667:
7664:
7662:
7659:
7657:
7654:
7652:
7649:
7647:
7644:
7642:
7639:
7637:
7634:
7633:
7631:
7618:
7617:
7606:
7599:
7595:
7592:
7588:
7585:
7581:
7580:
7578:
7572:
7561:
7557:
7554:
7550:
7547:
7543:
7540:
7536:
7533:
7529:
7526:
7522:
7519:
7515:
7512:
7508:
7505:
7501:
7498:
7494:
7491:
7487:
7486:
7484:
7478:
7471:
7467:
7464:
7460:
7457:
7456:Die Spoorbund
7453:
7450:
7446:
7443:
7439:
7436:
7432:
7429:
7425:
7422:
7418:
7415:
7411:
7408:
7404:
7401:
7397:
7394:
7390:
7387:
7383:
7380:
7376:
7373:
7369:
7366:
7362:
7359:
7355:
7352:
7348:
7345:
7341:
7338:
7334:
7331:
7327:
7324:
7320:
7319:
7317:
7311:
7304:
7300:
7297:
7296:Workers Party
7293:
7290:
7286:
7283:
7279:
7276:
7272:
7269:
7265:
7262:
7258:
7255:
7251:
7248:
7244:
7241:
7237:
7234:
7230:
7227:
7223:
7220:
7216:
7213:
7209:
7206:
7202:
7199:
7195:
7192:
7188:
7185:
7181:
7178:
7177:Radio Freedom
7174:
7171:
7167:
7164:
7160:
7157:
7153:
7150:
7146:
7143:
7139:
7136:
7132:
7129:
7128:Oranjewerkers
7125:
7122:
7118:
7115:
7111:
7108:
7104:
7101:
7097:
7094:
7090:
7087:
7083:
7080:
7076:
7073:
7069:
7066:
7062:
7059:
7055:
7052:
7048:
7045:
7041:
7038:
7034:
7031:
7027:
7024:
7020:
7017:
7013:
7010:
7006:
7003:
6999:
6996:
6992:
6989:
6985:
6982:
6978:
6975:
6971:
6968:
6964:
6961:
6957:
6954:
6950:
6947:
6943:
6940:
6936:
6933:
6929:
6926:
6922:
6919:
6915:
6912:
6908:
6905:
6901:
6898:
6894:
6891:
6887:
6884:
6880:
6877:
6873:
6870:
6866:
6863:
6859:
6856:
6852:
6849:
6845:
6842:
6838:
6835:
6831:
6828:
6824:
6821:
6817:
6814:
6810:
6807:
6803:
6800:
6796:
6793:
6789:
6786:
6782:
6779:
6775:
6774:
6772:
6770:organisations
6766:
6763:
6761:organisations
6757:
6750:
6749:
6744:
6741:
6740:
6735:
6732:
6731:
6726:
6723:
6719:
6716:
6715:
6710:
6707:
6703:
6700:
6696:
6693:
6689:
6686:
6682:
6679:
6675:
6672:
6671:
6666:
6663:
6662:
6657:
6654:
6650:
6647:
6643:
6640:
6636:
6633:
6629:
6626:
6622:
6621:
6619:
6615:
6604:
6602:
6597:
6594:
6590:
6587:
6583:
6580:
6576:
6573:
6569:
6566:
6562:
6559:
6558:Tshwane riots
6555:
6552:
6548:
6545:
6541:
6538:
6534:
6531:
6527:
6524:
6520:
6517:
6513:
6510:
6506:
6503:
6499:
6496:
6492:
6489:
6485:
6482:
6478:
6475:
6471:
6468:
6464:
6461:
6457:
6454:
6450:
6447:
6443:
6440:
6436:
6433:
6429:
6426:
6422:
6421:
6419:
6417:
6411:
6404:
6400:
6397:
6393:
6390:
6386:
6383:
6379:
6376:
6372:
6367:
6363:
6362:
6360:
6356:
6353:
6349:
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6261:Mafeje affair
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4116:. 13 May 2015
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3018:
3014:
3009:
3005:
2998:Role of women
2995:
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2984:
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2976:
2975:
2969:
2963:
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2957:
2953:
2948:
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2924:
2919:
2914:
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2900:
2896:
2894:
2890:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2874:Ingrid Jonker
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2834:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2808:Cape Province
2805:
2801:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2777:
2773:
2770:who defended
2769:
2768:Rivonia Trial
2765:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2727:
2726:Harry Schwarz
2723:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2672:
2669:
2661:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2637:
2636:
2632:
2627:This section
2625:
2621:
2616:
2615:
2609:
2604:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2578:
2575:
2570:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2553:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2541:Frank Chikane
2538:
2536:
2532:
2531:Albert Geyser
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2509:
2504:
2494:
2491:
2483:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2457:This section
2455:
2451:
2446:
2445:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2426:
2421:
2418:
2417:Vaal Triangle
2414:
2409:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2394:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2350:
2347:
2339:
2329:
2325:
2319:
2318:
2313:This section
2311:
2307:
2302:
2301:
2293:
2284:
2275:
2270:
2260:
2256:
2251:
2241:
2237:
2234:
2229:
2225:
2223:
2216:
2206:
2196:
2193:
2185:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2151:This section
2149:
2145:
2140:
2139:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2097:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2069:
2065:
2059:
2055:
2053:
2052:non-racialism
2047:
2043:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2015:
2010:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1963:
1960:
1956:
1955:Rivonia Trial
1951:
1948:
1936:
1933:
1925:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1900:
1896:
1891:This section
1889:
1885:
1880:
1879:
1875:
1865:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1841:
1839:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1800:Rivonia Trial
1796:
1794:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1777:Dar es Salaam
1773:
1771:
1767:
1766:Robben Island
1763:
1758:
1754:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1702:
1699:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1666:
1661:
1655:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1639:Walter Sisulu
1636:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1601:
1597:
1588:
1579:
1577:
1576:Joseph Stalin
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1537:In 1956, the
1535:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1497:
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1453:
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1434:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1409:Anton Lembede
1406:
1402:
1398:
1397:Walter Sisulu
1394:
1390:
1384:
1380:
1370:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1355:Walter Sisulu
1352:
1347:
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1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1316:
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1183:
1182:
1180:
1179:
1174:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1150:Project Coast
1148:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
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1113:
1111:
1108:
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1103:
1101:
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1097:
1091:
1090:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1056:Robben Island
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1023:B. J. Vorster
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
994:
991:
989:
986:
984:
981:
979:
976:
974:
973:Walter Sisulu
971:
969:
966:
964:
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
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728:
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723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
702:
699:
698:Organisations
694:
693:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
651:
648:
646:
645:Vaal uprising
643:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
630:Rivonia Trial
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
607:
601:
598:
597:
593:
592:
588:
584:
583:
580:
577:
576:
572:
568:
567:
558:
553:
550:
546:
535:
524:
513:
512:Walter Sisulu
502:
491:
490:Moses Mabhida
480:
469:
458:
447:
436:
426:
424:
413:
399:
394:
389:
387:
382:
377:
375:
370:
365:
363:
358:
353:
351:
346:
341:
339:
338:B. J. Vorster
334:
329:
327:
326:
321:
316:
311:
309:
304:
299:
298:
296:
295:
290:
287:
280:
269:
258:
246:
242:
230:
217:
213:
209:
199:
197:
186:
171:
160:
157:
146:
145:
143:
142:
137:
129:
125:
120:
119:
113:
109:
106:
104:
100:
97:
94:Abolition of
93:
92:
91:
89:
83:
80:
79:
75:
71:
68:
67:
61:
58:
57:
53:
49:
45:
40:
35:
32:
27:
22:
19:
7614:
7574:Histories of
7275:United Party
7184:Reform Party
7121:Orangia Unie
6746:
6737:
6730:Swart gevaar
6728:
6712:
6668:
6659:
6600:
6502:Blikkiesdorp
6084:
5828:Pre-colonial
5681:Natal Colony
5665:Zulu Kingdom
5579:South Africa
5529:
5510:
5492:
5477:
5471:
5458:Lilian Nogyi
5452:
5436:
5430:
5415:
5409:
5400:
5392:
5387:
5378:
5370:
5365:
5353:. Retrieved
5348:
5339:
5327:. Retrieved
5323:the original
5318:
5308:
5295:. Retrieved
5291:the original
5281:
5269:. Retrieved
5265:the original
5255:
5246:
5237:
5229:the original
5219:
5208:
5198:
5189:(archives),
5186:
5182:
5174:
5166:
5154:. Retrieved
5150:
5095:
5087:
5078:
5072:
5053:
5041:. Retrieved
5037:
5028:
5019:
4973:
4961:. Retrieved
4951:
4939:. Retrieved
4935:
4926:
4893:
4889:
4883:
4871:. Retrieved
4867:
4857:
4845:. Retrieved
4833:
4824:
4812:. Retrieved
4807:
4768:
4758:
4746:. Retrieved
4742:
4732:
4720:. Retrieved
4715:
4670:
4666:
4660:
4648:. Retrieved
4643:
4634:
4607:
4601:
4589:. Retrieved
4584:
4575:
4563:. Retrieved
4559:
4549:
4537:. Retrieved
4532:
4523:
4504:
4498:
4461:
4457:
4447:
4435:. Retrieved
4428:the original
4405:
4392:
4380:. Retrieved
4375:
4366:
4347:
4311:
4284:. Retrieved
4273:The Guardian
4272:
4262:
4250:. Retrieved
4246:
4237:
4225:. Retrieved
4220:
4211:
4199:. Retrieved
4195:
4185:
4173:. Retrieved
4169:the original
4155:
4143:. Retrieved
4139:
4130:
4118:. Retrieved
4113:
4104:
4092:. Retrieved
4087:
4078:
4066:. Retrieved
4062:
4052:
4025:
4019:
4007:. Retrieved
4002:
3993:
3981:. Retrieved
3977:
3967:
3940:
3934:
3907:
3901:
3871:(2): 68–89.
3868:
3864:
3858:
3846:. Retrieved
3841:
3832:
3820:. Retrieved
3815:
3806:
3794:. Retrieved
3789:
3780:
3768:. Retrieved
3764:
3755:
3743:. Retrieved
3738:
3729:
3705:(1): 36–54.
3702:
3698:
3688:
3657:
3650:
3638:. Retrieved
3634:
3624:
3612:. Retrieved
3608:
3598:
3579:
3567:. Retrieved
3562:
3552:
3533:
3527:
3508:
3480:
3474:
3450:
3443:
3423:
3416:
3397:
3391:
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3331:
3324:
3308:
3301:Adam Roberts
3295:
3276:
3270:
3251:
3217:
3211:
3192:
3186:
3174:. Retrieved
3170:the original
3165:
3130:
3069:Helen Joseph
3062:
3050:
3045:Johannesburg
3041:
3033:Lilian Ngoyi
3001:
2990:
2983:the original
2973:
2961:
2950:
2935:
2931:
2920:
2916:
2901:
2897:
2893:Beyers Naudé
2858:Roy Campbell
2851:
2843:Conscription
2835:
2816:
2797:
2780:
2772:Jimmy Kantor
2764:Reform Party
2751:United Party
2735:Sailor Malan
2724:
2719:Helen Suzman
2699:United Party
2679:
2664:
2655:
2640:Please help
2628:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2557:
2552:Desmond Tutu
2549:
2545:Adriaan Vlok
2539:
2519:Beyers Naudé
2517:
2513:
2486:
2477:
2466:Please help
2461:verification
2458:
2434:
2430:
2422:
2410:
2406:
2395:
2388:
2384:
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2342:
2333:
2322:Please help
2317:verification
2314:
2290:
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2272:
2257:
2253:
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2230:
2226:
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2179:
2164:Please help
2152:
2128:
2124:
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2113:
2109:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2075:arms embargo
2072:
2060:
2056:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2029:
2018:
2011:
1999:
1980:
1964:
1952:
1943:
1928:
1922:January 2008
1919:
1904:Please help
1892:
1862:
1854:B.J. Vorster
1842:
1834:
1821:Bram Fischer
1809:
1797:
1789:
1774:
1759:
1755:
1746:
1736:
1732:
1727:South Africa
1715:Zulu Kingdom
1711:voortrekkers
1703:
1694:
1664:
1656:
1631:
1603:
1547:Helen Joseph
1543:Lilian Ngoyi
1536:
1533:
1507:Johannesburg
1500:
1492:
1485:
1477:
1465:
1460:Johannesburg
1456:
1441:
1421:
1405:Oliver Tambo
1393:Youth League
1386:
1348:
1317:
1294:
1248:
1216:South Africa
1211:
1210:
1129:
1051:District Six
1013:Desmond Tutu
1003:Oliver Tambo
993:Helen Suzman
893:Bram Fischer
549:Sailor Malan
501:Moses Kotane
435:Oliver Tambo
362:Dirk Coetzee
324:
139:Belligerents
114:held in 1994
84:
74:South Africa
29:Part of the
18:
6714:Rooi gevaar
6593:2021 unrest
6523:Nkandlagate
6352:Third Force
6213:Rugby union
5811:(1981–1994)
5803:(1979–1994)
5795:(1977–1994)
5787:(1976–1994)
5779:(1910–1961)
5771:(1902–1910)
5763:(1902–1910)
5755:(1886–1891)
5747:(1885–1887)
5739:(1884–1888)
5731:(1882–1885)
5723:(1882–1883)
5715:(1870–1873)
5707:(1861–1879)
5699:(1856–1902)
5691:(1854–1902)
5683:(1843–1910)
5675:(1839–1843)
5667:(1816–1897)
5659:(1795–1910)
5657:Cape Colony
5649: 1780
5634: 1780
5621:(1652–1806)
5611: 1220
5604: 1075
5355:8 September
5156:26 November
4539:23 February
3176:3 September
3122:Annotations
3065:Ida Mntwana
3029:Sharpeville
2992:Fatima Meer
2968:Hilda Kuper
2952:Hilda Kuper
2882:André Brink
2782:Helen Zille
2687:David Pratt
2559:Alan Boesak
2550:Archbishop
2508:Los Angeles
2391:P. W. Botha
2364:living wage
2025:Grahamstown
2006:Black Power
1995:black pride
1967:Black Power
1670:Govan Mbeki
1618:Vereeniging
1614:Sharpeville
1568:proletariat
1505:, south of
1448:D. F. Malan
1351:Govan Mbeki
1313:safe houses
1274:East London
953:Thabo Mbeki
948:Govan Mbeki
938:D. F. Malan
933:Mac Maharaj
868:P. W. Botha
795:Broederbond
545:Lennox Lagu
523:Govan Mbeki
386:P. W. Botha
308:D. F. Malan
172:(from 1961)
121:Territorial
7630:Categories
7525:Greyshirts
7289:Volksparty
6827:Black Sash
6488:Xenophobia
6481:Travelgate
6238:Border War
6042:Bantustans
5940:Great Trek
5885:Xhosa Wars
5745:Upingtonia
5729:Stellaland
5434:ANC/FSAW,
5413:ANC/FSAW,
5319:TIMES Live
4481:1814/75043
3146:References
2945:See also:
2927:Black Sash
2911:See also:
2862:Alan Paton
2804:Black Sash
2794:Steve Biko
2743:Opposition
2608:Ruth First
2064:magistrate
1987:Steve Biko
1953:After the
1858:P.W. Botha
1856:and later
1785:Basutoland
1660:Tanganyika
1437:stay-aways
1373:Background
1284:, and the
1061:Sophiatown
1028:Jacob Zuma
913:Joel Joffe
903:Chris Hani
888:Ruth First
873:Steve Biko
730:Black Sash
479:Joe Modise
103:bantustans
46:burns his
6748:Volkstaat
6739:Uitlander
6670:Boerehaat
6646:Anarchism
6453:Arms Deal
6416:apartheid
6076:Pass laws
6053:Apartheid
5998:1910–1948
5917:1815–1910
5855:1652–1815
5329:5 October
5124:cite book
5116:246092999
5043:9 January
4918:144909892
4910:0258-2473
4842:0458-3035
4695:144101744
4687:0305-7070
4490:0031-2746
4281:0261-3077
4175:20 August
4044:919436893
3959:647906301
3926:681923614
3893:147172313
3885:0259-0123
3721:0041-5715
3680:689549065
3569:18 August
3067:, Ngoyi,
2884:and from
2870:Uys Krige
2864:, and in
2847:desertion
2823:Joe Slovo
2812:pass laws
2747:Transvaal
2731:Uys Krige
2703:Jan Smuts
2629:does not
2153:does not
1971:Malcolm X
1893:does not
1846:Homelands
1770:Kimberley
1682:Joe Slovo
1610:pass laws
1328:Coloureds
1278:pass laws
1266:pass laws
1250:Apartheid
1246:in 1994.
1082:Vlakplaas
1046:Bantustan
983:Joe Slovo
579:Apartheid
468:Joe Slovo
158:(to 1961)
96:apartheid
7616:Category
7518:Boeremag
7016:Jeugkrag
6967:Het Volk
6661:Baasskap
6603:incident
6206:Olympics
5785:Transkei
5588:polities
5586:Defunct
5482:Archived
5461:Archived
5441:Archived
5420:Archived
5061:Archived
4787:38410420
4626:71210556
4424:55800334
3587:Archived
3138:in 1952.
3079:See also
3053:Lausanne
3025:Pretoria
2965:—
2925:and the
2889:dominies
2792:founder
2786:cover-up
2561:led the
2440:Churches
1747:Mayibuye
1713:and the
1503:Kliptown
1429:boycotts
1242:under a
1173:Category
1077:Sun City
571:a series
569:Part of
227:AZANLA (
110:under a
69:Location
48:passbook
7421:SAAPAWU
6759:Defunct
6722:Slavery
5926:Mfecane
5271:26 June
4145:29 June
4120:29 June
4094:29 June
4068:29 June
4009:29 June
3983:29 June
3848:28 June
3822:27 June
3796:27 June
3770:27 June
3640:27 June
3614:27 June
3307:(eds),
2745:in the
2650:removed
2635:sources
2572:A 1977
2174:removed
2159:sources
1914:removed
1899:sources
1816:treason
1804:treason
1690:Rivonia
1566:" and "
1564:comrade
1560:Marxism
1425:strikes
1413:Marxism
1332:Indians
123:changes
98:in 1991
7372:FOSATU
7226:SAYRCO
7198:SADECO
7114:Occupy
6653:Azania
6601:Lady R
6530:Racism
6359:CODESA
5820:Events
5809:Ciskei
5721:Goshen
5651:–1819)
5636:–1817)
5536:
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5297:6 July
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4963:6 July
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2425:COSATU
1985:under
1781:Maseru
1650:, and
1431:, and
1361:, and
1072:Soweto
1040:Places
857:People
805:COSATU
755:FOSATU
665:CODESA
600:Events
322:
268:SAYRCO
167:
153:
81:Result
7553:PAGAD
7449:SATUC
7442:SARHU
7428:SACTU
7407:NURHS
7365:FNETU
7351:CTSWU
7344:CNETU
7337:BLATU
7219:SAYCO
7107:NUSAS
6988:IDASA
6799:AITUP
6414:Post-
5801:Venda
4914:S2CID
4691:S2CID
4431:(PDF)
4402:(PDF)
3889:S2CID
3662:(PDF)
3456:50–52
3373:31–34
3337:23–26
2979:Natal
2891:like
2856:like
2757:with
1488:India
1411:with
229:AZAPO
7560:SANF
7490:APLA
7435:SAIF
7414:PAWE
7400:NEUM
7393:MUSA
7358:FCWU
7303:WOSA
7254:TNIP
7212:SASO
7205:SAIC
7191:SABP
7142:PAVN
6876:COSG
6855:CTEG
6848:CNIP
5534:ISBN
5515:ISBN
5357:2016
5331:2015
5299:2005
5273:2013
5158:2019
5151:ICNC
5130:link
5112:OCLC
5102:ISBN
5045:2023
4965:2020
4943:2020
4906:ISSN
4875:2020
4849:2020
4838:ISSN
4816:2020
4783:OCLC
4773:ISBN
4750:2020
4724:2020
4683:ISSN
4652:2020
4622:OCLC
4612:ISBN
4593:2020
4567:2020
4541:2019
4509:ISBN
4486:ISSN
4439:2020
4420:OCLC
4410:ISBN
4384:2020
4352:ISBN
4316:ISBN
4288:2020
4277:ISSN
4254:2020
4247:CMHR
4229:2020
4203:2020
4177:2005
4147:2020
4122:2020
4096:2020
4070:2020
4040:OCLC
4030:ISBN
4011:2020
3985:2020
3955:OCLC
3945:ISBN
3922:OCLC
3912:ISBN
3881:ISSN
3850:2020
3824:2020
3798:2020
3772:2020
3747:2020
3717:ISSN
3676:OCLC
3666:ISBN
3642:2020
3616:2020
3571:2016
3538:ISBN
3513:ISBN
3485:ISBN
3460:ISBN
3429:ISBN
3402:ISBN
3377:ISBN
3341:ISBN
3313:ISBN
3303:and
3281:ISBN
3256:ISBN
3222:ISBN
3197:ISBN
3178:2016
3027:and
3006:and
2860:and
2839:rand
2829:and
2689:and
2633:any
2631:cite
2157:any
2155:cite
2012:The
2004:and
1897:any
1895:cite
1644:Cuba
1637:and
1598:and
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1403:and
1381:and
1353:and
1330:and
1272:and
1222:and
840:SACP
830:SAMA
825:SAIC
820:SADF
815:SACC
710:APLA
241:APLA
216:SACP
59:Date
7511:BBB
7504:AWB
7497:ARM
7463:UDF
7386:IWW
7379:ICU
7330:BCM
7323:APF
7268:UFP
7170:PRP
7149:PFP
7100:NRP
7093:NPP
7079:NNP
7072:NLP
7058:NCP
7009:ISL
6960:GNP
6932:ECC
6925:DSM
6918:DPP
6890:DLF
6862:COD
6841:CDA
6820:BPC
6813:AVF
6806:APO
4898:doi
4675:doi
4476:hdl
4466:doi
4462:245
3873:doi
3707:doi
2868:by
2701:of
2644:by
2470:by
2326:by
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2023:in
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1688:in
1226:to
1214:in
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790:UDF
785:PAC
775:HNP
770:PFP
750:ECC
735:CCB
725:BBB
720:AWB
715:IFP
705:ANC
279:UDF
257:ARM
245:PAC
212:ANC
196:AWB
185:AVF
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7086:NP
7051:NA
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6995:ID
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