289:
277:
31:
187:
proteins. Primary plasmodesmata are often present in areas where the cell walls appear to be thinner. This is due to the fact that as a cell wall expands, the abundance of the primary plasmodesmata decreases. In order to further expand plasmodesmal density during cell wall growth secondary plasmodesmata are produced. The process of secondary plasmodesmata formation is still to be fully understood, however various degrading enzymes and ER proteins are said to stimulate the process.
3008:
350:
514:
the cell wall where plasmodesmata are present. In order to regulate what is transported through the plasmodesmata, callose must be present. Callose provides the mechanism by which plasmodesmata permeability is regulated. In order to control what is transported between different tissues, the plasmodesmata undergo several specialized conformational changes.
522:
levels have been proved to be a method of changing plasmodesmata aperture size. Callose deposits are found at the neck of the plasmodesmata in new cell walls that have been formed. The level of deposits at the plasmodesmata can fluctuate which shows that there are signals that trigger an accumulation
513:
Plasmodesmata regulation and structure are regulated by a beta 1,3-glucan polymer known as callose. Callose is found in cell plates during the process of cytokinesis, but as this process reaches completion the levels of callose decrease. The only callose rich parts of the cell include the sections of
181:
and the new plate are fused together, this process results in the formation of a cytoplasmic pore (or cytoplasmic sleeve). The desmotubule, also known as the appressed ER, forms alongside the cortical ER. Both the appressed ER and the cortical ER are packed tightly together, thus leaving no room for
517:
The activity of plasmodesmata are linked to physiological and developmental processes within plants. There is a hormone signaling pathway that relays primary cellular signals via the plasmodesmata. There are also patterns of environmental, physiological, and developmental cues that show relation to
523:
of callose at the plasmodesmata and cause plasmodesmata to become gated or more open. Enzyme activities of Beta 1,3-glucan synthase and hydrolases are involved in changes in plasmodesmata cellulose level. Some extracellular signals change transcription of activities of this synthase and hydrolase.
447:
Plasmodesmata link almost every cell within a plant, which can cause negative effects such as the spread of viruses. In order to understand this we must first look at cytoskeletal components, such as actin microfilaments, microtubules, and myosin proteins, and how they are related to cell to cell
262:
around the neck region to form a collar, thereby reducing the diameter of the pore available for transport of substances. Through dilation, active gating or structural remodeling the permeability of the plasmodesmata is increased. This increase in plasmodesmata pore permeability allows for larger
186:
route in the plasmodesmata. When filaments of the cortical ER are entangled in the formation of a new cell plate, plasmodesmata formation occurs in land plants. It is hypothesized that the appressed ER forms due to a combination of pressure from a growing cell wall and interaction from ER and PM
481:
proteins are found at the sites of plasmodesmata. These proteins are involved in directing viral cargoes to plasmodesmata. When mutant forms of myosin were tested in tobacco plants, viral protein targeting to plasmodesmata was negatively affected. Permanent binding of myosin to actin, which was
468:
break down actin filaments within the plasmodesmata channel in order to move within the plant. For example, when the cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) gets into plants it is able to travel through almost every cell through utilization of viral movement proteins to transport themselves through the
452:
are responsible for transporting viral movement proteins to the plasmodesmata. When actin polymerization was blocked it caused a decrease in plasmodesmata targeting of the movement proteins in the tobacco and allowed for 10-kDa (rather than 126-kDa) components to move between tobacco
529:
has callose synthase genes that encode a catalytic subunit of B-1,3-glucan. Gain of function mutants in this gene pool show increased deposition of callose at plasmodesmata and a decrease in macromolecular trafficking as well as a defective root system during development.
255:) and RNA, can also pass through the cytoplasmic sleeve diffusively. Plasmodesmatal transport of some larger molecules is facilitated by mechanisms that are currently unknown. One mechanism of regulation of the permeability of plasmodesmata is the accumulation of the
200:
A typical plant cell may have between 1,000 and 100,000 plasmodesmata connecting it with adjacent cells equating to between 1 and 10 per μm. Plasmodesmata are approximately 50–60 nm in diameter at the midpoint and are constructed of three main layers, the
424:
to 9400 daltons thereby aiding its movement through a plant. Also, increasing calcium concentrations in the cytoplasm, either by injection or by cold-induction, has been shown to constrict the opening of surrounding plasmodesmata and limit transport.
419:
The size of molecules that can pass through plasmodesmata is determined by the size exclusion limit. This limit is highly variable and is subject to active modification. For example, MP-30 is able to increase the size exclusion limit from 700
328:
Around the desmotubule and the plasma membrane areas of an electron dense material have been seen, often joined together by spoke-like structures that seem to split the plasmodesma into smaller channels. These structures may be composed of
448:
transport. Actin microfilaments are linked to the transport of viral movement proteins to plasmodesmata which allow for cell to cell transport through the plasmodesmata. Fluorescent tagging for co-expression in tobacco leaves showed that
164:
as new cell wall are synthesized between two newly divided plant cells. These eventually become the cytoplasmic connections between cells. At the formation site, the wall is not thickened further, and depressions or thin areas known as
469:
plasmodesmata. When tobacco leaves are treated with a drug that stabilizes actin filaments, phalloidin, the cucumber mosaic virus movement proteins are unable to increase the plasmodesmata size exclusion limit (SEL).
325:(flattened) endoplasmic reticulum that runs between two adjacent cells. Some molecules are known to be transported through this channel, but it is not thought to be the main route for plasmodesmatal transport.
128:
transport of substances between cells. There are two forms of plasmodesmata: primary plasmodesmata, which are formed during cell division, and secondary plasmodesmata, which can form between mature cells.
505:
that were kept in high temperatures there was a strong correlation between GFP-labelled TMV movement proteins and microtubules. This led to an increase in the spread of viral RNA through the tobacco.
428:
Several models for possible active transport through plasmodesmata exist. It has been suggested that such transport is mediated by interactions with proteins localized on the desmotubule, and/or by
439:
A number of mathematical models have been suggested for estimating transport across plasmodesmata. These models have primarily treated transport as a diffusion problem with some added hindrance.
710:
169:
are formed in the walls. Pits normally pair up between adjacent cells. Plasmodesmata can also be inserted into existing cell walls between non-dividing cells (secondary plasmodesmata).
493:
have an important role in cell to cell transport of viral RNA. Viruses use many different methods of transporting themselves from cell to cell and one of those methods associating the
1569:
Deinum, Eva E; Mulder, Bela M; Benitez-Alfonso, Yoselin (2019-11-22). Hardtke, Christian S; Bergmann, Dominique C; Liesche, Johannes; Knoblauch, Michael; Couvreur, Valentin (eds.).
288:
2838:
77:
cells, enabling transport and communication between them. Plasmodesmata evolved independently in several lineages, and species that have these structures include members of the
183:
2843:
1294:
2976:
436:, allowing them to fit through the narrow passage. A similar mechanism may be involved in transporting viral nucleic acids through the plasmodesmata.
1398:
Shmuel, Wolf; William, J. Lucas; Carl, M. Deom (1989). "Movement
Protein of Tobacco Mosaic Virus Modifies Plasmodesmatal Size Exclusion Limit".
630:
Zoë A. Popper; Gurvan Michel; Cécile Hervé; David S. Domozych; William G.T. Willats; Maria G. Tuohy; Bernard
Kloareg; Dagmar B. Stengel (2011).
276:
2894:
389:
MP-30. MP-30 is thought to bind to the virus's own genome and shuttle it from infected cells to uninfected cells through plasmodesmata.
2710:
267:, such as signaling molecules, transcription factors and RNA-protein complexes to be transported to various cellular compartments.
1090:
Overall, RL; Wolfe, J; Gunning, BES (1982). "Intercellular communication in Azolla roots: I. Ultrastructure of plasmodesmata".
1009:
764:
614:
482:
induced by a drug, caused a decrease in cell to cell movement. Viruses are also able to selectively bind to myosin proteins.
823:
Gray JC, Sullivan JA, Hibberd JM, Hansen MR (2001). "Stromules: mobile protrusions and interconnections between plastids".
1253:"Characterization of the unconventional myosin VIII in plant cells and its localization at the post-cytokinetic cell wall"
1496:
341:. If this is the case these proteins could be used in the selective transport of large molecules between the two cells.
2900:
1795:
570:
2234:
227:
The cytoplasmic sleeve is a fluid-filled space enclosed by the plasmalemma and is a continuous extension of the
2715:
1680:"Plasmodesmata in integrated cell signalling: insights from development and environmental signals and stresses"
639:
478:
2165:
17:
2884:
2471:
1986:
988:
Harvey Lodish; Arnold Berk; S. Lawrence
Zipursky; Paul Matsudaira; David Baltimore; James Darnell (2000).
2966:
2720:
177:
The formation of primary plasmodesmata occurs during the part of the cellular division process where the
2700:
631:
691:
Graham, LE; Cook, ME; Busse, JS (2000), Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 97, 4535-4540.
2850:
1125:
Cantrill, LC; Overall, RL; Goodwin, PB (1999). "Cell-to-cell communication via plant endomembranes".
518:
plasmodesmata function. An important mechanism of plasmodesmata is the ability to gate its channels.
252:
2988:
2833:
1883:
251:
without the need for additional chemical energy. Larger molecules, including proteins (for example
1451:
1251:
Reichelt, S; Knight, AE; Hodge, TP; Baluska, F; Samaj, J; Volkmann, D; Kendrick-Jones, J (1999).
216:
The plasma membrane portion of the plasmodesma is a continuous extension of the cell membrane or
3037:
2818:
2742:
786:
112:. Neighbouring plant cells are therefore separated by a pair of cell walls and the intervening
2547:
1571:"From plasmodesma geometry to effective symplasmic permeability through biophysical modelling"
1001:
995:
3032:
2983:
366:
362:
178:
157:
47:
2705:
2602:
2557:
2229:
1788:
1407:
1346:
987:
525:
502:
386:
221:
2205:
1449:
Aaziz, R.; Dinant, S.; Epel, B. L. (1 July 2001). "Plasmodesmata and plant cytoskeleton".
1367:
1292:
White, RG; Badelt, K; Overall, RL; Vesk, M (1994). "Actin associated with plasmodesmata".
652:
8:
3042:
2875:
2420:
1729:"Callose homeostasis at plasmodesmata: molecular regulators and developmental relevance"
1411:
1350:
1049:
1047:
1036:
AW Robards (1976). "Plasmodesmata in higher plants". In BES Gunning; AW Robards (eds.).
971:
2813:
2678:
2456:
2148:
1934:
1830:
1755:
1728:
1704:
1679:
1605:
1570:
1546:
1513:
1431:
1380:
1311:
1150:
1107:
883:
878:
859:
840:
732:
705:
674:
629:
1464:
2971:
1820:
1815:
1760:
1709:
1651:
1610:
1592:
1551:
1533:
1476:
1468:
1423:
1372:
1274:
1269:
1252:
1236:
1215:
1193:
1188:
1169:
1142:
1072:
1055:
1044:
1015:
1005:
990:
937:
891:
805:
760:
737:
699:
697:
666:
610:
587:
549:
429:
382:
137:
1384:
1331:"FT protein movement contributes to long distance signalling in floral induction of
1154:
844:
782:"Not just another hole in the wall: understanding intercellular protein trafficking"
678:
568:
Maule, Andrew (December 2008). "Plasmodesmata: structure, function and biogenesis".
2757:
2663:
2658:
2612:
2505:
2490:
2451:
2376:
2217:
2141:
2038:
1980:
1750:
1740:
1699:
1691:
1641:
1600:
1582:
1541:
1525:
1460:
1435:
1415:
1362:
1354:
1315:
1303:
1264:
1231:
1183:
1134:
1111:
1099:
1067:
967:
927:
873:
832:
795:
727:
719:
656:
648:
579:
501:
to localize to plasmodesmata through microtubules. In tobacco plants injected with
409:
2552:
1628:
Hughes, Nathan; Faulkner, Christine; Morris, Richard J.; Tomkins, Melissa (2021).
694:
457:. This also impacted cell to cell movement of molecules within the tobacco plant.
3011:
2993:
2855:
2684:
2634:
2622:
2584:
2520:
2347:
2315:
2276:
2249:
2078:
2073:
1964:
1900:
1781:
1500:
1419:
864:
433:
413:
202:
43:
2905:
2870:
2823:
2805:
2769:
2525:
2352:
2330:
2296:
2271:
2254:
2244:
2239:
2121:
1939:
1924:
1878:
1873:
1646:
1629:
264:
256:
161:
113:
106:
86:
1493:
583:
3026:
2941:
2689:
2607:
2579:
2542:
2510:
2446:
2415:
2366:
2266:
2068:
2051:
1974:
1954:
1895:
1890:
1838:
1655:
1596:
1537:
1472:
1174:
632:"Evolution and Diversity of Plant Cell Walls: From Algae to Flowering Plants"
449:
421:
370:
1745:
1358:
1019:
2936:
2926:
2828:
2537:
2046:
2013:
1764:
1713:
1614:
1555:
1480:
1427:
1376:
1278:
1146:
1138:
941:
895:
860:"Tansley Review No.58 Plasmodesmata and the supracellular nature of plants"
809:
741:
723:
670:
591:
544:
338:
166:
133:
94:
90:
78:
1529:
1197:
322:
30:
2752:
2737:
2732:
2668:
2530:
2310:
2281:
2180:
2175:
1863:
1858:
1843:
1695:
1634:
IEEE Transactions on
Molecular, Biological and Multi-Scale Communications
836:
490:
312:
239:
through plasmodesmata occurs through this space. Smaller molecules (e.g.
217:
98:
70:
1587:
800:
781:
294:
Plasmodesmata allow molecules to travel between plant cells through the
120:. Although cell walls are permeable to small soluble proteins and other
2781:
2774:
2764:
2747:
2430:
2425:
2361:
2153:
2000:
1959:
1853:
1307:
1103:
932:
915:
887:
494:
244:
102:
1514:"Regulation of Solute Flux through Plasmodesmata in the Root Meristem"
1329:
Corbesier L, Vincent C, Jang S, Fornara F, Fan Q, et al. (2007).
711:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
661:
2889:
2786:
2515:
2320:
2301:
2212:
2136:
2056:
2008:
1949:
1929:
1868:
1512:
Rutschow, Heidi L.; Baskin, Tobias I.; Kramer, Eric M. (2011-04-01).
539:
398:
248:
109:
66:
35:
2931:
2921:
2865:
2860:
2627:
2500:
2476:
2393:
2063:
1848:
1630:"Intercellular communication as a series of narrow escape problems"
394:
390:
353:
Tobacco mosaic virus movement protein 30 localizes to plasmodesmata
295:
232:
141:
125:
117:
82:
282:
Structure of a plasmodesmata and their location within plant cells
213:. They can transverse cell walls that are up to 90 nm thick.
182:
any luminal space. It is proposed that the appressed ER acts as a
2116:
2111:
2028:
2018:
519:
358:
259:
228:
145:
121:
39:
1038:
Intercellular communications in plants: studies on plasmodesmata
2569:
2461:
2381:
2335:
2325:
2286:
2224:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
1804:
706:"The shoot apical meristem: the dynamics of a stable structure"
405:
378:
374:
330:
2793:
2727:
2649:
2617:
2574:
2466:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2386:
2371:
2340:
2261:
1919:
1910:
465:
334:
240:
74:
51:
1330:
1216:"Immunolocalisation of the cytoskeleton to plasmodesmata of
349:
2644:
2639:
2291:
2131:
2106:
2101:
2085:
1944:
1627:
1568:
1328:
454:
442:
1250:
2564:
2126:
1773:
1053:
822:
498:
236:
1170:"Localization of a myosin-like protein to plasmodesmata"
1056:"Plasmodesmata and the control of symplastic transport"
857:
156:
Primary plasmodesmata are formed when fractions of the
54:, Purple circles and spokes=other unidentified proteins
1291:
1124:
703:
1511:
247:) and ions can easily pass through plasmodesmata by
1089:
408:, and symplastic transport is used to regulate the
989:
1397:
195:
3024:
858:Lucas, W.; Ding, B.; Van der Schoot, C. (1993).
1448:
1213:
1209:
1207:
779:
116:, forming an extracellular domain known as the
1085:
1083:
1054:A. G. Roberts; K. J. Oparka (1 January 2003).
1031:
1029:
953:
951:
65:) are microscopic channels which traverse the
27:A pore connecting between adjacent plant cells
1789:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1322:
909:
907:
905:
754:
604:
561:
2895:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
1204:
1167:
508:
1720:
1161:
1080:
1026:
948:
780:Gallagher KL, Benfey PN (15 January 2005).
759:(4th ed.). New York: Garland Science.
357:Plasmodesmata have been shown to transport
34:The structure of a primary plasmodesma. CW=
1796:
1782:
1662:
1040:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 15–57.
1035:
902:
381:from cell to cell. One example of a viral
124:, plasmodesmata enable direct, regulated,
1754:
1744:
1703:
1645:
1604:
1586:
1545:
1366:
1268:
1235:
1187:
1071:
931:
877:
799:
731:
660:
598:
2839:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
704:Jan Traas; Teva Vernoux (29 June 2002).
443:Cytoskeletal components of Plasmodesmata
404:Plasmodesmata are also used by cells in
348:
172:
29:
957:
816:
14:
3025:
1726:
983:
981:
393:moves from leaves to the shoot apical
97:, better known as land plants. Unlike
93:(which are all algae), as well as all
1777:
1677:
1000:(4 ed.). W.H. Freeman. pp.
958:Robards, AW (1975). "Plasmodesmata".
913:
653:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103809
567:
1494:Plant Physiology lectures, chapter 5
978:
972:10.1146/annurev.pp.26.060175.000305
24:
1678:Sager, Ross (September 26, 2014).
1214:Blackman, LM; Overall, RL (1998).
879:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1993.tb03897.x
748:
397:through plasmodesmata to initiate
25:
3054:
2844:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
960:Annual Review of Plant Physiology
3007:
3006:
1270:10.1046/j.1365-313x.1999.00553.x
1237:10.1046/j.1365-313x.1998.00161.x
1189:10.1046/j.1365-313x.1998.00162.x
1073:10.1046/j.1365-3040.2003.00950.x
571:Current Opinion in Plant Biology
287:
275:
140:, interconnect animal cells and
1727:Storme, Nico (April 21, 2014).
1621:
1562:
1505:
1487:
1442:
1391:
1285:
1244:
1168:Radford, JE; White, RG (1998).
1118:
485:
337:, which are part of the cell's
1684:Journal of Experimental Botany
1368:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-3874-C
851:
773:
685:
640:Annual Review of Plant Biology
623:
609:. Blackwell Pub Professional.
306:
196:Plasmodesmatal plasma membrane
50:, DM=desmotubule, Red circles=
13:
1:
1465:10.1016/s1360-1385(01)01981-1
1060:Plant, Cell & Environment
757:Molecular Biology of the Cell
555:
2885:History of plant systematics
2472:Thorns, spines, and prickles
1420:10.1126/science.246.4928.377
914:Sager, Ross (June 7, 2018).
344:
190:
151:
7:
916:"Plasmodesmata at a Glance"
533:
132:Similar structures, called
10:
3059:
2701:Alternation of generations
1803:
1733:Frontiers in Plant Science
1647:10.1109/TMBMC.2021.3083719
1127:Cell Biology International
460:
310:
3002:
2950:
2914:
2851:Cultivated plant taxonomy
2814:Biological classification
2804:
2677:
2593:
2489:
2439:
2164:
2094:
2037:
1999:
1973:
1909:
1829:
1811:
584:10.1016/j.pbi.2008.08.002
509:Plasmodesmata and callose
472:
391:Flowering Locus T protein
253:green fluorescent protein
2711:Evolutionary development
2362:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
1746:10.3389/fpls.2014.00138
1452:Trends in Plant Science
1359:10.1126/science.1141752
920:Journal of Cell Science
787:Genes & Development
184:membrane transportation
160:are trapped across the
2977:by author abbreviation
2901:Plant taxonomy systems
2819:Botanical nomenclature
1139:10.1006/cbir.1999.0431
997:Molecular Cell Biology
755:Bruce Alberts (2002).
724:10.1098/rstb.2002.1091
605:Oparka, K. J. (2005).
503:tobacco mosaic viruses
354:
55:
2984:Botanical expeditions
1530:10.1104/pp.110.168187
367:short interfering RNA
363:transcription factors
352:
179:endoplasmic reticulum
173:Primary plasmodesmata
158:endoplasmic reticulum
48:endoplasmic reticulum
33:
2716:Evolutionary history
2706:Double fertilization
2558:Cellular respiration
837:10.1055/s-2001-15204
526:Arabidopsis thaliana
387:tobacco mosaic virus
222:phospholipid bilayer
1935:Non-vascular plants
1588:10.7554/eLife.49000
1412:1989Sci...246..377W
1351:2007Sci...316.1030C
1345:(5827): 1030–1033.
801:10.1101/gad.1271005
105:is surrounded by a
2440:Surface structures
2235:Flower development
1696:10.1093/jxb/eru365
1499:2010-02-16 at the
1308:10.1007/bf01507853
1104:10.1007/bf01282071
933:10.1242/jcs.209346
434:unfolding proteins
355:
220:and has a similar
207:cytoplasmic sleeve
138:membrane nanotubes
56:
3020:
3019:
2659:Herbaceous plants
2485:
2484:
1406:(4928): 377–379.
1011:978-0-7167-3706-3
926:(11): jcs209346.
766:978-0-8153-3218-3
718:(1422): 737–747.
616:978-1-4051-2554-3
550:Membrane nanotube
383:movement proteins
231:. Trafficking of
16:(Redirected from
3050:
3010:
3009:
2989:Individual trees
2664:Secondary growth
2635:Succulent plants
2623:Prostrate shrubs
2506:Apical dominance
2491:Plant physiology
2452:Epicuticular wax
1997:
1996:
1990:
1981:Plant morphology
1798:
1791:
1784:
1775:
1774:
1769:
1768:
1758:
1748:
1724:
1718:
1717:
1707:
1675:
1660:
1659:
1649:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1608:
1590:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1549:
1524:(4): 1817–1826.
1518:Plant Physiology
1509:
1503:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1370:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1302:(3–4): 169–184.
1289:
1283:
1282:
1272:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1239:
1211:
1202:
1201:
1191:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1122:
1116:
1115:
1087:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1051:
1042:
1041:
1033:
1024:
1023:
993:
985:
976:
975:
955:
946:
945:
935:
911:
900:
899:
881:
855:
849:
848:
820:
814:
813:
803:
777:
771:
770:
752:
746:
745:
735:
701:
692:
689:
683:
682:
664:
636:
627:
621:
620:
602:
596:
595:
565:
477:High amounts of
410:sieve-tube cells
291:
279:
148:in plant cells.
21:
3058:
3057:
3053:
3052:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3023:
3022:
3021:
3016:
2998:
2967:Botanical terms
2960:
2946:
2910:
2856:Citrus taxonomy
2834:Author citation
2800:
2694:
2673:
2595:
2589:
2585:Turgor pressure
2493:
2481:
2435:
2250:Floral symmetry
2168:
2160:
2090:
2079:Vascular bundle
2074:Vascular tissue
2033:
1993:
1984:
1983:
1969:
1940:Vascular plants
1905:
1901:Plant pathology
1825:
1807:
1802:
1772:
1725:
1721:
1690:(22): 6337–58.
1676:
1663:
1626:
1622:
1567:
1563:
1510:
1506:
1501:Wayback Machine
1492:
1488:
1447:
1443:
1396:
1392:
1327:
1323:
1290:
1286:
1249:
1245:
1218:Chara corallina
1212:
1205:
1166:
1162:
1133:(10): 653–661.
1123:
1119:
1088:
1081:
1052:
1045:
1034:
1027:
1012:
986:
979:
956:
949:
912:
903:
865:New Phytologist
856:
852:
821:
817:
778:
774:
767:
753:
749:
702:
695:
690:
686:
634:
628:
624:
617:
603:
599:
566:
562:
558:
536:
511:
488:
475:
463:
455:mesophyll cells
450:actin filaments
445:
414:companion cells
347:
315:
309:
304:
303:
302:
299:
292:
283:
280:
203:plasma membrane
198:
193:
175:
154:
101:, almost every
44:plasma membrane
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3056:
3046:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3018:
3017:
3015:
3014:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2969:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2958:
2957:Related topics
2955:
2951:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2908:
2906:Taxonomic rank
2903:
2898:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2858:
2848:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2824:Botanical name
2816:
2810:
2808:
2806:Plant taxonomy
2802:
2801:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2791:
2790:
2789:
2782:Megasporangium
2779:
2778:
2777:
2770:Microsporangia
2762:
2761:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2692:
2687:
2681:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2652:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2615:
2610:
2608:Cushion plants
2599:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2545:
2543:Plant hormones
2540:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2526:Photosynthesis
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2497:
2495:
2487:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2443:
2441:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2412:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2391:
2390:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2364:
2359:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2338:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2307:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2259:
2258:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2245:Floral formula
2242:
2240:Floral diagram
2237:
2232:
2222:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2203:
2193:
2183:
2178:
2172:
2170:
2169:(incl. Flower)
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2157:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2139:
2129:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2071:
2069:Storage organs
2066:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2049:
2043:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2005:
2003:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1955:Spermatophytes
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1925:Archaeplastida
1922:
1916:
1914:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1879:Phytogeography
1876:
1874:Phytochemistry
1871:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1835:
1833:
1831:Subdisciplines
1827:
1826:
1824:
1823:
1818:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1801:
1800:
1793:
1786:
1778:
1771:
1770:
1719:
1661:
1620:
1561:
1504:
1486:
1459:(7): 326–330.
1441:
1390:
1321:
1284:
1263:(5): 555–569.
1243:
1230:(6): 733–741.
1203:
1182:(6): 743–750.
1160:
1117:
1098:(2): 134–150.
1079:
1066:(1): 103–124.
1043:
1025:
1010:
977:
947:
901:
872:(3): 435–476.
850:
815:
772:
765:
747:
693:
684:
622:
615:
597:
578:(6): 680–686.
559:
557:
554:
553:
552:
547:
542:
535:
532:
510:
507:
497:domain of its
487:
484:
474:
471:
462:
459:
444:
441:
346:
343:
311:Main article:
308:
305:
301:
300:
293:
286:
284:
281:
274:
271:
270:
269:
265:macromolecules
263:molecules, or
257:polysaccharide
197:
194:
192:
189:
174:
171:
162:middle lamella
153:
150:
114:middle lamella
107:polysaccharide
87:Coleochaetales
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3055:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3038:Plant anatomy
3036:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3013:
3005:
3004:
3001:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2974:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2949:
2943:
2942:Phytochemical
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2913:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2863:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2852:
2849:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2803:
2795:
2792:
2788:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2763:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2680:
2676:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2592:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2580:Transpiration
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2392:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2368:
2367:Inflorescence
2365:
2363:
2360:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2263:
2260:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2223:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2188:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2087:
2084:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2052:Ground tissue
2050:
2048:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1995:
1988:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1975:Plant anatomy
1972:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1908:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1896:Plant ecology
1894:
1892:
1891:Plant anatomy
1889:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1839:Archaeobotany
1837:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1828:
1822:
1819:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1794:
1792:
1787:
1785:
1780:
1779:
1776:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1723:
1715:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1624:
1616:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1565:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1508:
1502:
1498:
1495:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1445:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1394:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1334:
1325:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1296:
1288:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1257:Plant Journal
1254:
1247:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1224:Plant Journal
1221:
1219:
1210:
1208:
1199:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1176:
1175:Plant Journal
1171:
1164:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1086:
1084:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1050:
1048:
1039:
1032:
1030:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1007:
1003:
999:
998:
992:
984:
982:
973:
969:
965:
961:
954:
952:
943:
939:
934:
929:
925:
921:
917:
910:
908:
906:
897:
893:
889:
885:
880:
875:
871:
867:
866:
861:
854:
846:
842:
838:
834:
831:(3): 223–33.
830:
826:
825:Plant Biology
819:
811:
807:
802:
797:
794:(2): 189–95.
793:
789:
788:
783:
776:
768:
762:
758:
751:
743:
739:
734:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
712:
707:
700:
698:
688:
680:
676:
672:
668:
663:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
641:
633:
626:
618:
612:
608:
607:Plasmodesmata
601:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
572:
564:
560:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
537:
531:
528:
527:
521:
515:
506:
504:
500:
496:
492:
483:
480:
470:
467:
458:
456:
451:
440:
437:
435:
431:
426:
423:
417:
415:
411:
407:
402:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
371:messenger RNA
368:
364:
360:
351:
342:
340:
336:
332:
326:
324:
321:is a tube of
320:
314:
297:
290:
285:
278:
273:
272:
268:
266:
261:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
225:
223:
219:
214:
212:
208:
204:
188:
185:
180:
170:
168:
163:
159:
149:
147:
144:form between
143:
139:
135:
134:gap junctions
130:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
59:Plasmodesmata
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
32:
19:
18:Plasmodesmata
3033:Cell anatomy
2937:Horticulture
2927:Floriculture
2829:Correct name
2679:Reproduction
2669:Woody plants
2594:Plant growth
2553:Gas Exchange
2538:Phytomelanin
2416:Plant embryo
2166:Reproductive
2023:
2014:Phragmoplast
1736:
1732:
1722:
1687:
1683:
1640:(2): 89–93.
1637:
1633:
1623:
1578:
1574:
1564:
1521:
1517:
1507:
1489:
1456:
1450:
1444:
1403:
1399:
1393:
1342:
1338:
1332:
1324:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1260:
1256:
1246:
1227:
1223:
1217:
1179:
1173:
1163:
1130:
1126:
1120:
1095:
1091:
1063:
1059:
1037:
996:
963:
959:
923:
919:
869:
863:
853:
828:
824:
818:
791:
785:
775:
756:
750:
715:
709:
687:
644:
638:
625:
606:
600:
575:
569:
563:
545:Gap junction
524:
516:
512:
491:Microtubules
489:
486:Microtubules
476:
464:
446:
438:
427:
418:
403:
377:, and viral
356:
339:cytoskeleton
327:
318:
316:
226:
215:
210:
206:
199:
176:
155:
131:
99:animal cells
95:embryophytes
91:Phaeophyceae
79:Charophyceae
62:
58:
57:
2753:Pollen tube
2748:Pollinators
2738:Pollination
2733:Germination
2548:Respiration
2531:Chlorophyll
2377:Pedicellate
2311:Gametophyte
2230:Aestivation
2181:Antheridium
2176:Archegonium
2024:Plasmodesma
2001:Plant cells
1864:Paleobotany
1859:Ethnobotany
1844:Astrobotany
1333:Arabidopsis
1295:Protoplasma
1092:Protoplasma
647:: 567–590.
361:(including
319:desmotubule
313:Desmotubule
307:Desmotubule
245:amino acids
224:structure.
218:plasmalemma
211:desmotubule
71:plant cells
63:plasmodesma
61:(singular:
3043:Organelles
3027:Categories
2775:Microspore
2765:Sporangium
2743:Artificial
2431:Sporophyte
2426:Sporophyll
2421:Receptacle
2316:Gynandrium
2186:Androecium
2095:Vegetative
1965:Angiosperm
1960:Gymnosperm
1854:Dendrology
1581:: e49000.
662:10379/6762
556:References
495:N-terminal
432:partially
430:chaperones
296:symplastic
209:, and the
126:symplastic
103:plant cell
67:cell walls
2972:Botanists
2890:Herbarium
2787:Megaspore
2685:Evolution
2628:Subshrubs
2596:and habit
2521:Nutrition
2516:Cellulose
2511:Bulk flow
2494:Materials
2457:Epidermis
2321:Gynoecium
2302:Endosperm
2297:Dispersal
2213:Staminode
2149:Sessility
2137:Cataphyll
2057:Mesophyll
2009:Cell wall
1950:Lycophyte
1930:Bryophyte
1884:Geobotany
1869:Phycology
1656:2332-7804
1597:2050-084X
1538:0032-0889
1473:1360-1385
966:: 13–29.
540:Desmosome
399:flowering
345:Transport
323:appressed
249:diffusion
233:molecules
191:Structure
152:Formation
142:stromules
110:cell wall
73:and some
36:cell wall
3012:Category
2932:Forestry
2922:Agronomy
2915:Practice
2866:Cultivar
2861:Cultigen
2721:timeline
2613:Rosettes
2501:Aleurone
2477:Trichome
2394:Perianth
2206:Filament
2064:Meristem
1987:glossary
1849:Bryology
1765:24795733
1714:25262225
1615:31755863
1556:21325566
1497:Archived
1481:11435172
1428:16552920
1385:34132579
1377:17446353
1279:10504577
1155:23026878
1147:10736188
1020:41266312
942:29880547
896:33874589
845:84474739
810:15655108
742:12079669
679:11961888
671:21351878
592:18824402
534:See also
395:meristem
359:proteins
146:plastids
118:apoplast
83:Charales
2690:Ecology
2447:Cuticle
2277:Capsule
2267:Anatomy
2218:Tapetum
2142:Petiole
2117:Rhizome
2112:Rhizoid
2039:Tissues
2029:Vacuole
2019:Plastid
1821:Outline
1816:History
1756:4001042
1739:: 138.
1705:4303807
1606:6994222
1547:3091107
1436:2403087
1408:Bibcode
1400:Science
1347:Bibcode
1339:Science
1316:9767392
1198:9681037
1112:5970113
888:2558257
733:1692983
520:Callose
466:Viruses
461:Viruses
422:daltons
412:by the
385:is the
379:genomes
375:viroids
298:pathway
260:callose
229:cytosol
122:solutes
40:callose
2994:Plants
2897:(IAPT)
2650:Lianas
2618:Shrubs
2570:Starch
2462:Nectar
2382:Raceme
2348:Stigma
2336:Locule
2326:Carpel
2287:Pyrena
2225:Flower
2201:Anther
2196:Stamen
2191:Pollen
1913:groups
1805:Botany
1763:
1753:
1712:
1702:
1654:
1613:
1603:
1595:
1554:
1544:
1536:
1479:
1471:
1434:
1426:
1383:
1375:
1314:
1277:
1196:
1153:
1145:
1110:
1018:
1008:
940:
894:
886:
843:
808:
763:
740:
730:
677:
669:
613:
590:
479:myosin
473:Myosin
406:phloem
331:myosin
241:sugars
205:, the
2954:Lists
2871:Group
2794:Spore
2728:Flora
2645:Vines
2640:Trees
2603:Habit
2575:Sugar
2467:Stoma
2409:Sepal
2404:Petal
2399:Tepal
2387:Umbel
2372:Bract
2353:Style
2341:Ovule
2331:Ovary
2272:Berry
2262:Fruit
2255:Whorl
2122:Shoot
1920:Algae
1911:Plant
1575:eLife
1432:S2CID
1381:S2CID
1312:S2CID
1151:S2CID
1108:S2CID
884:JSTOR
841:S2CID
675:S2CID
635:(PDF)
335:actin
75:algal
52:actin
46:, ER=
42:, PM=
38:, CA=
2876:Grex
2758:Self
2292:Seed
2154:Stem
2132:Leaf
2107:Root
2102:Bulb
2086:Wood
2047:Cork
1945:Fern
1761:PMID
1710:PMID
1652:ISSN
1611:PMID
1593:ISSN
1552:PMID
1534:ISSN
1477:PMID
1469:ISSN
1424:PMID
1373:PMID
1275:PMID
1194:PMID
1143:PMID
1016:OCLC
1006:ISBN
991:"22"
938:PMID
892:PMID
806:PMID
761:ISBN
738:PMID
667:PMID
611:ISBN
588:PMID
333:and
317:The
243:and
237:ions
235:and
167:pits
136:and
89:and
2565:Sap
2282:Nut
2127:Bud
1751:PMC
1741:doi
1700:PMC
1692:doi
1642:doi
1601:PMC
1583:doi
1542:PMC
1526:doi
1522:155
1461:doi
1416:doi
1404:246
1363:hdl
1355:doi
1343:316
1304:doi
1300:180
1265:doi
1232:doi
1184:doi
1135:doi
1100:doi
1096:111
1068:doi
1002:998
968:doi
928:doi
924:131
874:doi
870:125
833:doi
796:doi
728:PMC
720:doi
716:357
657:hdl
649:doi
580:doi
499:RNA
365:),
69:of
3029::
1759:.
1749:.
1735:.
1731:.
1708:.
1698:.
1688:65
1686:.
1682:.
1664:^
1650:.
1636:.
1632:.
1609:.
1599:.
1591:.
1577:.
1573:.
1550:.
1540:.
1532:.
1520:.
1516:.
1475:.
1467:.
1455:.
1430:.
1422:.
1414:.
1402:.
1379:.
1371:.
1361:.
1353:.
1341:.
1337:.
1310:.
1298:.
1273:.
1261:19
1259:.
1255:.
1228:14
1226:.
1222:.
1206:^
1192:.
1180:14
1178:.
1172:.
1149:.
1141:.
1131:23
1129:.
1106:.
1094:.
1082:^
1064:26
1062:.
1058:.
1046:^
1028:^
1014:.
1004:.
994:.
980:^
964:26
962:.
950:^
936:.
922:.
918:.
904:^
890:.
882:.
868:.
862:.
839:.
827:.
804:.
792:19
790:.
784:.
736:.
726:.
714:.
708:.
696:^
673:.
665:.
655:.
645:62
643:.
637:.
586:.
576:11
574:.
416:.
401:.
373:,
369:,
85:,
81:,
1989:)
1985:(
1797:e
1790:t
1783:v
1767:.
1743::
1737:5
1716:.
1694::
1658:.
1644::
1638:7
1617:.
1585::
1579:8
1558:.
1528::
1483:.
1463::
1457:6
1438:.
1418::
1410::
1387:.
1365::
1357::
1349::
1335:"
1318:.
1306::
1281:.
1267::
1240:.
1234::
1220:"
1200:.
1186::
1157:.
1137::
1114:.
1102::
1076:.
1070::
1022:.
974:.
970::
944:.
930::
898:.
876::
847:.
835::
829:3
812:.
798::
769:.
744:.
722::
681:.
659::
651::
619:.
594:.
582::
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
