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radiance. The poem was written with a technique akin to the chiaroscuro style one would see in the visual arts. As Dámaso Alonso wrote: "On one side, there is this gloomy presence, that accompanies that which is monstrous, that which is foreboding, that which is surly, that which is grotesque; at the same time, there is the presence of the precious flower and the purest of silver, that which is immaculate, the crystalline, that which is sweet, immortal and beautiful. What we have, in sum, are the respective domains of
Polyphemus and Galatea." This radical technique, which in Spain was dubbed tenebrismo, also applies on the allegorical level in form of the characters and symbols that are depicted: life-death, Cupid-Thanatos, grace-perdition, all of which reemerges in the theatre of Calderón where they assume an intelligible form, they bring harmony to the scene with games of light and shadow that pass from scene to verse y from verse to scene. If at the poles we find the limits of the chromatic scale -white and black-, in the interior, the painting explodes with specks of vivid color, dissolve to the oxymoronic that by means of the underlying symbolic meanings construct whole images, characters, settings, thoughts and emotions.
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pues, según la técnica del claroscuro. Así Dámaso Alonso escribe: «De un lado lo lóbrego, lo monstruoso, lo de mal augurio, lo áspero, lo jayanesco; de otro, lilio y plata, lo albo, lo cristalino, lo dulce, la belleza mortal. Tema de
Polifemo; tema de Galatea». Esta radical técnica pictórica, que en España toma el nombre de tenebrismo, traduce también significados alegóricos, antropológicos y simbólicos: vida-muerte, Eros-Thánatos, gracia-perdición, que llegarán hasta el teatro de Calderón donde semantizarán el verso, matizarán la escena con juegos de luces y sombras que de la escena pasarán al verso y del verso a la escena. Si en los polos hallamos los límites de la escala cromática —el blanco y el negro—, en el interior, el cuadro explota con manchas de color vividas, oximóricas, que a través de sus significados simbólicos construyen imágenes, personajes, paisajes, sentimientos y emociones.
443:, depersonalization in this sense is not the complete abandonment or deterioration of the individual as a distinguishable entity, but emphasizes instead the justification of those characters as forms themselves. The objective individual exists as both a series of phenomena as well as an aspect of the overall representation. Conversely, it is the subject who is the ultimate arbiter of artistic experience though they also limited to merely reflect a bundle of individual perceptions and privately held associations. Using this understanding, the distinction between Polyphemus and his cave is no longer deemed relevant as an overarching sympathy exists between the two.
1446:
Gongora portrays life as being ultimately redeemed by the sensorial experience of life itself. Pleasure is realized in its absence and full appreciation develops as a result of its loss. Thus, beauty and ugliness, tranquility and turmoil allow for one another, making life sensible through their contrasts. What an experience does not entail allows for the intellection of its reality. Consequently, this understanding would in turn merit a deep appreciation for reality and all it entails, particularly during the artistic process. This novel outlook could explain the fixation with contrasts present throughout
Gongora's other works.
933:, Góngora doesn’t seem content to merely imitate Ovid. The two poets had different aspirations that are clear to distinguish. In writing the Metamorphoses, Ovid sought to compose a narrative of mythic time united by the theme of constant transformation. Ovid's intention is, thus, cosmological in nature. Given his drastically opposing style and clear deviation from the ancient poet's narrative structure, the Spanish poet attempts to reexamine this popular myth, which grants him wide parameters for the display of his sophisticated wit as well as a peculiar aesthetic sensibility that are not nearly as developed in the Roman's poem.
179:, Carillo formally denounces both clarity and straightforwardness, particularly when such artistic ideals placed parameters on poetic expression in an effort to make "oneself intelligible to the half-educated." Though culteranismo maintained this elitist and aristocratic quality well after Carillo's death, this seemingly haughty comment on the part of Góngora's pupil was actually a jibe at Góngora's fiercest critics whose periodic vitriol sought to discredit the artist and his work. This fundamental debate between artistic clarity, intelligibility, lyricism, novelty and free expression first outlined in the
396:
1141:
Even in paradise, where a harmonious and fruitful relationship between the loved and beloved remains a possibility, love never forms or subsists in a vacuum and is instead constantly tested and reshaped by the external realities that also allowed for it. Love eventually enters into a state of disequilibrium where both exterior circumstance and the instrinsic instability of the emotion jointly transmute the original form. The intemperance of love and the existence of evil as the result neglecting
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develops between this intractable and predetermined outlook characterizing Neo-Platonic thought and that of free will, personal accountability and the uniqueness of individual experiences. The very self-contained and immutable reality of things propounded during the height of the
Renaissance, in which entities remained suspended in their particular web of semblances and associations, is portrayed as a specious and unavailing contraption or constraining dogma that thoroughly undermines
574:
1299:
687:“Following the initial shock, Galatea becomes somewhat friendlier and less inaccessible. She coaxes the lucky young man to his feet; sweet and smiling, she is now ready to give, not peace to sleep, but indeed allowing a truce to rest, i.e., not excluding it, but postponing it for later. A hollow rock forms a shady cover for a cool, inviting settee with ivy twines serving as green shutters, climbing around trunks and embracing rocks.”
1044:, which they in turn used to costume a thematic focus. Góngora recreates events by focusing on the sensual impressions granted by the narrative. This reluctance to appeal to or rely on preconceived abstractions and prosaic lexicon and expressions forces the reader to reconstruct meaning. Given his highly sensorial lyrics and his reluctance to directly engage or placate the reader's understanding, literary critics, such as
554:. This contrasts sharply with the Darkness of Polyphemus’ cave. Contrasts or dissimilitude were often employed in Baroque art, more so than in the art of the Renaissance. As Enrica Cancelliere explains in her article "Dibujo y Color en la fabula de Polifemo y Galatea", the commonality of aesthetic interests existing between visual and poetic artists was often quite remarkable during the Baroque epoch:
1450:
contrast to the courtly poetry of the
Renaissance, the love of Acis and Galatea as portrayed by Gongora is grounded in the innocence of physical attraction, something which had been traditionally marginalized throughout the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. The actual degeneration of pagan sensibility is rooted in the metaphysical hierarchies of Neoplatonism and its populist successor,
1060:“Well, he may please himself for all of that, but what I don’t like is, he pleases YOU, Galatea –just let me at the guy, he’ll learn that I’m as strong as I am big! I’ll tear his living guts out and I’ll scatter his body parts in fields and in your waters, so you can mingle with his mangled limbs.”10 (Translation Bk. XIII of the Metamorphoses ln. 1249-1259)
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distinctions characterizing
Renaissance painting. By its scarce and exclusive nature, beauty becomes the unending pursuit or focus endowing the aspirant pursuer with a sense of purpose and meaning. These underlying values are reflected in the prevailing themes of Renaissance literature, particularly intangible beauty and harmonious idealization.
125:, a Castilian nobleman renowned for his generous patronage of 17th century Spain’s most preeminent artists. The work’s predominant themes, jealousy and competition, reflect the actual competitive environment and worldly aspirations that drove 17th-century poets such as Góngora to cultivate and display their artistic ingenuity. Góngora wrote his
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through the poem, there is a reversal between the role of the lover (Galatea) and the beloved (Acis). This inversion of the courtly poetry popular in the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance in which women were confined to the role of the humble, reticent and inactive role of the beloved spars with the expectations of the 17th century reader.
137:, which was a contemporary poem depicting the same mythological account. Additionally, the poem of Carillo y Sotomayor was in deed dedicated to the very same Count of Niebla. Luis Carrillo y Sotomayor was both Góngora’s friend and a fellow “culteranist” poet who died at the age of 27 in 1610, three years before Góngora's
1217:; and I have a group of sisters who protect me; yet I was unable to escape the love of a Cyclops without suffering for it,” and her voice choked with sobs. The girl wiped away Galatea’s tears with a hand white as marble and consoled her, saying, “Tell me about it, dearest, don’t hide your sorrow- you can trust me.”
283:(i.e. highly idiosyncratic linguistic modifications, classical lexicon and scholarly references) themselves. Additionally, the ornamentality and detail of the work is further complicated by a profuse usage of classical symbolism and external referencing (i.e. relevant mythological accounts communicated through
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later stages of Roman antiquity. These philosophical trends undoubtedly allowed for the gradual
Christianization of the empire. Ribó would elaborate that medieval Christianity greatly shaped European perceptions and taste placing parameters on those of even the most avid of Humanists during the Renaissance.
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focus, concentration and stability of form. “In contrast to the classical delineation of boundaries”, which gives precedence to forms with greater density and texture, the
Baroque style sought to dissolve the divisions between the ‘intended figure’ and ‘unintended background’ or apeirion “in favor of
1445:
The injustice experienced on a personal level, of change and of loss, offers a different rendition of what is theorized on the plane of remote abstraction. This is perhaps one reason that can explain the anti-intellectual tone maintained throughout the poem. In the face of destruction and suffering,
1140:
Within the scope of the
Polifemo, the presence of ugliness and the grotesque which taints the Arcadian landscape of the pastoral, proves predestined to annihilate both the beauty and harmony inherent in pastoral naivety, something which was cherished in both Renaissance art and the ancient bucolic.
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This underlying difference hints at Góngora's primary concern with form and his concern in capturing the full aesthetic effect through his representation of the emotional torrents of love, jealousy and murder. Stephen Wagschal argues in "Mas no cabrás allá": Góngora's Early Modern Representation of
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Being a work written during the Baroque Epoch, an epoch which favored the profuse use of contrasts in painting more so than any of the other period in Western History, the Fable of Polyphemus and Galatea takes upon itself this very theme concerning chromatic contrasts, the clash between darkness and
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Dentro de la época barroca que privilegia en todas las artes los contrastes a partir de la técnica del claroscuro en pintura, este poema ya desde el título Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea pone de relieve el tema del contraste cromático, el choque entre lo obscuro y lo resplandeciente; un poema escrito,
475:
Góngora portrays Galatea as both the inspiration whom the whole island of Sicily admires and adores. He goes on to deify her in the minds and rituals of the Sicilian locals. Her femininity remains the unparalleled source of inspiration for all of the inhabitants of the island as well as 'the good'
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that greatly influenced the course of Western philosophy. This outlook begs on the part of the subject a reorientation of all outlying perceptions and ultimately renders all teleological equilibria as purely theoretical conceptions. In the midst of flux, the subject is made a victim of his or her
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or “whiteness” of Galatea, Theocritus and Ovid both utilize the metaphor of milk. In fact, etymologically Galatea can be translated to mean “milk-white.” Nevertheless, within the context of Góngora's poem a reference or metaphor to milk does not occur. Given that Góngora was fully aware of this,
808:
La noche se muda en posibilidad de regeneración y no solamente por la topología uterina del antro sino por el vuelco mismo de la calidad cromática, connotando el negro, la ausencia absoluta de color, una infinita posibilidad receptiva y regeneradora: campo de epifanías de donde se espera que nazcan
446:
All of these forms serve an aesthetic purpose of preeminent importance as both capture the melancholic sense of longing and neglect that Góngora attempts to develop and incorporate into the overall narration. Ultimately, it is the poet who goes beyond the mere resemblance and commonality of things
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The eloquence of Polifemo's words as he serenades Galatea is particular to Góngora, which contrasts sharply with the grotesque and humorous classical portrayals of the barbarous Cyclops. Góngora chooses to exclude the image of the Cyclops raking (i.e. combing) his hair and other instances in which
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abstraction of femininity. Some examples are, “más brillante que el cristal” (brighter than cristal) and “más luciente que el hielo” (more translucent than ice). Ribó believes that this transposition of feminine ideal corresponds to the neo-platonic tradition that became exceedingly popular in the
608:
In these lines, Acis pursues Galatea with a different approach than his wistful cycloptic rival. John McCaw in “Turning a Blind Eye: Sexual Competition, Self-Nontraditional, and the Impotence of Pastoral in Góngora’s Fabula de Polifemo y Galatea” affirms that Acis's courtship stratagem engages the
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During the early 17th century, several scientific and cultural breakthroughs were being made that greatly reshaped Western cosmological perceptions. It seems that Gongora's work reflects this period enmeshed in social upheaval, lingering spiritual doubts and a pervasive feeling of instability. In
1380:
Presupposing the belief that the world resumes under a cyclic progression of infinite transformation, as propounded in the Metamorphoses of Ovid, the situation that originally gives rise to feelings such as love is likewise just as ephemeral or predisposed to change. Within the narrative, tension
902:
In Theocritus, Ovid and Góngora, the Songs of the Cyclops resemble one another to varying degrees. The two classical poems, which served as the framework for Gongora’s version, are characterized by the Cyclops’s invocation of Galatea which retains both a presumptuous and wistful tone. Some shared
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As stated by Leher, “Góngora is not interested in this story for the same reason as Ovid. Góngora was interested in this particular story for the contrasts, tensions, and resolutions of the forces which it offered, and his innovations and alterations were directed toward that purpose.” In sum,
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Within pre-Christian texts the portrayal of Galatea differs drastically from that of early modern depictions. Certain recurrent images present in Ovid and Theocritus that seem to be avoided altogether in Renaissance and Baroque poems are the mundane associations that pertain to her femininity.
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Theocritus and Ovid have Polyphemus compare Galatea’s physical beauty and allusiveness to natural and pastoral phenomena. The lamenting of Polyphemus is marked by the statement of her rejection of him and his consequent despondence. In Theocritus, “Polyphemus’ four comparisons are with the daily
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metaphysical assumptions maintained throughout the narrative foment a pervasive sense of competition that prompt egocentric feelings of vanity and jealousy, which together predicate violence and destruction. At the same time, the Polifemo could be interpreted analogically as a commentary of the
1227:
Within the Polifemo, Galatea transgresses the established gender roles that were rigidly maintained particularly in 17th century Spain. Góngora places Galatea in a much different light by having her assume a more sexually assertive role. Her shamelessly unrestrained behavior is distinct. Midway
816:
The night, in its vacuity, welcomes the possibility for redefinition or regeneration and this is possible not merely by means of its concavity, its uterine topology which begs to be filled, but by means of the natural overturning occurring firstly on this very chromatic dimension, connoting the
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innocence of Western tradition, which effectively predicates the licentious and exploitative associations with human sexuality. In this sense, the poem escapes the regular criticism so prevalent in Góngora's time. The bucolic genre effectively bypassed the social formalities, norms, taboos and
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are deeply rooted in a non-Christian pagan morality birthed by Socrates in which excess and evil are the products of ignorance, which can be effectively ameliorated with proper education. Evil is a condition when perceived through the lens of this highly deterministic outlook, which contrasts
183:
of Aristotle and debated in the literary circles of posterity would never cease to divide artists throughout the modern era. Culteranismo, which was particularly fond of playful obscurity, has consequently incurred the disdain of several critics for its liberal artistic outlooks, which critics
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In the Polifemo, the Arcadian world of bucolic poetry proves just as insecure as our own. The world, as the subject experiences it, remains exposed to an array of hostile outside influences that impinge upon our most gratifying experiences. Whether through a direct or indirect capacity, the
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Beauty itself as a pleasurable distinction amid a multitude of phenomena can only be made sensible through the necessary existence of the outlying inferior qualities or distinct forms surrounding the object in focus. Beauty as a focused pursuit is reflected in the clear background-foreground
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defined it, where the sublime in its dynamic form inevitably occurs at the climax of the narrative itself. The revelation of betrayal is accentuated by an analogous impression of the sublime as experienced in nature. This impression is the precursor to violence, destruction and the complete
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and the Present by denigrating the very sensibility of phenomena. The poem has anti-intellectual undertones and seems to idealize pagan love as a contrast to both Polifemo's unavailing lamentations that mirror the courtly love poetry popular throughout both Medieval Christendom and the Early
1280:
and suggests displacement and alienation. The interruption of Polifemo’s song resembles a “jog in timing which hastens the denouement of the poem.” Thus, while it does not deviate from the unfolding of the plot, it definitely elicits an aesthetic effect not present in its Roman predecessor.
406:
In Góngora's description of the scenery and the characters of the Polifemo, the descriptions themselves become the focus and take on an existence of their own. No longer are properties subordinate to the objects from which they emanate. No longer is there the subjugation of form required in
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that at times drastically opposed the rigid moral standards later established by the Church. The Polifemo ultimately represents the redeeming aspect of love as it arises from and is consequently destroyed by the inscrutable primordial chaos that gives form to passion. The poem celebrates
295:, though often intuited as an umbrella term for a particular display of culteranismo, can be thought of as a poetic device that abandons the precision of ordinary language for the sake of artistic expression. Within the poem, parallelism, proportionality, dissonance and intricate array of
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A noticeable difference is in the discovery of the lovers. While in Ovid, the Cyclops stumbles upon them while he is roaming the countryside, Góngora has the discovery interrupt the song of the Cyclops as he is lamenting. As Lehrer goes on to state in her mythological analysis of the
1401:
The Polifemo reflects a change in the aesthetic and philosophical perceptions of 17th-century Europe. Though the poem does offer a critique of former metaphysical and artistic outlooks, the poem is thoroughly distinct in form. The aesthetic focus, for example, shifts towards the
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business of agriculture and husbandry, made special nevertheless by the endearing simplicity of this Cyclops.” In contrast, Góngora portrays Polyphemous as deeply poetic and sophisticated despite his ferocious appearance, lifestyle and the egotistical/antisocial disposition.
1268:
scrupulous attention is given to his physical appearance. In Ovid, this was used likewise for a humorous effect, which was inappropriate for the graver tone set by Góngora. There are several comedic elements to the ancient texts that were selectively discarded by Góngora.
928:
Though the narrative structure differs substantially from that found in Ovid's version, Góngora assumes a similar plot with the Cyclops's murder of Acis followed by the young boy's transformation. Though Ovid's work serves as the thematic and narrative framework for the
415:
is often characterized by a breakdown in such distinctions and the deterioration of these established ideals. As with Baroque visual art, within the Polifemo, there is a genuine lack of easily recognizable forms. In turn, this new awareness and appreciation of form
386:
deviates from the Renaissance ideal, which differentiated forms by establishing boundaries, namely foregrounds and backgrounds where central objects or figures displaced the prominence of other things. Within the art of the Renaissance, there is a higher degree of
924:
Though other imitations and related works exist, the primary inspiration for Góngora was undoubtedly Ovid who portrayed the tale in a way that conformed to the Metamorphoses's integral theme of transformation where beginnings and ends that feed into one another.
191:
contradicted the claims of more traditional critics who sought to tame instinct by imposing a rigorous aesthetic framework of poetic regulations derived from the ancients in order to establish a more coherent dialogue with the audience or reader. Critics such as
1454:. Sensualism in poetry had always been harangued by Church officials particularly during the Renaissance when there was a renewed interest in Pagan culture. This was understandable given that the literature of antiquity clearly possessed a distinctive
834:
In the versions of both Góngora and Ovid, the ending of the poem is one of violence and transformation. In both tales, after the Cyclops laments, the two lovers are eventually discovered, thus provoking the anger of Polyphemus who strikes the fleeing
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style that matured in 17th century Western painting. The striking contrast of the poem rests in the juxtaposition of the dark, gloomy and burdened existence of Polifemo with the figure of Galatea, the paragon of light, beauty and contentedness.
599:
An interesting correlation of Góngora's poem to that of the classical source is the individual's appeal through his pedigree. The divine lineages of the two suitors, an issue of prevalence within classical works, is incorporated into the poem.
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with a boulder that he rips from the landscape. In both the Latin and the Spanish poem, the youthful Acis is crushed and killed by Polyphemus's striking boulder. Only after violent death is the boy is subsequently transformed into a river.
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The question of perfection, of a harmonious situation where nothing can be added without worsening conditions for individuals and set relationships, drives the narrative of the Polifemo. Essentially, the poem exposits the implausibility of
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black, the absolute absence of color, an infinite receptive and regenerative possibility: realm of possibilities where one can await the recurrent birth of light, of life, of both profundity and form and, ultimately, the esoteric cavern of
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exterior world inevitably prompts a change in the present arrangement in the very same manner that originally allowed for the conditions at hand. Essentially, life as a continuum of contingent experiences reflects the doctrine of
1032:
In addition to ornamental descriptions giving life to the Cyclops' mundane possessions, Góngora often incorporates anecdotes that detract from the overall narration as in St. 50-53 regarding the shipwrecked Genoese merchants.
231:. Culteranismo has always retained a highly arcane and esoteric quality throughout the centuries which would eventually inform the mystical nostalgia definitive to the poetry of other 20th century modernist poets. Along with
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Unlike Ovid, Góngora does not opt for such a calculating and cold-blooded portrayal of Polyphemus and instead stresses the impetuousness of the genuinely committed Cyclops as he accidentally catches the two lovers together:
1154:, the pagans offered a much more rational explanation that rested in the philosophical categorization that delineated the good. All conditions contrary to this understanding were in a sense flawed to various extents (see
801:
As stated by Cancelliere in her investigation of the poem's visual dynamics, primordial darkness itself, embodied by the character of Polifemo, seems to be the recurring cradle and grave of all perception or advancement:
1208:
to comb, heaved a sigh and said: “You, dear girl, are pursued by the kind of men you would hardly consider uncouth, and you can say no to them, as you do, without a second thought. But consider my case: My father is
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devolution of the Cyclops to his natural state. Essentially, Góngora pushes the concept of jealousy to its fullest extent by interfacing the human emotion with its corresponding destructive aspect of nature.
367:). The presence of contrasts, of antithesis and dissimilitude reflects a veritable lack of aesthetic concentration as well as deficient narrative unity deemed necessary in traditional Aristotelean
439:
themselves are often depersonalized by their metaphoric descriptions, by anecdote and by the portrayal of their circumstance or immediate environment in which they are blended. In the context of
798:
It is within the Song of the Cyclops where Polyphemus arises from his obscurity. His perpetual pain and incessant longing drive his lyrics. It is through his situation that his art emerges.
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sensuality of Galatea and triumphs over the “contemplative love” of Polifemo. Acis expresses his desire through means of luxurious material offerings, hinting at the old pagan practice of the
1255:
Ovid presents the tale as a recollection and incorporates it into other mythological accounts of transformation. His rendering of the tale portrays the act as something already experienced.
860:, the comprehensive artistic representation of the fabled lovers’ tryst, the rejection and consequent dejection of Polyphemus and the subsequent murder of Acis was realized much later in
176:
279:
comprises 504 lines. Throughout the poem there is an abundance of poetic correspondences (i.e. organic or interior referencing), which contrast sharply with the abstruse quality of the
945:, “Góngora made many innovations in the myth which he inherited from Ovid. Some of them have a merely ornamental function, while others are organically essential to Góngora’s poem.”
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symbol for dispassionate truth or enlightenment. The Cyclops realizes his surrogate beauty in the form of discourse and song, which he contrasts with the tangible beauty of a lover.
388:
911:
There exists in all three poems a description of his unappealing physical appearance. Góngora's song is more subtle and consciously avoids the burlesque comedy found in Ovid.
161:(artistic ingenuity or innovation). Regarding its literary form, the poem develops in a manner that is distinctively unmindful of the mediating artistic clarity outlined in
1837:
Ruster, Michael Bradburn. "Fabula de Polifonia: Harmony and Discord in Gongora's Polifemo." Lucero: A Journal of Iberian and Latin American Studies (Spring 1991): 112-119.
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Nevertheless, Ovid was not the first poet to exploit the poetic potential of these mythical figures. Though his influence on this poem is less direct, the founder of the
134:
130:
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otra vez la luz, los colores, la profundidad, las apariciones, en fin, la caverna esotérica, sea de Platón, sea de los antiguos ritos iniciáticos y de los misterios.
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representations of Polyphemus and Galatea (as seen in Theocritus), the words of the Góngora's Cyclops are incongruous with his outward appearance and his essential
1247:
Meanwhile, Góngora makes this evident and limits the ambiguity of the extent of the brief relationship and by doing so Galatea substantiates her latent sexuality.
359:, which makes itself apparent at the very beginning of the poem. Given his fondness for convoluted and self-fashioned metaphors in addition to his profuse use of
236:
857:
921:
Theocritus's version ends in the young Cyclop's self-reprimands. Furthermore, The tone is purely innocent and humorous, while hope for another love remains.
1368:. It presents evil not as an unjustified primordial element independent of humankind, but as a corollary to the finite nature of the material universe. The
440:
1788:
McCaw, John R. “Turning a Blind Eye: Sexual Competition, Self-Contradiction, and the Importance of Pastoral in Góngora's ‘Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea’.”
480:), the ultimate pursuit and the sole object of desire. The sanctification of feminine beauty and grace eventually leads to an emerging cult of Galatea.
1320:
941:
There are several notable differences in terms of content that distinguish the Polifemo from its predecessor. As Melinda Eve Lehrer states in her work
1155:
331:(the reverential imitation of the art of the ancients) was prevalent in Renaissance poetry as seen in the verse of the highly influential Spanish poet
90:). The work is traditionally regarded as one of Góngora’s most lofty poetic endeavors and is arguably his finest artistic achievement along with the
720:
699:
Contrary to Acis, Polyphemus represents failed self-cultivation, convention as opposed to nature, and the fruitless application of the virtues of
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poets as highly affected, superficial and purposefully obscure with the intention of masking poetic mediocrity with highly ornate phraseology.
455:
and the underlying perception of persistent sympathies that arise between two separate entities was an idea deeply rooted in the 16th century
1391:
1530:
see Jauregi's "Discurso poético contra el hablar culto y oscuro" (1624) and "Antídoto contra la pestilente poesía de las Soledades" (1624)
1406:
and perhaps this is the most palpable distinction. The poetic style also reflects the prevalent sense of anxiety characterizing both the
1036:
The thematic aloofness of Góngora's verse contrasts sharply with his purely conceptista contemporaries who valued a verbal economy of
727:) as well as the vigilance against moral and bodily corruption are central to neo-platonic understanding that finds its way into this
948:
There are several ornamental additions that detract from the narration that are obviously not present in its classical counterpart:
731:
landscape through the most unlikely of characters. Throughout the poem the Cyclops's eye is identified with the sun, a traditional
193:
1422:, arcane classical allusions, abstruse metaphors and intricate witticisms mark a genuine distinction from Renaissance poetry (see
1259:
Góngora seeks to recreate the experience in order to capture the full aesthetic potential provided by the background narrative.
1878:
1463:
as described by Robert Jammes and conversely criticizes the intellectualism that needlessly justifies and consequently stifles
578:
1181:
68:. Through the incorporation of highly innovative poetic techniques, Góngora effectively advances the background story of
211:
and would influence in turn the styles of even his most malicious critics. The sophisticated metaphors displayed in the
1721:
Baena, Julio. "Tiempo Pasado y Tiempo Presente: De la Presencia a la estereofonia en la Fabula de Polifemo y Galatea."
371:. Instead, Góngora juxtaposes conflicting images of beauty and ugliness, harmony and discord to hint at an underlying
1845:
1346:
64:, attempts to go beyond the established versions of the myth by reconfiguring the narrative structure handed down by
1728:
Barnard, Mary E. "The Gaze and the Mirror: Vision, Desire, and Identity in Gongora's Fabula de Polifemo y Galatea."
1328:
1180:. Ribó notes that Góngora opts instead for other representations of feminine beauty that appeal to the platonic or
1823:
Ribó Labastida, Ignasi. “Galatea o la leche. La descripción de la belleza femenina en Teócrito, Ovidio y Góngora.”
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demonstrates the fullest extent of Góngora’s highly accentuated, erudite and impressionistic poetic style known as
1197:
Ovid seems to represent Galatea as entirely helpless and passive as she laments over the brutality of Polyphemus:
207:
Regardless of the charges levied against his style, Góngora would remain one of the most influential poets of the
879:
Galatea. The pastoral genre was subject to later imitation by other prominent figures of antiquity, as seen in
1795:
O'Connor, Thomas Austin. "Sobre el Bozo de Acis: Una Apostilla a los Versos 279-280 del Polifemo de Gongora."
1324:
363:, the quality of the lyrical poetry defamiliarizes and reconfigures all aspects of the original narration (see
1040:
and a less convoluted interplay between words (signs) and their meaning (signifiers) as the true testament of
86:
was completed in manuscript form in 1613 and was subsequently published in 1627 after Góngora’s death (see
69:
141:
was completed. The premature death of a promising pupil in a sense prompted the creation of the Polifemo.
896:
332:
102:’s sophisticated poetic style, which slowly developed over the course of his career. In addition to the
1749:
Dolan, Kathleen H. “Figure and Ground: Concrete Mysticism in Gongora’s ‘Fabula de Polifemo y Galatea’.”
57:
1851:
Wagschal, Steven. "Mas no cabrás allá": Góngora's Early Modern Representation of the Modern Sublime.”
1830:
Ricapito, Joseph V. "Galatea's Fall and the Inner Dynamics of Gongora's Fabula de Polifemo y Galatea."
1742:
Carenas, Francisco. "El Lenguaje, ese oscuro y enigmatico objeto: El Caso de El Polifemo de Gongora."
703:
thought, which stressed upward progression, refinement, beauty and universal harmony Unlike the usual
424:, a group of like-minded poets who furthermore celebrated and, at the same time, critiqued the Western
417:
208:
1624:
Ricapito, Josph V. "Galatea's Fall and the Inner Dynamics of Gongora's Fabula de Polifemo y Galatea."
1438:). During this period, there seems to be an unprecedented focus on artistic form, which is a rather
144:
263:
would continue to incur criticism from more conservative Spanish poets and thinkers for centuries.
1681:
Alonso: Estudios y Ensayos Gongorinos and Poesía Española: Ensayo de Métodos y Límites Estilísticos
1309:
17:
1231:
Despite the sexual overtones of the poem, the Bucolic environment captures the Adamic or Pre-fall
1128:
the Modern Sublime” that in doing this, Góngora fully demonstrates the aesthetic character of the
224:
1313:
327:
itself over that of a more rudimentary imitation delineated by regulations and set expectations.
1763:
Garcia, Luis M. Vicente. "El lenguaje hermetico en la Fabula de Polifemo y Galatea de Gongora."
319:
celebrates antiquity and the pastoral genre. Furthermore, this introduction involving a Grecian
275:
is composed of 63 stanzas, each of which are composed of 8 lines in total. In its entirety, the
1868:
1548:
See "Nueva Poesía. Conceptismo, Culteranismo en la Crítica Española" by Collard (in Progress)
1277:
843:
822:
614:
425:
228:
197:
8:
1883:
1873:
1411:
1223:(Ovid Book XIII of the Metamorphoses ln 742–749. English Translation by Michael Simpson)
464:
61:
1403:
1185:
1129:
829:
395:
99:
1756:
Friedman, Edward H. "Creative Space: Ideologies of Discourse in Gongora's Polifemo."
1244:
Ovid is not so suggestive and does not note whether or not the love was consummated.
1214:
1147:
626:
448:
216:
60:. The poem, though borrowing heavily from prior literary sources of Greek and Roman
355:
genre, Góngora maintains a fluctuating Background–Foreground dynamic throughout the
1439:
1361:
551:
392:
a vision characterized by ‘a mysterious interflow of form and light and colour.’”.
37:
1045:
456:
1435:
1365:
936:
875:, wrote a burlesque poem representing Polyphemus and his unrequited love for the
460:
408:
336:
172:
1150:. Instead of relying upon a preexisting cosmological force and the doctrine of
452:
300:
1476:
1232:
613:, as well as unadulterated “erotic passion” that is not transcendent and thus,
307:
also give the poem greater complexity than that of its classical predecessors.
171:
Contemporary critics such as Luis Carrillo y Sotomayor would come to see these
157:
is unprecedented for Góngora in terms of its length, its florid style, and its
122:
87:
33:
1168:
1862:
1730:
Caliope: Journal of the Society for Renaissance & Baroque Hispanic Poetry
1723:
Caliope: Journal of the Society for Renaissance & Baroque Hispanic Poetry
1176:
it is interesting that he consciously choose to filter this image out of his
1161:
1133:
1037:
316:
310:
220:
990:
Furthermore, as Leher points out, when displaying his wealth and fecundity:
447:
as orchestrator of inter-subjectivity to both imagine and project a kindred
1735:
Cancelliere, Enrica. "Dibujo y Color en La Fabula de Polifemo Y Galatea."
1451:
1427:
1151:
852:
Though the mythological characters themselves can be traced to various pre-
716:
700:
477:
111:
1056:
Ovid, Gongora's predecessor, portrays Acis’ murder as a premeditated act:
1464:
1276:, “interruption of a speaker is in fact a motif that occurs in Góngora’s
888:
853:
587:
429:
376:
252:
232:
1051:
1816:
Raulston, Stephen B. "Vision, Desire, and the Reader of the Polifemo."
1811:
Polyphemus and Galatea: A Study in the Interpretation of a Baroque Poem
1460:
1419:
1415:
1386:
Renaissance in addition to the reemerging Platonic strains of thought.
872:
732:
724:
368:
364:
360:
304:
76:
550:
Sicily, the setting of the tale, resembles the classical archetype of
1431:
1382:
876:
712:
708:
704:
372:
288:
284:
256:
162:
91:
1298:
625:
In these stanzas, Galatea's inaccessible character as an ideal (see
573:
346:
1423:
1369:
1142:
892:
884:
830:
Lovers discovered, death and transformation of Acis – Stanzas 59–63
610:
586:
This poetic trend entranced with antithesis is concurrent with the
352:
340:
595:
Description of Acis and the meeting of the lovers – Stanza 25
1407:
914:
Polyphemus lists his fecundity or material wealth in all 3 poems.
868:
728:
412:
166:
73:
1048:, have labeled Góngora's style as particularly impressionistic.
343:, who revolutionized the poetry of the 14th and 15th centuries.
1575:
see Foucault's "The Prose of the World", second chapter within
1210:
1205:
880:
382:
The interspersing of the unsavory and the melancholic with the
351:
Contrary to the tranquil and idealized settings typical of the
251:(Latin term for artistic imitation), a tendency that dominated
937:
Deviations from the Ovidian portrayal and Gongorine innovation
243:, as a 17th-century artistic movement, sought to elevate pure
1455:
887:, as well as by prominent figures of the Italian and Spanish
818:
514:
383:
1834:
160-180. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2003.
1373:
aesthetic and ethical systems of Gongora's time and place.
604:
Meeting of the two lovers and courtship – Stanzas 26–37
1394:
836:
320:
65:
1825:
Revista de Literatura Española Medieval y del Renacimiento
1162:
The beauty of Galatea: The material vs. the transcendental
311:
Opening (dedication to the Patron of Niebla) – Stanzas 1–3
1577:
The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences
1284:
1041:
971:
Either, they are blocked, when slumber makes you distant
296:
1804:
La Creación Gongorina En Los Poemas Polifemo Y Soledades
1250:
1818:
Lucero: A Journal of Iberian and Latin American Studies
772:
Either, they’re blocked, when slumber makes you distant
1239:
1146:
sharpely with the Judeo-Christian explanation for the
694:
1052:
The murder of Acis: Premeditated vs. crime of passion
200:, for reasons related to their obscure lyricism, saw
32:"Polifemo" redirects here. For the opera composed by
470:
690:(English Prose Translation by Miroslav John Hanak)
621:
The consummation of the lovers – Stanzas 38–42
526:
Or to those who fleece the snow or gold are moving,
1108:His voice beech trees as jealous thunder harried:
347:The Cave and the World of Polifemo – Stanzas 4–12
1860:
1192:
545:
117:As made evident in the opening of the poem, the
1760:. 57-78. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins UP, 1995.
1112:Before the lightning, trumpets come of thunder
780:Lures you to dancing; some day, you’ll discover
523:Wool flakes in scores are on the other snowing.
1262:
1017:As if were sunrays off gold distaffs reeling.
519:For what are fields, and more, to Ceres owing;
335:who in turn borrowed heavily from the Italian
72:’s infatuation as well as the jealousy of the
1802:Pabst, Walter. Translation by Nicolas Marin.
1104:A brief defense, by naked tribesmen carried)—
1073:
998:
956:
917:Polyphemus admonishes Galatea to be with him.
806:
774:By coral trunks that in the sea waves molder.
768:Deaf daughter of the sea, your ears resistant
743:
558:
488:
315:The elaborate summoning of the Sicilian Muse
56:, is a literary work written by Spanish poet
1832:Women in the Discourse of Early Modern Spain
1779:Classical Myth and the ‘Polifemo’ of Gongora
1668:
1666:
1110:So, too, before the livid cloud will sunder,
1013:Whose swarms will April free, if not as many
975:Or, the dissonant clash of clams persistent
943:Classical Myth and the “Polifemo” of Góngora
844:Background, the classical precursors of the
770:Are to my dirges like to winds this boulder:
632:
521:If one is with a rain of gold grains wetted,
266:
149:and poetic liberation in the Spanish Baroque
1797:Boletin de la Biblioteca de Menendez Pelayo
1327:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
821:, of those ancient rites and of those long
776:Or, the dissonant clash of clams persistent
528:They worship, either out of love, or piety,
1813:. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977.
1364:, of an ideal world, given the persistent
1204:“One day, Galatea, spreading her hair for
1102:(Such might sight a Libyan buckler traces,
1100:Of fleeing snow, as to the sea she hurried
973:coral trunks that in the sea waves molder.
175:precepts as artistically stifling. In his
1663:
1410:period and the historical context of the
1347:Learn how and when to remove this message
903:characteristics of classical origin are:
782:My beauty in my voice, not in the lover.
778:—An ocean music, yes, and none is bolder—
492:Lo que a Ceres, y aun mas, su vega llana;
402:by Juan Bautista Martínez del Mazo (1665)
27:Literary work by Luis de Góngora y Argote
1774:. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 1988.
1539:see Quevedo's "Aguaja de Navegar Cultos"
1098:At last, the giant spied the muted paces
1015:As May unleashes, wax the amber sealing,
656:Paces no al sueño, treguas si al reposo.
572:
394:
223:as well as modern Spanish poets such as
1737:Asociación Internacional de Hispanistas
494:Pues si en la una granos de oro llueve,
463:exposes in his highly influential work
14:
1861:
1758:Cultural Authority in Golden Age Spain
1083:Y al garzón viendo, cuantas mover pudo
1081:Registra el campo de su adarga breve)—
755:—marino, si agradable no, instrumento—
711:. The emphasis on the intellect, the
676:Trepando troncos y abrazando piedras.”
504:Deidad, aunque sin templo, es Galatea.
500:O en pipas guardan la exprimida grana,
498:De cuantos siegan oro, esquilan nieve,
420:became the chief artistic concern for
184:lampooned as frivolous and pedantic.
98:, in sum, realizes the final stage of
1251:Temporal differences in the narrative
1106:On seeing Acis, through as many races
1004:Y en ruecas de oro rayos de sol hilan
1000:Cuyos enjambres, o el abril los abra,
759:Mi voz, por dulce, cuando no por mía.
1325:adding citations to reliable sources
1292:
1236:concerns of posterior civilization.
1085:Celoso trueno, antiguas hayas mueve:
1079:(que a tanta vista el Líbico desnudo
1075:Viendo el fiero jayan, con paso mudo
1067:
1002:O los desate el mayo, ámbar destilan
992:
960:Purpúreos troncos de corales ciento,
950:
757:Coros tejiendo estés escuchas un día
751:Purpúreos troncos de corales ciento,
737:
719:satirically labelled as "thinkery" (
482:
1772:The Fable of Polyphemus and Galatea
1240:Physical consummation of the lovers
1121:—Translated by Miroslav John Hanak
1087:Tal, antes que la opaca nube rompa,
792:—Translated by Miroslav John Hanak
695:Song of the Cyclops – Stanzas 43–58
539:—Translated by Miroslav John Hanak
530:Without a temple, Galatea’s deity.
496:Copos nieva en la otra mil de lana.
194:Juan Martínez de Jáuregui y Aguilar
50:The Fable of Polyphemus and Galatea
24:
747:A mis gemidos son rocas al viento:
379:as both prolific and destructive.
25:
1895:
1846:University of Massachusetts Press
1806:. Imprenta Aguirre: Madrid, 1966.
962:O al disonante numero de almejas.
749:O dormida te huerten a mis quejas
666:A un fresco sitial dosel umbroso,
502:Bien sea religión, bien amor sea,
471:Galatea described – Stanzas 13–17
1297:
958:O dormida te hurten a mis quejas
753:O al disonante numero de almejas
745:Sorda hija del mar, cuyas orejas
651:Dulce ya concediéndole y risueña
641:“Más agradable y menos zahareña,
1702:
1693:
1684:
1675:
1654:
1645:
1636:
1627:
1618:
1609:
1600:
1591:
1582:
1089:Previene rayo fulminante trompa
1077:Correr al mar la fugitiva nieve
671:Y verdes celosías unas hiedras,
235:, culteranismo largely defined
45:La Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea
1569:
1560:
1551:
1542:
1533:
1524:
1511:
1498:
1489:
490:A Pales su viciosa cumbre debe
121:was dedicated to the Count of
13:
1:
1879:Poetry based on Metamorphoses
1855:70.2 (Spring, 2002): 169-189.
1753:52.2 (Spring, 1984): 223-232.
1715:
1519:Libro de la Erudición Poética
1193:Character portrayals: Galatea
646:Al mancebo levanta venturoso,
546:Description of Sicily – 18–24
517:are its rugged peaks indebted
177:Libro de la Erudición Poética
145:Conventional restraints; the
1792:127 (September 1999): 27-35.
1746:20.48 (Sept. 1990): 151-159.
715:or, the ancient rationalism
661:Lo cóncavo hacia de una pena
7:
1470:
1263:Other narrative differences
432:traditions of this epoch.
106:and other later works, the
10:
1900:
227:and fellow members of the
31:
1842:The Metamorphoses of Ovid
1289:and the Renaissance ideal
400:The Stag hunt at Aranjuez
267:Plot summary and analysis
1739:Actas X (1989): 789-798.
1482:
633:
135:Fabula de Acis y Galatea
131:Luis Carillo y Sotomayor
58:Luis de Góngora y Argote
1820:1 (Spring 1990): 17-27.
1171:, when emphasizing the
582:by Caravaggio (c. 1610)
579:The Denial of St. Peter
1414:. The liberal use of
1225:
1213:; my mother, sea-blue
1096:
1074:
1071:
1062:
1011:
999:
996:
969:
957:
954:
827:
813:
807:
766:
744:
741:
692:
583:
571:
565:
559:
511:
489:
486:
465:Les Mots et Les Choses
403:
259:). The ambiguity of
237:Spanish Baroque Poetry
1809:Parker, Alexander A.
1777:Lehrer, Melinda Eve.
1770:Hanak, Miroslav John.
1199:
1058:
858:book 9 of the Odyssey
848:and poetic innovation
814:
804:
631:
576:
566:
556:
398:
225:Federico García Lorca
1321:improve this section
897:Garcilaso de la Vega
629:) is made tangible:
333:Garcilaso de la Vega
215:would later inspire
198:Francisco de Quevedo
1799:68 (1992): 143-148.
1783:Scripta Humanistica
1767:23 (2004): 435-455.
1508:(Quotation Pending)
1412:Counter-Reformation
871:or pastoral genre,
823:forgotten mysteries
435:The figures of the
1840:Simpson, Michael.
1732:8.1 (2002): 69-85.
1725:2.1 (1996): 79-99.
864:’s Metamorphoses.
584:
441:Baroque aesthetics
404:
247:over the ideal of
1357:
1356:
1349:
1148:existence of evil
1125:
1124:
1030:
1029:
988:
987:
856:sources, such as
796:
795:
627:Platonic idealism
615:anti-intellectual
543:
542:
451:. This issue of
229:Generation of '27
217:French symbolists
52:), or simply the
16:(Redirected from
1891:
1744:Letras de Deusto
1709:
1706:
1700:
1697:
1691:
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1564:
1558:
1555:
1549:
1546:
1540:
1537:
1531:
1528:
1522:
1515:
1509:
1504:see Aristotle's
1502:
1496:
1493:
1352:
1345:
1341:
1338:
1332:
1301:
1293:
1156:Nichomean Ethics
1091:
1068:
1006:
993:
964:
951:
811:
761:
738:
563:
506:
483:
70:Acis and Galatea
38:Polifemo (opera)
21:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1888:
1859:
1858:
1853:Hispanic Review
1844:. Amherst, MA:
1781:. Potomac, MD:
1751:Hispanic Review
1718:
1713:
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1698:
1694:
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1646:
1642:Cancelliere 270
1641:
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1623:
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1610:
1605:
1601:
1597:Cancelliere 279
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1525:
1516:
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1503:
1499:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1473:
1442:preoccupation.
1366:problem of evil
1353:
1342:
1336:
1333:
1318:
1302:
1291:
1278:Soledad Primera
1265:
1253:
1242:
1195:
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1101:
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1078:
1076:
1054:
1038:correspondences
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1001:
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522:
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518:
508:
503:
501:
499:
497:
495:
493:
491:
473:
461:Michel Foucault
411:. Instead, the
409:Renaissance art
349:
339:poets, such as
337:Dolce Stil Novo
313:
299:involving both
269:
209:Spanish Baroque
187:The primacy of
151:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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1617:
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1599:
1590:
1581:
1568:
1559:
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1541:
1532:
1523:
1517:see Carillo's
1510:
1497:
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1484:
1481:
1480:
1479:
1477:1613 in poetry
1472:
1469:
1398:circumstance.
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721:Phrontisterion
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150:
143:
88:1627 in poetry
34:Nicola Porpora
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1896:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
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1869:Spanish poems
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1790:Hispanofila
1765:Edad de Oro
1465:erotic love
1169:Ignasi Ribó
1024:—Stanza 50
982:—Stanza 48
889:Renaissance
854:Hellenistic
789:—Stanza 48
713:dialectical
588:Chiaroscuro
430:Hermeneutic
377:erotic love
323:emphasizes
253:Renaissance
233:conceptismo
1884:Polyphemus
1874:1613 poems
1863:Categories
1827:10 (2006).
1716:References
1461:Pagan Love
1436:Préciosité
1420:antithesis
1416:hyperbaton
1392:Heracletan
1186:Beatricean
891:, such as
873:Theocritus
733:Apollonian
725:The Clouds
453:similitude
369:aesthetics
365:ostranenie
361:hiperbatón
305:antithesis
301:similitude
77:Polyphemus
1708:Lehrer 35
1690:Hanak 186
1672:Lehrer 29
1660:Lehrer 28
1651:Lehrer 19
1633:Hanak 138
1615:Hanak 106
1566:Dolan 225
1557:Warshaw 1
1432:Marinismo
1383:Immanence
1308:does not
877:Sea-nymph
709:barbarism
705:burlesque
418:in-itself
373:dichotomy
289:anecdotes
285:metaphors
281:cultismos
257:ad fontes
163:Aristotle
104:Soledades
92:Soledades
62:Antiquity
1606:McCaw 30
1588:Hanak 53
1471:See also
1424:Euphuism
1370:zero-sum
1287:Polifemo
1274:Polifemo
1178:Polifemo
1173:blancura
1143:the good
931:Polifemo
893:Petrarch
885:Eclogues
846:Polifemo
611:Anathema
457:épistémè
437:Polifemo
426:Humanist
389:hermetic
357:Polifemo
353:pastoral
341:Petrarch
329:Imitatio
293:cultismo
277:Polifemo
273:Polifemo
249:imitatio
219:such as
213:Polifemo
155:Polifemo
147:Polifemo
139:Polifemo
127:Polifemo
119:Polifemo
108:Polifemo
96:Polifemo
84:Polifemo
54:Polifemo
18:Polifemo
1848:, 2001.
1785:, 1989.
1506:Poetics
1495:Hanak 3
1408:Baroque
1404:sublime
1362:Arcadia
1329:removed
1314:sources
1130:sublime
869:bucolic
729:bucolic
723:- from
552:Arcadia
413:Baroque
384:idyllic
325:ingenio
245:ingenio
189:ingenio
181:Poetics
167:Poetics
159:ingenio
100:Góngora
94:. The
74:Cyclops
1579:(1970)
1521:(1611)
1440:modern
1233:Edenic
1211:Nereus
1206:Scylla
1182:Marian
881:Virgil
317:Thalia
123:Niebla
36:, see
1483:Notes
1456:ethos
1215:Doris
1132:, as
819:Plato
515:Pales
459:, as
291:). A
1395:flux
1312:any
1310:cite
1285:The
1134:Kant
895:and
862:Ovid
837:Acis
449:will
428:and
321:muse
303:and
297:puns
287:and
271:The
196:and
153:The
82:The
66:Ovid
1323:by
1184:or
1158:).
1042:wit
883:’s
513:To
375:of
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