46:
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influenza co-infection is a facilitator for pneumococcal susceptibility, transmission, and disease via bacterial shedding. A third study of note, from 2016, was able to examine pneumococcal transmission without co-infection of an URT infection. This study utilized intra-litter transmission in infant mice during bacterial mono-infection with pneumococcus. The results of this study indicated higher rates of shedding for infections in younger mice.
174:(IAV) stimulates the flow of mucus through the expression of glycoproteins, prompts secretion, and increases shedding. Streptococcus is found in the inflammation-generated mucus layers covering the URT and increased pneumococci are observed in nasal secretions with IAV co-infection. Levels of shedding have correlations with IAV induced URT inflammation. Pro-inflammatory effects are exhibited by the single pneumococcal toxin,
112:
can resist the antibiotics, causing symptoms to worsen. Age and health of the infected patient can also contribute to the effectiveness of the antibiotics. A vaccine has been developed for the prevention of pneumococcal pneumonia, recommended to children under age five as well as adults over the age of 65.
133:
in the
Netherlands describes his observations in mice, stating that in these animals, the spread of the bacteria only occurs between animals already infected with the influenza virus, not between those without it. He says that these findings have only been inclusive in mice, however, he believes that
208:
For successful acquisition in a new host, pneumococcus must successfully adhere to the mucous membrane of the new host's nasopharynx. Pneumococcus is able to evade detection by the mucous membrane when there is a higher proportion of negatively charged capsules. This clearance is mediated by
111:
In most cases, once pneumococcal pneumonia has been identified, doctors will prescribe antibiotics. These antibiotics usually help alleviate and eliminate symptoms between 12 and 36 hours after the initial dose. Despite most antibiotics' effectiveness in treating the disease, sometimes the bacteria
166:
in co-housed ferret pairs found that the influenza increased both incidence and severity of pneumococcal infection. These findings exhibited pneumococcal strain dependence. A separate 2010 study examining intra-litter transmission, with influenza co-infection in infant mice, found that the
86:
The symptoms of pneumococcal pneumonia can occur suddenly, presenting as a severe chill, followed by a severe fever, cough, shortness of breath, rapid breathing, and chest pains. Other symptoms like nausea, vomiting, headache, fatigue, and muscle aches could also accompany initial symptoms. The
158:
In order for transmission to occur, there must be close contact with a carrier or amongst carriers. The likelihood of this increases during colder, dryer months of the year. The probability of transmission is shown to proliferate in coordination with other upper respiratory tract (URT)
185:
Transmission via the secretions of carriers can result from direct interpersonal contact or contact with a contaminated surface. Bacteria on contaminated surfaces can be easily cultured. In conditions with sufficient nutrients, pneumococci can survive for 24 hours and avoid
150:) leave the colonized host via shedding in order to be transmissible to new hosts, and must survive in the environment until infection of a new host (unless direct transmission occurs). Animal models have allowed scientists to have an increased understanding of these stages of infection.
732:
Verhagen, Lilly M.; Jonge, Marien I. de; Burghout, Peter; Schraa, Kiki; Spagnuolo, Lorenza; Mennens, Svenja; Eleveld, Marc J.; Jongh, Christa E. van der Gaast-de; Zomer, Aldert; Hermans, Peter W. M.; Bootsma, Hester J. (2014-02-25).
128:
or meningitis caused by the streptococcus pneumonaie bacteria, new medical research in mice indicates that the flu is actually a necessary component for the transmission of the disease. Researcher
Dimitri Diavatopoulo from the
276:(ChoP) components on colonized epithelial cells allow for docking of choline binding proteins (CBPs), most notably CbpA. Colonization of the respiratory tract, and thus pneumonia cannot occur without CpbA.
291:
to the apical surface. Following its cleavage at the apical surface, pIgR, and subsequently the pneumococcus, move back to the basolateral surface allowing invasion of the upper respiratory tract.
236:
bind to N-acetyl-glucosamine on epithelium without inflammation. However, co-infection with a pre-existing inflammatory URT infection results in an over-expression of the epithelial receptors utilized by
272:
Initial colonization of the nasopharynx is typically asymptomatic, but invasion occurs when the bacteria spreads to other parts of the body including the lungs, blood, and brain. Interactions between
182:. Shedding is shown to decrease in the presence of agglutinating antibodies such as IgG and IgA1 unless cleavage occurs via an IgA1-specific pneumococcal protease.
673:
GarcĂa-Suárez, MarĂa del Mar; FlĂłrez, Noelia; Astudillo, Aurora; Vázquez, Fernando; Villaverde, Roberto; Fabrizio, Kevin; Pirofski, Liise-Anne; MĂ©ndez, Francisco J. (2007-01-26).
555:
Diavatopoulos, Dimitri A.; Short, Kirsty R.; Price, John T.; Wilksch, Jonathan J.; Brown, Lorena E.; Briles, David E.; Strugnell, Richard A.; Wijburg, Odilia L. (2010-01-22).
78:. The estimated number of Americans with pneumococcal pneumonia is 900,000 annually, with almost 400,000 cases hospitalized and fatalities accounting for 5-7% of these cases.
170:
These studies, along with the animal models that they utilize have enhanced our understanding of the transmission of pneumococcus. Inflammation induced by
225:, while survival in bloodstreams is observed for opaque phenotypes. Colonizable strains exhibit resistance against neutrophilic immune response.
178:(Ply); use of anti-Ply antibodies result in decreased inflammation. Studies have found transmissible levels of bacterium only in young mice, exhibiting that
201:(IgG) immunization with high antibody concentration can also inhibit acquisition. These antibodies require the agglutinating function of the
162:
Animal models have allowed for an increased understanding of the transmission stage during infection. A 2010 study examining co-infection of
221:
Transparent and opaque colony morphology has been observed for pneumococci. Airway colonization is observed in transparent phenotypes of
130:
498:
McCullers, Jonathan A.; McAuley, Julie L.; Browall, Sarah; Iverson, Amy R.; Boyd, Kelli L.; Henriques
Normark, Birgitta (2010-10-15).
142:
Three stages can be used to categorize the infection process of pneumococcal pneumonia: transmission, colonization, and invasion. The
232:
to evade detection by the nasal mucus and attach to epithelial surface receptors. Asymptomatic colonization occurs when
373:
280:
500:"Influenza Enhances Susceptibility to Natural Acquisition of and Disease due to Streptococcus pneumoniae in Ferrets"
805:"Mechanisms Underlying Pneumococcal Transmission and Factors Influencing Host-Pneumococcus Interaction: A Review"
202:
190:
618:"Infant Mouse Model for the Study of Shedding and Transmission during Streptococcus pneumoniae Monoinfection"
735:"Genome-Wide Identification of Genes Essential for the Survival of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Human Saliva"
71:
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397:
923:
45:
616:
Zafar, M. Ammar; Kono, Masamitsu; Wang, Yang; Zangari, Tonia; Weiser, Jeffrey N. (19 August 2016).
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63:
675:"The role of pneumolysin in mediating lung damage in a lethal pneumococcal pneumonia murine model"
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Loughran, Allister J.; Orihuela, Carlos J.; Tuomanen, Elaine I. (18 March 2019).
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The pneumococcus moves across the mucosal barrier by integrating itself with the
261:
803:
Morimura, Ayumi; Hamaguchi, Shigeto; Akeda, Yukihiro; Tomono, Kazunori (2021).
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The pneumococcus then moves to invade the lower respiratory tract, evading the
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Dockrell, David H.; Whyte, Moira K. B.; Mitchell, Timothy J. (2012-08-01).
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924:"Streptococcus pneumoniae colonisation: the key to pneumococcal disease"
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also increases instances of epithelial binding through its cleavage of
163:
125:
672:
515:
443:"Streptococcus pneumoniae: transmission, colonization and invasion"
222:
499:
398:"Flu Infection Needed to Allow Spread of Pneumonia or Meningitis"
864:"Pneumococcal Pneumonia: Mechanisms of Infection and Resolution"
283:(pIgR), which is used by mucosal epithelial cells to transport
88:
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497:
189:
Reduced transmission has been observed amongst children with
802:
731:
180:
shedding increases with incidences of contact and proximity
87:
coughing can occasionally produce rusty or blood-streaked
973:
921:
213:(IgA1) which is abundant on the URT mucosal surfaces.
976:"Streptococcus pneumoniae: Invasion and Inflammation"
861:
193:(PCV) immunization as acquisition of a new strain of
137:
115:
922:
Bogaert, D; de Groot, R; Hermans, PWM (2004-03-01).
615:
350:"Pneumococcal Disease | Facts About Pneumonia | CDC"
436:
1029:
809:Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology
241:thus increasing the likelihood of colonization
986:(2): 10.1128/microbiolspec.GPP3–0004–2018.
197:is inhibited by pre-existing colonization.
131:Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre
120:While it has been commonly known that the
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70:found in adults, the most common type of
124:increases one's chances of contracting
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186:desiccation for multiple days.
66:(pneumococcus). It is the most common
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992:10.1128/microbiolspec.GPP3-0004-2018
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441:; Paton, James C. (29 March 2018).
134:the same could be true for humans.
13:
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504:The Journal of Infectious Diseases
138:Mechanism of disease manifestation
116:Research advancements in the field
14:
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281:polymeric immunoglobulin receptor
228:Successful colonization requires
74:, and one of the common types of
374:"Pneumonia Causes - Mayo Clinic"
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216:
153:
928:The Lancet Infectious Diseases
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609:
557:"Influenza A virus facilitates
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491:
390:
366:
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191:Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine
1:
940:10.1016/S1473-3099(04)00938-7
306:
760:10.1371/journal.pone.0089541
303:.
106:
72:community-acquired pneumonia
7:
447:Nature Reviews Microbiology
267:
81:
10:
1059:
15:
822:10.3389/fcimb.2021.639450
561:transmission and disease"
459:10.1038/s41579-018-0001-8
33:
28:
559:Streptococcus pneumoniae
326:"Pneumococcal Pneumonia"
144:Streptococcus pneumoniae
64:Streptococcus pneumoniae
16:Not to be confused with
299:with the assistance of
250:N-acetylneuraminic acid
103:or patchy infiltrates.
622:Infection and Immunity
93:parapneumonic effusion
76:pneumococcal infection
56:Pneumococcal pneumonia
29:Pneumococcal pneumonia
18:Pneumocystis pneumonia
980:Microbiology Spectrum
880:10.1378/chest.12-0210
692:10.1186/1465-9921-8-3
297:mucociliary escalator
91:. In 25% of cases, a
679:Respiratory Research
634:10.1128/iai.00416-16
578:10.1096/fj.09-146779
439:Ferreira, Daniela M.
437:Weiser, Jeffrey N.;
99:will typically show
751:2014PLoSO...989541V
101:lobar consolidation
68:bacterial pneumonia
60:bacterial pneumonia
1043:Bacterial diseases
378:www.mayoclinic.org
62:that is caused by
565:The FASEB Journal
330:www.niaid.nih.gov
274:Phosphorylcholine
211:Immunoglobulin A1
172:Influenza A Virus
95:may occur. Chest
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23:Medical condition
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628:(9): 2714–2722.
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404:. 12 April 2011
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246:Neuraminidase
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234:S. pneumoniae
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230:S. pnuemoniae
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354:www.cdc.gov
254:glycolipids
203:Fc fragment
176:pneumolysin
40:Pulmonology
1032:Categories
815:: 639450.
408:2016-04-26
383:2016-04-26
359:2016-04-26
335:2016-04-26
307:References
1038:Pneumonia
1000:2165-0497
948:1473-3099
888:0012-3692
831:2235-2988
769:1932-6203
701:1465-993X
642:0019-9567
587:0892-6638
524:0022-1899
467:1740-1534
223:serotypes
164:influenza
126:pneumonia
107:Treatment
35:Specialty
1018:30873934
956:14998500
906:22871758
849:33996623
787:24586856
739:PLOS ONE
719:17257395
685:(1): 3.
660:27400721
603:31098863
595:20097876
542:20822454
485:29599457
268:Invasion
205:.
82:Symptoms
1009:6422050
897:3425340
840:8113816
778:3934895
747:Bibcode
710:1790890
651:4995895
533:3249639
476:5949087
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260:, and
97:X-rays
89:sputum
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868:Chest
599:S2CID
1014:PMID
996:ISSN
952:PMID
944:ISSN
902:PMID
884:ISSN
845:PMID
827:ISSN
783:PMID
765:ISSN
715:PMID
697:ISSN
656:PMID
638:ISSN
591:PMID
583:ISSN
538:PMID
520:ISSN
481:PMID
463:ISSN
287:and
1004:PMC
988:doi
936:doi
892:PMC
876:doi
872:142
835:PMC
817:doi
773:PMC
755:doi
705:PMC
687:doi
646:PMC
630:doi
573:doi
528:PMC
512:doi
508:202
471:PMC
455:doi
289:IgM
285:IgA
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