62:
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478:, porous, and excessively cracked and faulted. All but the heaviest rainfalls sink into the rock only to appear as a large volume of spring and groundwater at the foot of the mountains. Transport of sediment was minimal. In one estimate, 20 m/s (710 cu ft/s) flow from springs over a distance of 20 km (12 mi). In another estimate, 80% of the rain falling on the Monti Lepini is absorbed, with a single spring at Ninfa exuding 2,000 L/s (71 cu ft/s). These facts explain why the main fill of the lagoon is peat, silt, and clay, and not thicker-grained alluvial deposits, and why it took so long.
1174:"On these little farms of the Pontine marshes Mussolini built hundreds of ... stone farmhouses ... Now and then I saw a farmer plowing while German shells landed right in his field. We tried to evacuate people ... But some of them simply refused to leave their homes. Sometimes the Germans would pick out one of the farmhouses, figuring we had a command post in it, I suppose, and blow it to smithereens. Then, and only then, did some Italian families move out ... on any side road we couldn't drive five minutes without seeing the skeleton of a cow or a horse."
1071:. The project reached a peak in 1933 with 124,000 men employed. The previous agrarian population was moved out under protest in the name of progress. Workers were interned in camps surrounded by barbed wire. The camps were overcrowded, wages were low, hours were long, food was bad, sanitation was poor, healthcare was missing, and medical attention was lacking. Workers could quit, however, and turnover was high. In 1935, at the completion of the phase, they were all dismissed without notice. Many were infected with malaria.
1163:, which thrives in salty environments. The water would also destroy agriculture, removing essential supplies of food and fresh water from the vicinity, an act that had minimal military effect but devastated the population. Although it is true that the bog impeded movement of heavy equipment, the Germans did not flood the marsh for that reason; the equipment under heavy shelling from some of the largest artillery pieces the Germans had was going nowhere, anyway. The flooding was an act of
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1055:, reclaiming land and creating 45 new homesteads with great success, after which Mussolini climbed aboard. At his request to the Director-general of the Department of Health, Alessandro Messea submitted a plan for the Pontine Marshes. In 1928, Mussolini brought it before parliament; it became "Mussolini's Law", and began to be implemented in 1929. In 1939, at the incorporation ceremony of the last new city,
782:"During the expedition he intended ... to receive the Tiber immediately below the city in a deep cut, and giving it a bend toward Circaeum to make it enter the sea by Tarracina, ...besides this he designed to draw off the water from the marshes about Pomentium and Settia, and to make them solid ground, which would employ many thousands of men in the cultivation ..."
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region. The Battle of the Swamps, however, is never quite over; without constant vigilance, dredging the canals, repairing and updating the pumps, and so on, the enemy would soon return. The specter of distant problems remains: the prospect of chemical pollution of the environment, DDT-resistant mosquitoes, and medicine-resistant strains of malaria.
686:, "which thus became a fortified point for the defense of the Pontine region." In 433 BC, Rome was struck by an epidemic and again sent buyers to the Pontine, this time successfully. Apparently, at least some of the marsh was under cultivation, which the high density of Roman settlements along the two northern roads might lead one to expect.
999:, delayed starting the task. Donat, whose lobbying had operated on his own funds, exhausted his wife's fortune of 75,000 gold marks by 1903. Unsuccessful, he returned to Germany. The Pontine Syndicate was dissolved on September 4, 1914. With it, a premature but bold attempt at a transnational investment to gain more land ended.
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itinerant fowlers and fishers, but further, any evidence of human activity there would be deep in the underlying peat. In the fringes, however, most anciently at the north edge of the lagoon and in the coastal fringe, in both the
Fogliano and Borgo Grappa land systems, evidence of hunting-gathering dates from the Middle
825:, proposed to finish the project but was opposed by the Duke of Sermoneta over the fishing rights. In 1514, he decided to drain the region around Terracina instead, assigning the task to his brother Giuliano de Medici, commander of the papal army. The Medicis would retain all reclaimed land. In 1515, Giuliano hired
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On
September 8, 1943, Italy changed sides in World War II, the king having already issued an order for Mussolini's arrest. Rescued by the Germans, he became the head of the Republic of Salò, a puppet regime over northern Italy. The defense of Italy and the suppression of its insurgent population were
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The government placed about 2,000 families (most from northern Italy) in standardised but carefully varied two-storey country houses of blue stucco with tiled roofs. Each settler family was assigned a farmhouse, an oven, a plough and other agricultural tools, a stable, some cows, and several hectares
433:
The
Tyrrhenian II transgression of ocean water into the lagoon left the Minturno level and complex, a dune barrier of about 13 m (43 ft), dated 125–100 thousand years BP. Behind the beach, deep peat and clay deposits alternating with alluvial sediments evidence the lagoon. It was deepest at
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cleared the scrub forest, constructed a total of 16,500 km (10,300 mi) of checkerboard canals and trenches, dredged rivers, diked their banks, filled depressions, and constructed pumping stations to change the elevation in the canals where necessary. The final channel, the
Mussolini Canal,
921:. This would collect the water flowing from the mountain before it reached the lowest levels where it stagnated. The water collected in the canal system would then be pumped into the Mediterranean. The electricity needed to power the canal system would be collected through dams in the mountains with
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section; the Latina Plain, the main part of the fields; and the Monti Lepini, the flank of the mountains. The center of the marsh, earlier the lagoon, although currently urban, does not provide any ancient evidence of habitation. The land (or the lake) was undoubtedly uninhabited except possibly for
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In 1928, the population of the marshes was 1,637. They were people who lived in shanties across the fields, herded, practiced agriculture, and were in poor health most of the time. The
Italian Red Cross related that, during the malaria season, 80% of those having spent one night in the marsh became
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of the marshes could prevent emigration of 200,000 Italians. Around 1900, one could count fewer than 1,000 inhabitants for a coastal region larger than 700 km. By a law passed in 1899, the proprietors were bound to arrange for the safe outlet of the water from the mountains, keep the existing
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of 494 BC, a strike by the common people for political rights, a famine occurred at Rome due to decreased economic activity. Grain buyers were sent to "the people of the
Pontine marshes" and elsewhere to acquire new supplies, but were met with refusal. The Volsci attempted to exploit this momentary
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The road proved difficult to keep above water. Under
Augustus, a compromise was reached with the construction of a parallel canal. The part of the marsh above sea level was successfully drained by channels, and new agricultural land of legendary fertility came into being. Whenever the channels were
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The
Tyrrhenian III transgression left the Borgo Ermada Complex and Level, about 90 thousand years BP. It consisted of elongated sand ridges parallel to the shore, 8 to 15 m (26 to 49 ft) high. During the regression phase, fluvial incisions indicate by then at very latest, the lagoon was
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Today, a duct system runs through the dried-out area. Wheat, fruit, and wine grapes are cultivated in the
Pontine region. The "Agro Pontino" is a flowering landscape with modern cities with both prewar and postwar architecture. By 2000, about 520,000 inhabitants lived in this formerly deserted
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left the marsh in the state of devastation; nearly everything
Mussolini had accomplished was reversed. The cities were in ruins, the houses blown up, the marshes full of brackish water, the channels filled in, the plain depopulated, the mosquitos flourishing, and malaria on the rise. The major
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on his property. In 1902, large German newspapers, as well as foreign papers, carried long articles about the project. They often carried a sense of national pride about the development project. Donat argued above all for the extermination of malaria in the countryside surrounding the capital.
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The marsh was an extensive alluvial plain at about sea level (some above, some below) created by the failure of the streams draining the mountains to find clearly defined outlets to the sea through the barrier dunes. Above sea level, it was a forested swamp; below, it was mud flats and pools.
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about 11700 years BP, was a single ridge behind which clay, peat, and peaty clay were being deposited at sea level. No land was yet above it. The region was a shallow lagoon interspersed with marshland. Fluvial incisions in the beach let out the excess water, which was brackish and contained
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is notable for what it does not say, which is the names and locations of the cities. Many more than 24 Roman settlements were built in the marsh, but it is not possible to find 24 of the size of Terracina or Antium without counting Latium Vetus or the coastal lands south of Terracina.
350:'s regime in the 1930s, the problem was nearly solved by placing dikes and pumping out that portion of the marsh below sea level. It continues to need constant maintenance. Italian confidence in the project was so high, the city placed by Mussolini in 1932 in the center of the marsh,
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with outlets through the Canale Giuliano and Canale Portatore. Giuliano died in 1516, and the city of Tarracina combined with Sermoneta and Sezze to halt work, over the issue of property rights. The people of the marsh were not going to allow the Medicis to take their land.
901:, Act V: "A marsh extends along the mountain-chain, That poisons what so far I’ve been achieving; Were I that noisome pool to drain, 'Twould be the highest, last achieving. Thus space to many millions I will give. Where, though not safe, yet free and active they may live."
301:, a Roman military road constructed in 312 BC, crosses the inland side of the former marsh in a long, straight stretch flanked by trees. Before then, travelers had to use the Via Latina along the flanks of the mountains; Terracina could not be reached across the marsh.
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Donat's plan failed. This time it was not the technical inadequacy as with the predecessors, but political deliberations that stood in the way of the project. The liberal government hesitated and gave the North preference, where large marshes in the valley of the
894:, that they "have never seen so bad of an appearance as they are usually described in Rome". Goethe became interested in the dewatering attempts, after observing that it is "a large and extensive task". He probably used this image in this scene in his
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377:, the eastern part of the region, which the Romans removed from the sovereignty of the Volsci. The two terms create some confusion in the literature, as the region was often heavily settled, but the marsh supported no resident population.
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structures for water control survived, and in a few years, the Agro Pontino was restored. In 1947, the province of Littoria, created by Mussolini, was renamed to Latina. The last of the malaria was conquered in the 1950s, with the aid of
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In 1898, Fedor von Donat resigned from his position as battalion commander and moved to Rome with his family. There, he lobbied the government for his project, as well as four large landowners, connections in financial circles, and the
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and other medicines were in short supply or withheld by the Germans, the food was bad, a shortage of metal prevented repair of the screens, and veterans returning from the Balkans brought back resistant strains of the disease.
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were set aside for the project. (With one mark being five grams of pure silver, the amount is equivalent to $ 17.5M in 1900 US dollars.) One of the conditions was that the Italians would have to match the funds on the project.
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first touches the sea ... Near Tarracina, as you go toward Rome, there is a canal that runs alongside the Appian Way, and is fed at numerous places by waters from the marshes and the rivers ... The boat is towed by a
965:, he was able to prove that the moorland had a high percentage of organics in its soil, of over 70 points; this proved that three harvests per year were possible. He protected his 80 workers from malaria with a daily dose of
1026:, which would drain the swamp and control the waters. Mussolini and his party called it "the battle of the swamps" because it required the recruitment, deployment, and supply of an army of workers. In the second stage, the
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material comes from Campoverde at the north edge of the Pontino Agro. It is dated by typology, as none has been found in context. The assemblage of amateur collections of surface artifacts "shares affinities with various
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weakness by raising an army of invasion but were struck down by an epidemic, of what sort, or whether historians can conclude to be malaria, remains unsaid. The Romans, buying grain in Sicily, reinforced their colony at
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today, looking northward at the promontory: the former marsh to the right of it stretches over the horizon. In the lower right corner, the Volscian Mountains descend to the edge of the narrow strip on which Terracina is
501:. The modern rivers incised the marsh: the Ufente, the Sisto, and the Amaseno, which had shifting rather than stable tributaries. The marsh drains to the southeast, with channels parallel to the coast, exiting between
397:. Underneath the marsh is such a valley, while the steeply-sided Volscian Mountains and the floor under the outer dunes are the corresponding horsts. The graben was formed over a period approximated by the end of the
596:, and others. Also from Campoverde come animal bones excavated unscientifically from a trench during construction and one human tooth. The latter is too large to be of modern humans and has been assigned the genus
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began in the sixth century BC. The marsh rapidly acquired the alluvial deposits of the Amaseno Fan over the peat, bringing much of it above water. No buried soils indicate any cultivation of dry land in the marsh.
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The Agro Pontino geologically is one of four geomorphic divisions of a somewhat larger area, the Pontine Region, also comprising the Monti Albani, the Volscian Mountains and Monte Circeo; in short, all of Roman
643:
dating to about 65 thousand years BP. On May 8, 2021, 9 Neanderthal skeletons were discovered in the same cave by a team of archaeologists. The team concluded that the Neanderthals were killed by a pack of
725:, "the rest of the cities of Latium ... are situated either on these roads or near them, or between them." He lists a number of settlements of the Monti Lepini Land System, from southeast to northwest:
401:
about 2.588 million years ago. The natural outcome of this graben topography was the creation of outer barrier islands and a lagoon that gradually filled with runoff sediment transported from the mountains.
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in Berlin. Rathenau saw market potential for electric investments, so he and some industrialists in Berlin, as well as private financiers, created the "Pontine Syndicate Ltd" in 1900. Seventy million
414:, a series of volcanic changes began leading to the current landform: the first four eruptive cycles of a new volcano in the vicinity of the Monti Albani, which spread pyroclastic rock and formed a
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The allies and the Germans equally, therefore, found themselves fighting in a mosquito-infested bog. The new homes were being used as refuges for infantry and cover for tanks. Ernie Pyle relates:
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attempted to solve the now-longstanding water dispute between Sermoneta and Sezze by digging another canal to connect and control the rivers of those regions, but the project ended when he died.
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442:, sand fused by volcanic activity, reach the surface. At this time, Latium Vetus had been formed as a volcanic land mass, while Latium Novum was a lagoon, the future marsh.
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purposes, and was often photographed between workers, shirtless with a shovel in his hand, or threshing wheat at harvest time; these occasions were regularly filmed by the
330:, this land is mainly reclaimed, as well, but the more frequent incursion of hills permitted more dense settlements. Leaving Terracina, the Via Appia crosses it, as well.
1908:
Archaeological land evaluation: a reconstruction of the suitability of ancient landscapes for various land uses in Italy focused on the first millennium BC (Dissertation)
1878:
Archaeological land evaluation: a reconstruction of the suitability of ancient landscapes for various land uses in Italy focused on the first millennium BC (Dissertation)
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Starting in 1922, the Italian government's Department of Health, working with the Opera Nazionale Combattenti, developed a new initiative to combat malaria called the
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Sparsely inhabited throughout much of their history, the Pontine Marshes were the subject of extensive land reclamation work performed periodically. The tribe of the
533:. Four land systems have been defined: Fogliano coastal, the beach system; Borgo Grappa Beach Ridge, the region just inland from the beach, rather extensive in the
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The rift valley remained a depression in the Tyrrhenian Sea for about two million years and then in the Tuscolano-Artemisio phase, dated 600–360 thousand years
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1901:"Chapter 3, Landscape reconstruction and description of the research areas: Salento Isthmus, Pontine region, and Sibaritide Land systems: landforms and soils"
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759:, who was three times consul, has reported to be the site of 24 cities. Then comes the river Aufentum, above which is the town of Tarracina ..."
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and was opposed by former Italian colleagues of the Germans in malariology, but someone on Kesselring's staff—unknown to this day—issued the order.
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At around 22 thousand years BP, the volcanic complex became active for the last time, erupting in hydromagmatic explosions that created the beds of
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The Germans stopped the pumps and opened the dikes, refilling the marsh with brackish water. They were being advised by the German malariologists
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Linoli, Anatolio (2005), "Twenty-six Centuries of Reclamation & Agricultural Improvement on the Pontine Marshes", in Ohleg, Christof (ed.),
542:. Evidently, man has witnessed the entire history of the lagoon and marsh from its first formation, when he hunted and fished along its shores.
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Malaria prevented the expansion of Rome to the south, the settling of which could provide a new province for Italy without a colonial war. The
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1030:, homesteads with stone houses and public utilities were to be constructed and the land was to be parcelled among settlers. The third stage,
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1044:(so the mosquitos could be easily identified and killed), and against malaria, such as distributing quinine and setting up health services.
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The ambitious Sixtus V also made unsuccessful attempts at reclamation of the area and died of malaria after a visit to the Pontine Marshes.
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also needed to be reclaimed. Violent resistance by the four large property owners in the Pontine Marshes was the reaction to the necessary
426:, 781-126 thousand years BP, beds of sand and clay, termed the Latina Complex, appeared above sea level over the outer karst, enclosing a
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was made prime minister by the king. In 1926, the Department of Health undertook a pilot project of the new strategy in the delta of the
1702:"Producing the ideal fascist landscape: Nature, materiality and the cinematic representation of land reclamation in the Pontine Marshes"
953:. He leased 95 hectares (240 acres) of the marsh near Terracina and established a model farm, "Tenuta Ponte Maggiore". With the help of
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It was a veteran's organization, founded in 1917 and reformulated in 1923 and 1926. One of its functions was to find land for veterans.
1741:
An accessible and positive contemporary description is E. J. Russell, "Agricultural Colonization in the Pontine Marshes and Libya",
338:
began with minor draining projects in the vicinity of Tarracina in connection with their occupation of it in the pre-Roman period.
1224:, the party's agricultural expert, attributed the terms to Mussolini, they were developed by the Department of Health, 1917–1923.
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917:(1847–1919), had an idea; he would build a channel that followed the base of the mountains, cutting through a sand dune at
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National Park of Circeo, on the coast of the Pontine Fields: the view is an aerial photograph. Visible in the foreground is
2008:
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and leasing to the German syndicate of a large part of their marsh country. The cofinancer, the Banca Commerciale in
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489:, a time of warmer and moister climate dated around 5000-3000 BC. Pollen from the marsh indicates the replacement of
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is another stretch of former coastal marsh called the South Pontino, the largest section being between Terracina and
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Region of central Italy, extending along the coast southeast of Rome about 45 km (28 mi) from just east of
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1848:, Schriften der Deutschen Wasserhistorischen Gesellschaft (DWhG) Sonderband 2, DWhG, pp. 27–56, archived from
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1946:
Stewart-Steinberg, Suzanne (May 2016). "Grounds for reclamation: fascism and postfascism in the Pontine Marshes".
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LaRosa, M.; Mazza, P.; Rustioni, M. (2001), "The elephant remains from the Agro Pontino, Latina, Central Italy",
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of land, depending on local soil fertility and the size of the family. Mussolini used the 10-year operation for
1911:
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patented the project under the number 17,120. He expected to dry out the marshes within a five-year time span.
807:, recently bought by his nephews. The increase in water in the Cavata caused severe flooding in the marsh near
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lies a great marsh, formed by two rivers; the larger one is called the Aufidus (Ufente). It is here that the
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F. Caprotti, "Mussolini's Cities: Internal Colonialism in Italy, 1930–1939", Cambria Press, New Jersey 2007.
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had ambitious plans for the marsh, which if realized or realizable would have diverted the Tiber through
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Major von Donat published his idea in Rome and Berlin, and succeeded in gaining the attention of
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had not buried the region. The answer is in the composition of the Volscian Mountains, which are
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The Third Reich at War, 1939–1945,Richard J Evans, Penguin 2009, Kindle Edition, location 8517
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This article is about a reclaimed agricultural area in Italy. For other uses of Pontine, see
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canals open, and reclaim the district exposed to inundation, for a period of 24 years.
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totally enclosed. After it drained, aeolian (wind-driven) sand covered the notches.
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industries of Latium. Chronologically referred to the second half of the Middle
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in an effort to outflank the Germans. Malaria had returned to the Agro Pontino:
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Alluvial deposits known as the Sezze Fan began about 4000 BC in the marsh below
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all attempted to solve the problem. Pius VI reconstructed the road. In 1561,
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The most recent beach, the Terracina Complex and Level, which began the
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not maintained, the swamp reappeared. Meanwhile, frequent epidemics of
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The northwestern border runs approximately from the mouth of the river
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in Italy on February 25, 1939, by a team of paleontologists headed by
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formed in the caldera. Approximately contemporaneously, in the Middle
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297:. The area amounts to about 80,000 hectares (200,000 acres). The
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1910:. Groningen, Netherlands: University of Groningen. Archived from
1880:. Groningen, Netherlands: University of Groningen. Archived from
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that the return of the salt water would encourage the return of
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at Rome and elsewhere kept the reclamation issue alive. Under
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1508:"Archaeologists Discover Remains of 9 Neanderthals Near Rome"
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562:;" that is, about 500 thousand years BP. These are primarily
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230:(ancient Tarracina), varying in distance inland between the
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in reclaiming marshland in the Val di Chiana in the Tuscan
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created by draining and filling, separated from the sea by
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1983:"A New Systemic Nature for Mussolini's Landscape Urbanism"
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Integrated Land and Water Resources Management in History
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south of the marshes, necessitating an Allied landing at
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work on the marsh has been extensive, including surveys,
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for inclusion in nationally shown propaganda newsreels.
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Malaria and Rome: a history of malaria in ancient Italy
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The former marsh is a low tract of mainly agricultural
1492:. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p.
160:
151:
142:
114:
105:
96:
2513:
Monte Val de' Varri – Monte Faito – Monte San Nicola
145:
136:
99:
90:
45:
Lake Fogliano, a coastal lagoon in the Pontine Plain
1949:
differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies
803:, which drained much of the land in the Dukedom of
133:
87:
214:) is an approximately quadrangular area of former
1945:
2909:
1022:. It featured three stages, the first being the
434:the Terracina end diminishing to the surface at
1114:aspects of these towns is striking even today.
282:along the river and from its upper reaches to
2668:
2024:
1778:
1776:
1699:
1659:
1657:
1399:
1397:
1369:
1367:
1365:
741:, and a number of others in the north of the
181:
661:The geographers and historians of the early
304:Further southward along the coast as far as
1980:
1766:
1764:
883:visited the region with his painter-friend
717:. Through the marsh, with reference to the
205:
199:
2675:
2661:
2031:
2017:
1898:
1868:
1834:, Rome: Sovraintendenza del Comune di Roma
1773:
1654:
1457:(3637) (published 2024): 106. 1939-07-15.
1394:
1362:
1352:
1350:
1337:
1335:
1862:The Conquest of Malaria: Italy, 1900–1962
1799:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
1700:Caprotti, Federico; Kaïka, Maria (2008).
751:'s statement on the topic of the marshes:
1929:Graf von Hutten-Czapski, Bogdan (1936).
1761:
1483:
354:, became the capital of a new province,
60:
48:
40:
25:
1859:
1782:
1687:
1675:
1663:
1648:
1636:
1347:
1332:
1225:
1034:, took measures against the mosquitos (
868:, but the project also came to naught.
829:to design the project. It provided the
2910:
1838:
1824:
1615:
1603:
1433:
1421:
1356:
1341:
2656:
2012:
1308:
1086:The new towns of Littoria (1932, now
1067:empties into the Tyrrhenian Sea near
1059:, the project was declared complete.
1011:
175:
2528:Parco regionale urbano Monte Orlando
1794:
909:Near the end of the 19th century, a
1864:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
860:, who had gained a reputation as a
13:
2403:Cima del Redentore (monti Aurunci)
2096:
1981:Berger, Alan; Brown, Case (2008).
1117:
371:. The marsh itself was located in
14:
2934:
1974:
1931:60 Jahre Politik und Gesellschaft
1131:, they successfully defended the
885:Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein
16:Former marshland near Rome, Italy
2040:
1412:Van Joolen 2003 Chapter 3 p. 64.
1403:Van Joolen 2003 Chapter 3 p. 79.
1391:Van Joolen Chapter 3 2003 p. 65.
1382:Van Joolen Chapter 1 2003 p. 11.
1373:Van Joolen Chapter 1 2003 p. 10.
234:and the Volscian Mountains (the
129:
83:
1817:
1788:
1752:
1735:
1709:Social & Cultural Geography
1693:
1681:
1669:
1642:
1630:
1621:
1609:
1597:
1585:
1573:
1561:
1549:
1537:
1525:
1500:
1477:
1439:
1427:
1415:
1406:
1231:
1214:
1205:
1178:
1002:
904:
874:
795:had a canal dug to connect the
1514:. Associated Press. 2021-05-08
1385:
1376:
1320:
1297:
786:
713:extends south of Tarracina to
656:
545:
517:
405:
31:Hunting in the Pontine Marshes
1:
1291:
853:employed the services of the
385:The underlying landform is a
7:
2612:List of presidents of Lazio
1269:
460:
380:
10:
2939:
1899:Van Joolen, Ester (2003).
1869:Van Joolen, Ester (2003).
1447:"Neanderthal Man in Italy"
887:. He reports in his book,
811:. Before he died in 1447,
651:
361:
18:
2700:
2641:
2620:
2597:
2551:
2250:
2154:
2107:
2094:
2053:
1933:. Berlin: E. S. Mittler.
1871:"Chapter 1, Introduction"
1860:Snowden, Frank M (2006).
1721:10.1080/14649360802292447
1484:Sallares, Robert (2002).
936:, the general manager of
635:was found in a grotto on
588:, side scrapers, borers,
316:. It was part of ancient
177:[ˈaːɡroponˈtiːno]
1966:10.1215/10407391-3522769
1743:The Geographical Journal
1199:
961:type, revolved by three
682:and planted a colony at
671:reported that after the
21:Pontine (disambiguation)
1304:History of Rome, 6.5.2.
1062:Beginning in 1930, the
1040:), such as screens and
242:in the center, and the
2101:
1828:The World of Elephants
1176:
881:Johann Wolfgang Goethe
879:On February 17, 1787,
784:
761:
707:
602:. The animals include
206:
200:
191:
182:
172:
74:
58:
46:
38:
2830:Santi Cosma e Damiano
2815:Roccasecca dei Volsci
2217:Lago di Posta Fibreno
2100:
1988:. Columbia University
1958:Duke University Press
1172:
1161:Anopheles labranchiae
1037:Anopheles labranchiae
915:Fedor Maria von Donat
780:
753:
694:
609:Mammuthus primigenius
457:, both crater lakes.
322:and still belongs to
286:in the Monti Lepini.
64:
52:
44:
29:
2633:Marino Wine Festival
2448:Monte Lauro in Gaeta
2055:Provinces and places
1795:Pyle, Ernie (2001).
1127:. After the loss of
665:describe the marsh.
73:, "coastal lagoons".
2890: /
2473:Maschio delle Faete
2373:Maschio dell'Ariano
2258:Seven hills of Rome
2192:Lago di Giulianello
1749:.4 (1939: 273-289).
969:. He invited Roman
925:plants. The German
923:hydroelectric power
745:on the Via Latina.
641:Alberto Carlo Blanc
625:Capreolus capreolus
566:and 5–6 cm (2–
312:, as far inland as
246:in the south) from
33:, oil on canvas by
2923:Landforms of Lazio
2725:Cisterna di Latina
2694:Province of Latina
2607:Elections in Lazio
2378:Maschio di Lariano
2102:
1580:Historia Naturalis
1286:Province of Latina
1281:Geography of Italy
1276:Cisterna di Latina
1222:Giuseppe Tassinari
1165:biological warfare
1064:bonifica idraulica
1024:bonifica idraulica
1020:bonifica integrale
1013:Bonifica integrale
862:hydraulic engineer
709:In Strabo's view,
556:Lower Palaeolithic
326:. Bordered by the
248:15 to 25 km (
238:in the north, the
75:
59:
47:
39:
2894:41.467°N 12.900°E
2873:
2872:
2825:San Felice Circeo
2650:
2649:
2343:Monti della Tolfa
2268:Aurunci Mountains
2182:Lago di Caprolace
2147:
2139:
2001:Google Earth view
1592:Life of C. Caesar
1032:bonifica igienica
827:Leonardo da Vinci
586:denticulate tools
328:Aurunci Mountains
207:Pomptīnae Paludes
2930:
2918:Marshes of Italy
2905:
2904:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2775:Monte San Biagio
2677:
2670:
2663:
2654:
2653:
2443:Monte Guadagnolo
2338:Monte Terminillo
2318:Monti Prenestini
2308:Monti della Meta
2298:Monti della Laga
2177:Lago di Canterno
2145:
2137:
2088:List of communes
2045:
2044:
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2019:
2010:
2009:
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1987:
1969:
1942:
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1512:Voice of America
1504:
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1463:10.1038/144106a0
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1235:
1229:
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1209:
1157:Ernst Rodenwaldt
1049:Benito Mussolini
1028:bonifica agraria
975:press conference
959:ancient Egyptian
778:
605:Elephas antiquus
584:, consisting of
579:
578:
574:
571:
438:, where beds of
348:Benito Mussolini
277:
275:
274:
270:
267:
261:
260:
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209:
203:
185:
180:, formerly also
179:
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128:
117:
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67:Lago di Fogliano
2938:
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2855:Spigno Saturnia
2696:
2681:
2651:
2646:
2637:
2616:
2593:
2569:Pontine marshes
2559:Castelli Romani
2547:
2518:Monte di Cambio
2393:Monte Carbonaro
2383:Monte Artemisio
2246:
2237:Lago del Turano
2222:Lago di Rascino
2207:Lago dei Monaci
2197:Lake Martignano
2150:
2143:Roman Republic
2135:Roman Republic
2103:
2092:
2049:
2039:
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2006:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1977:
1972:
1920:
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1554:
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1544:History of Rome
1542:
1538:
1532:History of Rome
1530:
1526:
1517:
1515:
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1505:
1501:
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1478:
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1327:Natural History
1325:
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1315:Natural History
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1302:
1298:
1294:
1272:
1267:
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1232:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1185:Battle of Anzio
1181:
1120:
1118:Battle of Anzio
1016:
1005:
913:officer, Major
907:
891:Italian Journey
877:
858:Rafael Bombelli
789:
776:
749:Pliny the Elder
674:Secessio plebis
659:
654:
633:Neanderthal man
617:Bos primigenius
576:
572:
569:
567:
548:
520:
487:Atlantic Period
463:
408:
383:
364:
319:Latium adiectum
272:
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212:Pliny the Elder
161:
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86:
82:
79:Pontine Marshes
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2936:
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2899:41.467; 12.900
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2574:Roman Campagna
2571:
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2561:
2555:
2553:
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2545:
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2530:
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2523:Monte le Pezze
2520:
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2505:
2503:Monte Sorgenze
2500:
2495:
2493:Monte Cervello
2490:
2485:
2480:
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2465:
2460:
2458:Le Rave Fosche
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2323:Monti Sabatini
2320:
2315:
2313:Monte Petrella
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2232:Lago del Salto
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2172:Lake Bracciano
2169:
2164:
2158:
2156:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2146:(19th century)
2140:
2138:(18th century)
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2013:
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2003:
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1975:External links
1973:
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1943:
1926:
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1819:
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1787:
1785:, p. 186.
1772:
1760:
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1734:
1715:(6): 613–634.
1692:
1690:, p. 157.
1680:
1678:, p. 152.
1668:
1666:, p. 153.
1653:
1651:, p. 150.
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1116:
1112:urban planning
1047:In 1922 also,
1015:
1010:
1004:
1001:
906:
903:
876:
873:
813:Pope Eugene IV
791:In 1298, Pope
788:
785:
743:Roman Campagna
658:
655:
653:
650:
628:, and others.
621:Cervus elaphus
547:
544:
523:Archaeological
519:
516:
462:
459:
407:
404:
382:
379:
363:
360:
291:reclaimed land
232:Tyrrhenian Sea
201:Pomptīna Palus
192:Pomptīnus Ager
183:Paludi Pontine
71:laghi costieri
15:
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6:
4:
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2431:
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2428:Monte Fammera
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2423:Monte Faggeto
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2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2043:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2022:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1999:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1950:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1917:on 2012-02-25
1913:
1909:
1902:
1897:
1887:on 2011-09-28
1883:
1879:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1855:on 2011-07-16
1851:
1844:
1843:
1837:
1830:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1808:
1806:0-8032-8768-2
1802:
1798:
1791:
1784:
1779:
1777:
1767:
1765:
1755:
1748:
1744:
1738:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1703:
1696:
1689:
1684:
1677:
1672:
1665:
1660:
1658:
1650:
1645:
1639:, p. 146
1638:
1633:
1624:
1617:
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1605:
1600:
1593:
1588:
1581:
1576:
1569:
1564:
1557:
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1545:
1540:
1533:
1528:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1495:
1490:
1489:
1480:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1442:
1435:
1430:
1424:, p. 205
1423:
1418:
1409:
1400:
1398:
1388:
1379:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1359:, p. 28.
1358:
1353:
1351:
1344:, p. 27.
1343:
1338:
1336:
1328:
1323:
1316:
1311:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1262:
1261:
1256:
1255:
1254:Erica arborea
1251:
1250:Olea europaea
1246:
1245:
1241:
1240:Quercus suber
1234:
1227:
1223:
1217:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1193:
1191:
1186:
1175:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1153:Erich Martini
1149:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1115:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1082:
1081:Istituto Luce
1078:
1072:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1014:
1009:
1000:
998:
994:
993:expropriation
990:
984:
981:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
946:
943:
939:
935:
934:Emil Rathenau
930:
928:
927:patent office
924:
920:
916:
912:
902:
900:
898:
893:
892:
886:
882:
872:
869:
867:
863:
859:
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855:mathematician
852:
848:
844:
840:
835:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
793:Boniface VIII
783:
779:
774:
773:Julius Caesar
770:
767:According to
765:
760:
758:
752:
750:
746:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
706:
703:
699:
696:"In front of
693:
691:
687:
685:
681:
676:
675:
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664:
649:
647:
642:
638:
634:
629:
627:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
601:
600:
595:
592:flakes, some
591:
587:
583:
565:
561:
557:
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543:
541:
536:
532:
528:
524:
515:
512:
508:
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500:
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492:
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479:
477:
473:
472:alluvial fans
468:
458:
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452:
447:
443:
441:
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431:
429:
425:
421:
420:stratovolcano
417:
413:
403:
400:
396:
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388:
378:
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375:
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359:
357:
353:
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331:
329:
325:
321:
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315:
311:
307:
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296:
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287:
285:
281:
245:
244:Monti Aurunci
241:
237:
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229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
208:
202:
197:
193:
189:
184:
178:
174:
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166:
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156:
126:
120:
119:
110:
80:
72:
69:, one of the
68:
63:
55:
51:
43:
36:
35:Horace Vernet
32:
28:
22:
2875:
2687:
2564:Valle Latina
2543:Monte Ruazzo
2498:Monte Revole
2478:Meta (monte)
2463:Monte Livata
2413:Monte Crispi
2398:Monte Cefalo
2388:Monte Autore
2363:Monte Altino
2328:Monti Sabini
2303:Monti Lepini
2288:Monti Ernici
2283:Cimini Hills
2273:Monti Ausoni
2202:Lake Mezzano
2167:Lake Bolsena
2130:Papal States
2125:Ancient Rome
2005:
1990:. Retrieved
1953:
1947:
1930:
1919:. Retrieved
1912:the original
1907:
1889:. Retrieved
1882:the original
1877:
1861:
1850:the original
1841:
1827:
1818:Bibliography
1796:
1790:
1783:Snowden 2006
1754:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1712:
1708:
1695:
1688:Snowden 2006
1683:
1676:Snowden 2006
1671:
1664:Snowden 2006
1649:Snowden 2006
1644:
1637:Snowden 2006
1632:
1623:
1618:, p. 33
1611:
1606:, p. 32
1599:
1591:
1587:
1579:
1575:
1567:
1563:
1555:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1531:
1527:
1516:. Retrieved
1511:
1502:
1487:
1479:
1454:
1450:
1441:
1429:
1417:
1408:
1387:
1378:
1326:
1322:
1314:
1310:
1303:
1299:
1258:
1248:
1238:
1233:
1226:Snowden 2006
1216:
1207:
1194:
1182:
1179:Agro Pontino
1173:
1169:
1160:
1150:
1123:left to the
1121:
1107:
1102:(1937), and
1085:
1073:
1063:
1061:
1046:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1017:
1012:
1006:
1003:20th century
985:
980:urbanization
947:
931:
908:
905:19th century
895:
888:
878:
875:18th century
870:
851:Pope Pius IV
836:
831:Ufente River
817:
801:Cavata River
790:
781:
766:
762:
754:
747:
708:
695:
688:
672:
667:
663:Roman empire
660:
637:Monte Circeo
630:
603:
598:
549:
531:core samples
521:
480:
464:
451:Lakes Albano
448:
444:
432:
409:
384:
374:Latium Novum
372:
365:
340:
332:
317:
303:
288:
240:Monti Ausoni
236:Monti Lepini
196:Titus Livius
173:Agro Pontino
78:
76:
70:
66:
30:
2897: /
2720:Castelforte
2715:Campodimele
2508:Monte Trina
2488:Monte Caira
2453:Monte Lauzo
2438:Monte Fusco
2358:Monte Abate
2263:Alban Hills
2162:Lake Albano
1616:Linoli 2005
1604:Linoli 2005
1434:LaRosa 2001
1422:LaRosa 2001
1357:Linoli 2005
1342:Linoli 2005
1133:Gustaf Line
1053:Tiber River
971:journalists
955:waterwheels
797:Ninfa River
787:Renaissance
657:Roman times
631:A skull of
613:Equus ferus
564:flint cores
560:Pleistocene
551:Paleolithic
546:Paleolithic
540:Pleistocene
527:excavations
518:Archaeology
424:Pleistocene
406:Pleistocene
395:rift valley
2912:Categories
2810:Roccagorga
2644:Categories
2533:Monte Orso
2278:Monte Cavo
1992:1 February
1960:: 94–142.
1921:2010-01-31
1891:2010-01-30
1518:2024-02-29
1292:References
1247:, shrubby
1077:propaganda
1008:infected.
942:gold marks
819:Pope Leo X
723:Via Latina
702:Appian Way
594:microliths
580: in)
440:travertine
295:sand dunes
276: mi).
2865:Ventotene
2860:Terracina
2850:Sperlonga
2835:Sermoneta
2552:Geography
2251:Mountains
2242:Lake Vico
2212:Lake Nemi
2063:Frosinone
1797:Brave Men
1582:, III.59.
1570:, 5.3.10.
1568:Geography
1556:Geography
1471:1476-4687
1220:Although
1125:Wehrmacht
1042:whitewash
919:Terracina
866:Apennines
805:Sermoneta
799:with the
731:Privernum
729:, Signa,
719:Via Appia
698:Tarracina
590:retouched
507:Terracina
491:mixed oak
476:limestone
310:Sperlonga
299:Via Appia
228:Terracina
216:marshland
57:situated.
54:Terracina
2820:Sabaudia
2800:Prossedi
2795:Priverno
2785:Pontinia
2770:Minturno
2710:Bassiano
2599:Politics
2468:Mainarde
1939:19955938
1729:53381665
1594:, LVIII.
1558:, 5.3.6.
1270:See also
1263:species.
1244:Q. robur
1098:(1935),
1096:Pontinia
1094:(1934),
1092:Sabaudia
911:Prussian
843:Sixtus V
839:Martin V
769:Plutarch
757:Mucianus
721:and the
715:Sinuessa
680:Velitrae
467:Holocene
461:Holocene
436:Cisterna
399:Pliocene
381:Pliocene
306:Minturno
2885:12°54′E
2882:41°28′N
2845:Sonnino
2705:Aprilia
2692:of the
2686:·
2621:Culture
2108:History
2083:Viterbo
1546:, 4.25.
1534:, 2.34.
1237:Mainly
1145:quinine
1141:Nettuno
1104:Pomezia
1100:Aprilia
1057:Pomezia
967:quinine
951:Vatican
847:Pius VI
739:Pometia
652:History
575:⁄
416:caldera
389:–
362:Geology
344:malaria
271:⁄
257:⁄
218:in the
169:Italian
2765:Maenza
2760:Lenola
2755:Latina
2740:Formia
2689:Comuni
2589:Tuscia
2579:Sabina
2408:Circeo
2120:Latium
2115:Latins
2068:Latina
1937:
1803:
1727:
1469:
1451:Nature
1260:Myrtus
1257:, and
1129:Sicily
1108:borghi
1088:Latina
845:, and
837:Popes
823:Medici
711:Latium
705:mule."
690:Strabo
646:hyenas
582:flakes
535:Circeo
529:, and
511:Volsci
503:Circeo
499:willow
428:lagoon
391:graben
369:Latium
356:Latina
352:Latina
336:Volsci
280:Astura
37:, 1833
2840:Sezze
2790:Ponza
2780:Norma
2745:Gaeta
2735:Fondi
2684:Lazio
2584:Tiber
2483:Monna
2155:Lakes
2073:Rieti
2047:Lazio
1986:(PDF)
1956:(1).
1915:(PDF)
1904:(PDF)
1885:(PDF)
1874:(PDF)
1853:(PDF)
1846:(PDF)
1832:(PDF)
1725:S2CID
1705:(PDF)
1329:26.9.
1317:3.59.
1200:Notes
1137:Anzio
1069:Anzio
997:Milan
973:to a
897:Faust
809:Sezze
727:Setia
692:says:
684:Norba
495:alder
483:Sezze
387:horst
324:Lazio
314:Fondi
224:Anzio
220:Lazio
188:Latin
164:-teen
127:also
118:-tyne
2750:Itri
2730:Cori
2628:Flag
2078:Rome
1994:2010
1935:OCLC
1801:ISBN
1467:ISSN
1183:The
1155:and
1139:and
963:oxen
889:The
821:, a
735:Cora
669:Livy
599:Homo
505:and
497:and
455:Nemi
453:and
284:Cori
204:and
77:The
1962:doi
1717:doi
1494:185
1459:doi
1455:144
1190:DDT
1090:),
957:of
938:AEG
777:it:
493:by
262:to
226:to
210:by
194:by
162:PON
116:PON
2914::
1954:27
1952:.
1906:.
1876:.
1775:^
1763:^
1747:94
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1711:.
1707:.
1656:^
1510:.
1465:.
1453:.
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1349:^
1334:^
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899:II
841:,
771:,
737:,
733:,
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619:,
615:,
611:,
607:,
412:BP
358:.
264:15
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190::
186:;
171::
167:;
149:iː
125:US
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103:aɪ
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2032:e
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1964::
1941:.
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1811:.
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