44:
757:
891:
470:
615:
6312:
5992:
5402:
1476:
417:
749:
6336:
6324:
6002:
1040:
1177:
938:. Both cutin and suberin are polyesters that function as permeability barriers to the movement of water. The relative composition of carbohydrates, secondary compounds and proteins varies between plants and between the cell type and age. Plant cells walls also contain numerous enzymes, such as hydrolases, esterases, peroxidases, and transglycosylases, that cut, trim and
977:, and the primary cell wall is then deposited inside the middle lamella. The actual structure of the cell wall is not clearly defined and several models exist - the covalently linked cross model, the tether model, the diffuse layer model and the stratified layer model. However, the primary cell wall, can be defined as composed of
988:, which is proposed to be made of a hexameric rosette that contains three cellulose synthase catalytic subunits for each of the six units. Microfibrils are held together by hydrogen bonds to provide a high tensile strength. The cells are held together and share the gelatinous membrane (the middle lamella), which contains
1014:
is constructed between the plasma membrane and primary wall. Unlike the primary wall, the cellulose microfibrils are aligned parallel in layers, the orientation changing slightly with each additional layer so that the structure becomes helicoidal. Cells with secondary cell walls can be rigid, as in
522:
Think of the cell wall as a wicker basket in which a balloon has been inflated so that it exerts pressure from the inside. Such a basket is very rigid and resistant to mechanical damage. Thus does the prokaryote cell (and eukaryotic cell that possesses a cell wall) gain strength from a flexible
1346:. Significantly, relative to the organic cell walls produced by other groups, silica frustules require less energy to synthesize (approximately 8%), potentially a major saving on the overall cell energy budget and possibly an explanation for higher growth rates in diatoms.
477:
Cell walls serve similar purposes in those organisms that possess them. They may give cells rigidity and strength, offering protection against mechanical stress. The chemical composition and mechanical properties of the cell wall are linked with plant cell growth and
693:. Plants later evolved various genes from CesA, including the Csl (cellulose synthase-like) family of proteins and additional Ces proteins. Combined with the various glycosyltransferases (GT), they enable more complex chemical structures to be built.
348:
in 1665. However, "the dead excrusion product of the living protoplast" was forgotten, for almost three centuries, being the subject of scientific interest mainly as a resource for industrial processing or in relation to animal or human health.
952:
Cell walls in some plant tissues also function as storage deposits for carbohydrates that can be broken down and resorbed to supply the metabolic and growth needs of the plant. For example, endosperm cell walls in the seeds of cereal grasses,
205:. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. Primarily, it provides the cell with structural support, shape, protection, and functions as a selective barrier. Another vital role of the cell wall is to help the cell withstand
835:. In grass cell walls, xyloglucan and pectin are reduced in abundance and partially replaced by glucuronoarabinoxylan, another type of hemicellulose. Primary cell walls characteristically extend (grow) by a mechanism called
371:(1858, 1862, 1863) believed that the growth of the wall in thickness and in area was due to a process termed intussusception. Each theory was improved in the following decades: the apposition (or lamination) theory by
482:. In multicellular organisms, they permit the organism to build and hold a definite shape. Cell walls also limit the entry of large molecules that may be toxic to the cell. They further permit the creation of stable
1709:
peptidoglycan superficially resembles that of bacterial peptidoglycan, there are a number of significant chemical differences. Like the peptidoglycan found in bacterial cell walls, pseudopeptidoglycan consists of
1143:
polymers. β-glucans are glucose molecules linked via β-(1,3)- or β-(1,6)- bonds and provide rigidity to the cell wall while α-glucans are defined by α-(1,3)- and/or α-(1,4) bonds and function as part of the
3614:
1059:) have been transferred out of the Kingdom Fungi, in part because of fundamental biochemical differences in the composition of the cell wall. Most true fungi have a cell wall consisting largely of
1549:, respectively. The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria, although
906:
proteins (AGP), glycine-rich proteins (GRPs), and proline-rich proteins (PRPs). Each class of glycoprotein is defined by a characteristic, highly repetitive protein sequence. Most are
1150:: enzymes necessary for cell wall synthesis and lysis in addition to structural proteins are all present in the cell wall. Most of the structural proteins found in the cell wall are
886:, 10-25%, a complex phenolic polymer that penetrates the spaces in the cell wall between cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin components, driving out water and strengthening the wall.
831:
are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is
957:
and other species, are rich in glucans and other polysaccharides that are readily digested by enzymes during seed germination to form simple sugars that nourish the growing embryo.
5232:
1415:) do have chitin in their walls. The fraction of cellulose in the walls is no more than 4 to 20%, far less than the fraction of glucans. Oomycete cell walls also contain the
740:
that result from the difference in solute concentration between the cell interior and external solutions. Plant cell walls vary from 0.1 to several μm in thickness.
510:
creates this rigidity, along with the wall structure. The flexibility of the cell walls is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop, or in
2477:
Popper ZA, Michel G, Hervé C, Domozych DS, Willats WG, Tuohy MG, et al. (2011). "Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: from algae to flowering plants".
5237:
781:, a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is fully grown. It is not found in all cell types. Some cells, such as the conducting cells in
3622:
847:
and cellulose. This functions to increase cell wall extensibility. The outer part of the primary cell wall of the plant epidermis is usually impregnated with
2971:
2223:
5370:
1809:, giving the wall an overall negative charge. The result is an unstable structure that is stabilized by the presence of large quantities of positive
1586:
Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing
3116:"Contents of soluble, cell-wall-bound and exuded phlorotannins in the brown alga Fucus vesiculosus, with implications on their ecological functions"
2427:
Harvey Lodish; Arnold Berk; Chris A. Kaiser; Monty
Krieger; Matthew P. Scott; Anthony Bretscher; Hidde Ploegh; Paul Matsudaira (1 September 2012).
914:(Hyp) and become cross-linked in the cell wall. These proteins are often concentrated in specialized cells and in cell corners. Cell walls of the
360:
proved that cells had independent cell walls. Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and that fluid passed between them this way.
3760:
1305:
6374:
5288:
399:
By the 1980s, some authors suggested replacing the term "cell wall", particularly as it was used for plants, with the more precise term "
2455:
862:
Secondary cell walls contain a wide range of additional compounds that modify their mechanical properties and permeability. The major
3019:
1602:(previously known as the low G+C and high G+C gram-positive bacteria, respectively) have the alternative gram-positive arrangement.
1309:
3175:
5104:
1853:. S-layers are common in bacteria, where they serve as either the sole cell-wall component or an outer layer in conjunction with
3733:
1557:
is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse. The
655:(so-called plant and algae) is one group with cellulose cell walls, where the cell wall is closely related to the evolution of
3709:
3597:
3564:
3529:
3244:
3216:
3002:
2928:
2846:
2700:
2671:
2438:
2411:
2335:
2122:
752:
Cell wall in multicellular plants – its different layers and their placement with respect to protoplasm (highly diagrammatic)
506:. The apparent rigidity of primary plant tissues is enabled by cell walls, but is not due to the walls' stiffness. Hydraulic
502:
In most cells, the cell wall is flexible, meaning that it will bend rather than holding a fixed shape, but has considerable
5931:
1454:
wall. The spore wall has three layers, the middle one composed primarily of cellulose, while the innermost is sensitive to
1007:, which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of adjacent cells across the cell wall.
704:
to perform the task, suggesting that such an enzyme is very ancient within the eukaryotes. Their glycoproteins are rich in
2206:
708:. The cell wall might have evolved to deter viral infections. Proteins embedded in cell walls are variable, contained in
6170:
6135:
5698:
5438:
5294:
3753:
456:
7450:
6367:
6038:
4189:
985:
660:
5688:
5615:
4628:
3822:
2327:
Esau's Plant
Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development
5812:
5543:
5109:
438:
357:
4559:
3924:
542:
is a thicker additional layer of cellulose which increases wall rigidity. Additional layers may be formed by
3087:
growth rates of marine phytoplankton : Approaches to measurement, community and species growth rates".
902:(1-5%) are found in most plant cell walls; they are classified as hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP),
6475:
5278:
4865:
4380:
3746:
1727:
1180:
163:
6360:
6340:
5360:
5114:
894:
Photomicrograph of onion root cells, showing the centrifugal development of new cell walls (phragmoplast)
125:
7471:
5653:
5094:
1817:
1031:
in the secondary cell wall that allow plasmodesmata to connect cells through the secondary cell walls.
434:
7345:
3476:
527:
The apparent rigidity of the cell wall thus results from inflation of the cell contained within. This
7556:
6297:
6005:
5244:
1517:
Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are made of
169:
3135:
7069:
5807:
5730:
5693:
5489:
5382:
5227:
4277:
3919:
2224:"The Cell-Theory: A Restatement, History, and Critique: Part III. The Cell as a Morphological Unit"
2032:
1512:
1492:
721:
713:
701:
700:
cell wall. They share the 1,3-β-glucan synthesis pathway with plants, using homologous GT48 family
2615:"Analysis of the phylogenetic relationships and evolution of the cell walls from yeasts and fungi"
2062:"Bacterial cell wall composition and the influence of antibiotics by cell-wall and whole-cell NMR"
7309:
6093:
3176:"Interactions between Plants and Fungi: the Evolution of their Parasitic and Symbiotic Relations"
2260:
2110:
1630:
1606:
1222:
1159:
678:
427:
2920:
2663:
1010:
In some plants and cell types, after a maximum size or point in development has been reached, a
802:. This outermost layer forms the interface between adjacent plant cells and glues them together.
626:
7506:
7445:
7384:
7098:
6328:
5883:
5802:
5781:
5431:
5212:
5136:
3884:
3859:
3130:
1625:
1619:
1496:
1480:
1292:
polysaccharides: They occur in the cell walls of most algae; those common in red algae include
843:, extracellular proteins activated by acidic conditions that modify the hydrogen bonds between
4941:
2834:
2550:
7466:
7457:
7043:
6287:
5923:
5565:
5377:
4123:
3909:
3802:
3261:
2965:
2147:
Micrographia: or, Some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses
2015:
1647:
1579:
Gram-positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and
697:
2994:
2987:
2542:
2463:
6282:
6031:
5763:
5638:
5621:
5459:
5099:
4996:
4951:
4623:
4182:
4156:
2027:
2007:
1999:
1874:
1723:
1051:
There are several groups of organisms that have been called "fungi". Some of these groups (
737:
490:
and helping to retain water. Their composition, properties, and form may change during the
400:
4599:
3405:(1884). "Über die isolierte Färbung der Schizomyceten in Schnitt- und Trockenpräparaten".
3027:
2490:
724:. The pathway leading to 1,6-β-glucan synthesis is not sufficiently known in either case.
8:
7561:
7394:
6292:
5888:
5773:
5768:
5661:
5631:
5484:
5469:
5269:
4814:
3782:
3728:
3402:
3183:
1682:
1675:
1102:
1090:
984:
aligned at all angles. Cellulose microfibrils are produced at the plasma membrane by the
777:
602:. The pH is an important factor governing the transport of molecules through cell walls.
559:
325:
317:
2355:
2254:
2066:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
6643:
6352:
6064:
5918:
5817:
5626:
5538:
5531:
5207:
5072:
4850:
4542:
4328:
4224:
3677:
3652:
3379:
3354:
3156:
3065:
3061:
2913:
2911:
Campbell NA, Reece JB, Urry LA, Cain ML, Wasserman SA, Minorsky PV, Jackson RB (2008).
2888:
2863:
2656:
2654:
Campbell NA, Reece JB, Urry LA, Cain ML, Wasserman SA, Minorsky PV, Jackson RB (2008).
2590:
2565:
2512:
2086:
2061:
1886:
1587:
1215:
915:
372:
76:
3738:
3580:
Preisig HR (1994). "Terminology and nomenclature of protist cell surface structures".
3452:
3425:
3355:"Unstable Escherichia coli L forms revisited: growth requires peptidoglycan synthesis"
3330:
3305:
1605:
These differences in structure produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility. The
7440:
7399:
6752:
6465:
6231:
5995:
5858:
5824:
5791:
5648:
5643:
5601:
5548:
5424:
5365:
4214:
4209:
4106:
3944:
3827:
3705:
3682:
3593:
3560:
3525:
3499:
3457:
3384:
3335:
3283:
3240:
3212:
3148:
2998:
2957:
2924:
2893:
2842:
2815:
2810:
2785:
2766:
2696:
2689:
2667:
2636:
2631:
2614:
2595:
2543:
2504:
2434:
2407:
2377:
2331:
2306:
2302:
2289:
Roberts K (October 1994). "The plant extracellular matrix: in a new expansive mood".
2187:
2182:
2165:
2118:
2091:
1952:
1857:. Most Archaea are Gram-negative, though at least one Gram-positive member is known.
1500:
1381:
732:
The walls of plant cells must have sufficient tensile strength to withstand internal
3442:
3069:
2516:
2426:
7414:
7258:
7205:
7157:
7116:
7081:
7074:
7011:
6888:
6814:
6251:
6060:
5710:
5586:
5521:
5151:
5057:
5052:
5006:
4899:
4884:
4845:
4770:
4611:
4535:
4432:
4374:
3672:
3664:
3585:
3491:
3447:
3437:
3374:
3366:
3325:
3317:
3273:
3160:
3140:
3096:
3057:
2953:
2883:
2875:
2805:
2797:
2756:
2725:
2626:
2585:
2577:
2494:
2486:
2367:
2298:
2235:
2177:
2081:
2073:
1988:
1972:
1968:
1914:
1833:
1781:
1695:
954:
772:, generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is growing.
733:
656:
599:
579:
503:
237:
206:
143:
6443:
4946:
3321:
1666:
is a standard component of all bacterial cell walls, all archaeal cell walls lack
43:
7190:
6422:
6024:
5936:
5835:
5720:
5596:
5526:
5479:
5405:
5387:
5249:
5078:
5028:
5016:
4978:
4914:
4741:
4709:
4670:
4643:
4472:
4467:
4358:
4294:
4175:
3807:
3552:
3115:
2462:. Washington DC: National Council for Science and the Environment. Archived from
2428:
2330:(3rd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 65–66.
2325:
1910:
1854:
1839:
1550:
1373:
1343:
1122:
1075:
931:
923:
903:
682:
528:
507:
333:
175:
58:
3966:
3589:
2786:"Glycerol is a suberin monomer. New experimental evidence for an old hypothesis"
1564:
There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria, called
720:-based cell wall and later acquired the GT-48 enzymes for the 1,3-β-glucans via
7374:
7215:
7125:
7111:
6912:
6768:
6716:
6573:
6492:
6316:
6190:
6108:
5591:
5555:
5299:
5264:
5217:
5199:
5163:
4919:
4746:
4724:
4690:
4665:
4648:
4638:
4633:
4515:
4333:
4318:
4272:
4267:
3770:
3100:
1976:
1922:
1758:
1747:
1701:
1599:
1522:
1419:
1226:
1211:
1195:
1064:
966:
911:
794:
670:
649:
376:
293:
253:
3495:
3278:
3144:
890:
383:
368:
363:
The mode of formation of the cell wall was controversial in the 19th century.
7550:
7304:
7276:
7180:
7153:
7150:
7084:
6578:
6552:
6502:
6185:
6078:
5945:
5830:
5786:
5758:
5749:
5739:
5715:
5611:
5335:
5083:
5001:
4973:
4936:
4904:
4840:
4809:
4760:
4660:
4462:
4445:
4368:
4348:
4289:
4284:
4232:
4053:
4013:
3988:
3904:
3817:
3792:
2944:
Abeysekera RM, Willison JH (1987). "A spiral helicoid in a plant cell wall".
2239:
1906:
1786:
1667:
1663:
1614:
1580:
1569:
1565:
1518:
1508:
1488:
1484:
1317:
1151:
1098:
907:
856:
820:
756:
709:
674:
665:
571:
515:
479:
364:
353:
305:
261:
202:
104:
52:
3559:(7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 818–819, 824.
3262:"Formation of the glycan chains in the synthesis of bacterial peptidoglycan"
320:, or polysaccharides. Fungi possess cell walls constructed from the polymer
7491:
7461:
7321:
6972:
6824:
6819:
6721:
6657:
6526:
6521:
6387:
6383:
6154:
6088:
6047:
5975:
5960:
5840:
5581:
5499:
5447:
5330:
5320:
5222:
4931:
4440:
4407:
4033:
4005:
3983:
3976:
3956:
3896:
3812:
3797:
3686:
3503:
3461:
3388:
3339:
3287:
3152:
2897:
2819:
2770:
2640:
2599:
2508:
2381:
2191:
2095:
2077:
1960:
1944:
1936:
1777:
1739:
1686:
1431:
1354:
1335:
1279:
1250:
1203:
1028:
981:
812:
582:
may acquire similar reinforcement to resist the strain of physical forces.
555:
469:
345:
289:
182:
137:
131:
24:
3477:"Microbiology and drug resistance mechanisms of fully resistant pathogens"
2879:
2801:
2310:
1446:
under certain conditions. Cells of the reproductive stalk, as well as the
396:
from the "dead" plant region, the latter of which included the cell wall.
7521:
7496:
7484:
7299:
7253:
7054:
7021:
7001:
6922:
6835:
6706:
6674:
6612:
6602:
6537:
6512:
6460:
6195:
6083:
5863:
5416:
5146:
5131:
5126:
5062:
4924:
4704:
4675:
4574:
4569:
4417:
4257:
4252:
4237:
4135:
4101:
4028:
4023:
3914:
3306:"Bacterial wall as target for attack: past, present, and future research"
2729:
2372:
1926:
1902:
1769:. Structure in this type of wall is complex and not fully investigated.
1638:
1591:
1553:
can be produced in the laboratory that lack a cell wall. The antibiotic
1411:
1399:. Unlike fungi, oomycetes typically possess cell walls of cellulose and
1392:
1297:
1283:
1229:
1056:
1004:
1000:
974:
836:
828:
686:
297:
249:
213:, including animals, cell walls are prevalent in other organisms such as
70:
3370:
2356:"Relating the mechanics of the primary plant cell wall to morphogenesis"
2145:
949:
crystals, which may strengthen the wall and protect it from herbivores.
614:
367:(1853, 1858) advocated the idea that the cell wall grows by apposition.
7535:
7530:
7511:
7501:
7479:
7135:
7059:
6879:
6850:
6778:
6757:
6628:
6516:
6470:
6412:
6216:
6175:
6162:
6016:
5970:
5955:
5873:
5606:
5175:
5168:
5158:
5141:
4824:
4819:
4755:
4547:
4394:
4353:
4247:
4130:
4070:
4063:
4048:
4043:
4038:
3993:
3939:
3929:
3879:
3874:
3864:
3668:
2037:
1873:
produce other cell surface structures apart from cell walls, external (
1806:
1791:
1753:
1690:
1678:. There are four types of cell wall currently known among the Archaea.
1671:
1642:
1634:
1610:
1573:
1554:
1530:
1443:
1435:
1416:
1385:
1370:
1350:
1289:
1244:
1207:
1183:
1110:
1094:
970:
945:
Secondary walls - especially in grasses - may also contain microscopic
939:
927:
832:
591:
563:
491:
441: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
344:
A plant cell wall was first observed and named (simply as a "wall") by
312:
cell walls vary in composition, potentially consisting of glycoprotein
245:
230:
226:
210:
110:
33:
2784:
Moire L, Schmutz A, Buchala A, Yan B, Stark RE, Ryser U (March 1999).
2761:
2744:
2499:
1376:
like fungi. Until recently they were widely believed to be fungi, but
7516:
7389:
7379:
7243:
7225:
7130:
6982:
6962:
6948:
6927:
6855:
6735:
6638:
6617:
6563:
6455:
6434:
6145:
6140:
5965:
5796:
5666:
5560:
5283:
5180:
4909:
4714:
4695:
4606:
4530:
4450:
4343:
4323:
4262:
4113:
4086:
4058:
3951:
3934:
3869:
3842:
3774:
2581:
2003:
1992:
1984:
1956:
1940:
1595:
1542:
1455:
1451:
1389:
1377:
1339:
1255:
1068:
989:
978:
816:
690:
652:
487:
257:
198:
149:
116:
96:
3048:
Raven JA (1983). "The transport and function of silicon in plants".
1576:, a test long-employed for the classification of bacterial species.
1194:
Like plants, algae have cell walls. Algal cell walls contain either
416:
7409:
7404:
7316:
7281:
7210:
7195:
7185:
7064:
6987:
6938:
6902:
6869:
6783:
6695:
6592:
6547:
6427:
6407:
6266:
6221:
6180:
6158:
6098:
5474:
5451:
5325:
5315:
5259:
5254:
5021:
4894:
4870:
4787:
4457:
4242:
4096:
3852:
3837:
3832:
3700:
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002).
3352:
2745:"My body is a cage: mechanisms and modulation of plant cell growth"
2011:
1948:
1931:
1894:
1882:
1870:
1825:
1757:. This type of cell wall is composed entirely of a thick layer of
1558:
1366:
1301:
1260:
1140:
1118:
1106:
1052:
1016:
840:
393:
388:
309:
304:, distinct from those in land plants. Bacterial cell walls contain
157:
3353:
Joseleau-Petit D, Liébart JC, Ayala JA, D'Ari R (September 2007).
3113:
1475:
748:
403:", as used for animal cells, but others preferred the older term.
7326:
6845:
6799:
6438:
6391:
6103:
5904:
5868:
5504:
4510:
4505:
4422:
4412:
4118:
4018:
3971:
3847:
3114:
Koivikko R, Loponen J, Honkanen T, Jormalainen V (January 2005).
1964:
1918:
1866:
1849:
1844:
1799:
1773:
1762:
1719:
1711:
1659:
1526:
1459:
1321:
1155:
1147:
1132:
1086:
1074:
In fungi, the cell wall is the outer-most layer, external to the
996:
993:
935:
899:
863:
705:
595:
551:
532:
511:
483:
313:
277:
269:
241:
90:
1434:
are another group formerly classified among the fungi. They are
1316:
Other compounds that may accumulate in algal cell walls include
7248:
7106:
6809:
6685:
6417:
6051:
5950:
5705:
4963:
4855:
4775:
4729:
4719:
4680:
4618:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4198:
3961:
2166:"The apoplast and its significance for plant mineral nutrition"
1898:
1890:
1810:
1715:
1546:
1439:
1405:
1400:
1396:
1332:
1266:
1238:
1233:
1199:
1187:
1136:
1128:
1114:
1082:
1060:
1044:
1024:
946:
883:
844:
824:
799:
786:
764:
Up to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell walls:
717:
543:
329:
321:
273:
265:
222:
3239:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 99–100.
1594:. Most bacteria have the gram-negative cell wall and only the
7220:
6788:
6450:
6261:
6211:
6149:
6126:
5878:
5187:
5121:
5043:
5011:
4968:
4860:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4780:
4765:
4734:
4655:
4313:
4304:
2612:
1980:
1878:
1538:
1534:
1447:
1328:
1273:
1078:. The fungal cell wall is a matrix of three main components:
919:
877:
848:
782:
547:
285:
281:
218:
214:
2716:
Fry SC (1989). "The
Structure and Functions of Xyloglucan".
2111:"Biomineralization: Peptide-Mediated Synthesis of Materials"
1533:. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of
6256:
5038:
5033:
4685:
4525:
4500:
4495:
4479:
4338:
1803:
1293:
1020:
867:
575:
567:
301:
3551:
2404:
The
Surprising Archaea: Discovering Another Domain of Life
1225:: They form microfibrils in the cell walls of a number of
1176:
4958:
4520:
4167:
4091:
2476:
1813:
1089:
consisting mainly of unbranched chains of β-(1,4)-linked-
1039:
852:
6382:
3206:
1572:. The names originate from the reaction of cells to the
578:
have secondary walls. Other parts of plants such as the
3768:
3699:
2742:
1971:
produces a shell-like protective outer covering called
1722:
connections. However, unlike peptidoglycan, the sugar
716:. An alternative scenario is that fungi started with a
594:
is freely permeable to small molecules including small
473:
Diagram of the plant cell, with the cell wall in green.
3524:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 6, 12–21.
2783:
2695:(1st ed.). American society of plant physiology.
2115:
1027:
fruit. Cell to cell communication is possible through
760:
Molecular structure of the primary cell wall in plants
3211:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 687–688.
2993:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p.
2910:
2686:
2653:
2549:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp.
2208:
Grundlehren der anatomie und physiologie der pflanzen
1617:) only work against gram-negative pathogens, such as
1282:: It is a common polysaccharide in the cell walls of
3426:"Exploring prokaryotic diversity in the genomic era"
2919:(8th ed.). Pearson Benjamin Cummings. pp.
2662:(8th ed.). Pearson Benjamin Cummings. pp.
1738:,1-4. Additionally, the cross-linking peptides are
1645:) only work against gram-positive pathogens such as
1214:
in algal cells walls is used as a feature for algal
811:
In the primary (growing) plant cell wall, the major
3650:
3202:
3200:
2406:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 69–71.
2159:
2157:
1955:. In each case, the wall is rigid and essentially
1742:rather than D-amino acids as they are in bacteria.
1681:One type of archaeal cell wall is that composed of
523:
plasma membrane pressing against a rigid cell wall.
2986:
2943:
2912:
2835:"Carbohydrate metabolism:structural carbohydrates"
2743:Braidwood L, Breuer C, Sugimoto K (January 2014).
2688:
2655:
1674:have a cell wall made of a similar polymer called
1403:rather than chitin, although some genera (such as
1158:, thus these proteins are called mannoproteins or
7009:
3704:(4th ed.). New York: Garland. p. 1065.
3651:Frantz C, Stewart KM, Weaver VM (December 2010).
3635:
3207:Alexopoulos CJ, Mims W, Blackwell M (1996). "4".
2970:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
2566:"On the evolution of fungal and yeast cell walls"
1843:, the wall may be composed only of surface-layer
645:Cell walls evolved independently in many groups.
284:are anchored to or embedded in plant cell walls.
7548:
3259:
3197:
2613:Ruiz-Herrera J, Ortiz-Castellanos L (May 2010).
2353:
2154:
2059:
1745:A second type of archaeal cell wall is found in
1190:showing the external appearance of the cell wall
375:(1882, 1889), and the intussusception theory by
3638:Algae: anatomy, biochemistry, and biotechnology
3619:The Flagellates. Unity, diversity and evolution
3584:(Protoplasma special ed.). pp. 1–28.
2536:
2534:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2526:
2397:
2395:
2393:
2391:
1959:. It is the non-living component of cell. Some
3522:The Physiology and Biochemistry of Prokaryotes
3167:
2691:Biochemistry & molecular biology of plants
2108:
1442:, but aggregate into a reproductive stalk and
1384:evidence has led to their reclassification as
1166:
855:, forming a permeability barrier known as the
659:, terrestrialization and vascularization. The
6970:
6368:
6032:
5432:
4183:
3754:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3515:
3513:
3230:
3228:
2864:"Cellulose biosynthesis: counting the chains"
2430:Loose-leaf Version for Molecular Cell Biology
2144:Hooke R (1665). Martyn J, Allestry J (eds.).
1658:Although not truly unique, the cell walls of
1561:enzyme can also damage bacterial cell walls.
1491:-containing cell wall (the purple layer). No
789:, which strengthens and waterproofs the wall.
5289:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
3621:. London: Taylor and Francis. Archived from
3555:, Madigan MT, Martinko JM, Parker J (1994).
2540:
2523:
2388:
2163:
598:, with size exclusion estimated to be 30-60
236:The composition of cell walls varies across
209:and mechanical stress. While absent in many
1705:. While the overall structure of archaeal
1422:, which is not found in fungal cell walls.
6375:
6361:
6039:
6025:
5446:
5439:
5425:
4190:
4176:
3761:
3747:
3538:
3510:
3474:
3423:
3225:
2937:
2687:Buchanan BB, Gruissem W, Jones RL (2000).
2055:
2053:
197:is a structural layer that surrounds some
7169:
6877:
3676:
3451:
3441:
3378:
3329:
3277:
3234:
3173:
3134:
3026:. biologie.uni-hamburg.de. Archived from
3017:
2887:
2809:
2760:
2630:
2589:
2498:
2371:
2181:
2085:
1521:(also called murein), which is made from
1465:
497:
457:Learn how and when to remove this message
6046:
5233:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
3346:
2563:
2354:Bidhendi AJ, Geitmann A (January 2016).
2060:Romaniuk JA, Cegelski L (October 2015).
1824:thrives only under conditions with high
1487:, seen here in light brown, and a thick
1474:
1357:may be a constituent of the cell walls.
1175:
1038:
889:
870:(largely secondary cell walls) include:
755:
747:
566:, making the secondary wall stiff. Both
468:
3579:
3299:
3297:
2709:
2401:
2288:
2050:
1860:
1730:, and the two sugars are bonded with a
1689:). This type of wall is found in some
1470:
1210:) or both. The inclusion of additional
7549:
3653:"The extracellular matrix at a glance"
3612:
3082:
2984:
2861:
2470:
2349:
2347:
1901:extracted from the surrounding water;
1653:
785:, possess a secondary wall containing
6356:
6020:
5420:
4171:
3742:
3617:. In Leadbeater BS, Green JC (eds.).
3519:
3047:
2491:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103809
2458:. In Monosson E, Cleveland C (eds.).
2453:
2323:
2273:
2252:
2221:
2143:
1503:, is distinct from the cell envelope.
6323:
6001:
3401:
3395:
3303:
3294:
2989:Magical Mushrooms, Mischievous Molds
2841:. Academic Press. pp. 205–236.
2832:
2826:
2204:
1734:,1-3 glycosidic linkage instead of
1495:is present, as would be the case in
1121:are synthesized and extruded at the
1043:Chemical structure of a unit from a
1034:
969:is laid down first, formed from the
609:
439:adding citations to reliable sources
410:
332:have a unique cell wall composed of
48:Components of a typical plant cell:
6335:
2715:
2344:
2113:. In Lukehart CM, Scott RA (eds.).
1802:in the wall have a high content of
727:
13:
3615:"The cell surface of flagellates."
3062:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1983.tb00385.x
2946:Cell Biology International Reports
2278:. Jena: Verlag von Gustav Fischer.
2276:Die Stoffbewegungen in der Pflanze
392:in order to separate the "living"
252:, the primary cell wall comprises
14:
7573:
5238:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
3722:
2837:. In Dey PM, Harborne JB (eds.).
2259:. New York: McGraw Hill. p.
1369:, also known as water molds, are
880:, 20-35%, a type of hemicellulose
494:and depend on growth conditions.
225:, and are commonly found in most
6334:
6322:
6311:
6310:
6000:
5991:
5990:
5401:
5400:
3636:Barsanti L, Gualtieri P (2006).
2632:10.1111/j.1567-1364.2009.00589.x
2183:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2001.00034.x
1483:. The cell envelope comprises a
1338:their cell walls (also known as
1254:as well as in the walls of some
681:events transferred it (with the
613:
558:cell walls. These compounds are
415:
201:, found immediately outside the
42:
5689:Bacterial cellular morphologies
3693:
3644:
3629:
3606:
3573:
3468:
3443:10.1186/gb-2002-3-2-reviews0003
3417:
3253:
3107:
3076:
3041:
3011:
2978:
2904:
2855:
2777:
2736:
2680:
2647:
2606:
2564:Xie X, Lipke PN (August 2010).
2557:
2447:
2420:
2317:
2291:Current Opinion in Cell Biology
2109:Rutledge RD, Wright DW (2013).
1772:A third type of wall among the
1525:chains cross-linked by unusual
585:
426:needs additional citations for
288:exhibit cell walls composed of
7122:Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous
2718:Journal of Experimental Botany
2479:Annual Review of Plant Biology
2360:Journal of Experimental Botany
2282:
2267:
2246:
2215:
2198:
2137:
2102:
1499:. The red layer, known as the
1450:formed at the apex, possess a
1425:
1360:
806:
590:The primary cell wall of most
1:
7092:Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid
3925:Microtubule organizing center
3702:Molecular biology of the cell
3322:10.1128/CMR.16.4.673-687.2003
3310:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
2043:
1917:also produce a skeleton from
1881:have a sheath or envelope of
406:
16:Outermost layer of some cells
5279:History of plant systematics
4866:Thorns, spines, and prickles
2958:10.1016/0309-1651(87)90106-8
2541:Webster J, Weber RW (2007).
2303:10.1016/0955-0674(89)90074-4
1728:N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid
1135:that function to cross-link
960:
934:cells of plant bark contain
605:
164:Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
121:k. Small membranous vesicles
7:
3590:10.1007/978-3-7091-9378-5_1
3174:Sengbusch PV (2003-07-31).
3123:Journal of Chemical Ecology
3018:Sengbusch PV (2003-07-31).
2862:Jarvis MC (December 2013).
2021:
1820:the charge. Consequently,
1167:Other eukaryotic cell walls
518:. As John Howland explains
486:environments by preventing
126:Rough endoplasmic reticulum
10:
7578:
5932:Bacteria (classifications)
5654:Primary nutritional groups
5095:Alternation of generations
4197:
3640:. Florida, USA: CRC Press.
3582:The Protistan Cell Surface
3235:Raper KB, Rahn AW (1984).
2010:varies between cells, but
1947:, encase their cells in a
1831:In other Archaea, such as
1506:
1479:Illustration of a typical
1067:. True fungi do not have
986:cellulose synthase complex
339:
7431:
7365:
7290:
7267:
7234:
7167:
7041:
7034:
7000:
6961:
6936:
6910:
6901:
6868:
6833:
6797:
6766:
6743:
6734:
6704:
6683:
6665:
6656:
6626:
6600:
6591:
6561:
6535:
6500:
6491:
6484:
6398:
6306:
6298:List of mycology journals
6275:
6244:
6204:
6124:
6117:
6071:
6058:
5986:
5917:
5897:
5849:
5738:
5729:
5681:
5574:
5512:
5498:
5458:
5396:
5344:
5308:
5245:Cultivated plant taxonomy
5208:Biological classification
5198:
5071:
4987:
4883:
4833:
4558:
4488:
4431:
4393:
4367:
4303:
4223:
4205:
4144:
4079:
4004:
3895:
3781:
3557:Biology of Microorganisms
3496:10.1016/j.mib.2004.08.007
3475:Walsh F, Amyes S (2004).
3260:van Heijenoort J (2001).
3145:10.1007/s10886-005-0984-2
2002:(ECM) is also present in
1885:outside the cell made of
1438:that feed as unicellular
1232:including those from the
1101:, or poly-β-(1,4)-linked-
1003:). Cells interact though
898:Additionally, structural
743:
702:1,3-Beta-glucan synthases
41:
32:
23:
6413:Mastigophora/Flagellates
5808:Bacterial outer membrane
5105:Evolutionary development
3920:Prokaryotic cytoskeleton
3729:Cell wall ultrastructure
3304:Koch AL (October 2003).
3101:10.1093/plankt/12.6.1117
2256:Introduction To Cytology
2240:10.1242/jcs.s3-93.22.157
2033:Bacterial cell structure
1631:glycopeptide antibiotics
1513:Bacterial cell structure
1171:
722:horizontal gene transfer
714:homologous recombination
229:, with the exception of
7451:Baas-Becking hypothesis
4756:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
3657:Journal of Cell Science
3359:Journal of Bacteriology
3279:10.1093/glycob/11.3.25R
2228:Journal of Cell Science
2164:Sattelmacher B (2000).
1607:beta-lactam antibiotics
1481:gram-positive bacterium
685:proteins) further into
679:secondary endosymbiosis
661:CesA cellulose synthase
533:passive uptake of water
7446:Microbial biogeography
5803:Gram-negative bacteria
5782:Gram-positive bacteria
5371:by author abbreviation
5295:Plant taxonomy systems
5213:Botanical nomenclature
2960:(inactive 2024-09-11).
2222:Baker JR (June 1952).
2078:10.1098/rstb.2015.0024
1925:in some groups. Many
1718:cross-linked by short
1626:Pseudomonas aeruginosa
1620:Haemophilus influenzae
1504:
1497:gram-negative bacteria
1466:Prokaryotic cell walls
1198:(such as cellulose (a
1191:
1048:
895:
761:
753:
525:
498:Rigidity of cell walls
474:
6466:Fungus-like organisms
6288:List of fungal orders
5658:Substrate preference
5378:Botanical expeditions
3910:Intermediate filament
3803:Endoplasmic reticulum
3424:Hugenholtz P (2002).
3209:Introductory Mycology
3020:"Cell Walls of Algae"
2880:10.1104/pp.113.231092
2802:10.1104/pp.119.3.1137
2545:Introduction to Fungi
2460:Encyclopedia of Earth
1662:are unusual. Whereas
1648:Staphylococcus aureus
1507:Further information:
1478:
1179:
1071:in their cell walls.
1042:
893:
759:
751:
698:chitin-glucan-protein
520:
472:
244:, cell type, and the
7181:Simple cell membrane
7117:Pseudoparenchymatous
7105:Filamentous/trichal/
7089:Colonial flagellated
7022:Collar of microvilli
6283:Glossary of mycology
5639:Microbial metabolism
5110:Evolutionary history
5100:Double fertilization
4952:Cellular respiration
4157:Extracellular matrix
3030:on November 28, 2005
2117:. EIC Books. Wiley.
2028:Extracellular matrix
2018:protein in the ECM.
2000:extracellular matrix
1877:) or internal. Many
1875:extracellular matrix
1861:Other cell coverings
1780:, and occurs in the
1724:N-acetylmuramic acid
1493:outer lipid membrane
1471:Bacterial cell walls
738:atmospheric pressure
435:improve this article
401:extracellular matrix
7395:Contractile vacuole
7346:Meiosis in protists
7327:Mitosis in protists
7305:Multinucleate cells
6527:Flagellar apparatus
6476:Ambiregnal protists
6418:Sarcodina/Amoeboids
6293:List of mycologists
5889:Non-motile bacteria
5485:Pathogenic bacteria
4329:Non-vascular plants
3860:Cytoplasmic granule
3663:(Pt 24): 4195–200.
3484:Curr Opin Microbiol
3371:10.1128/JB.00273-07
3186:on December 8, 2006
3083:Furnas MJ (1990). "
2749:The New Phytologist
2619:FEMS Yeast Research
2402:Howland JL (2000).
1683:pseudopeptidoglycan
1676:pseudopeptidoglycan
1654:Archaeal cell walls
1588:lipopolysaccharides
1202:)) or a variety of
1103:N-Acetylglucosamine
1091:N-Acetylglucosamine
778:secondary cell wall
540:secondary cell wall
531:is a result of the
326:N-acetylglucosamine
318:pseudopeptidoglycan
7226:Periplast/pellicle
6949:Periplast/pellicle
6889:Cruciform division
6065:Outline of lichens
5818:Lipopolysaccharide
4834:Surface structures
4629:Flower development
3885:Weibel–Palade body
3769:Structures of the
3669:10.1242/jcs.023820
3436:(2): REVIEWS0003.
2985:Hudler GW (1998).
2839:Plant Biochemistry
2730:10.1093/jxb/40.1.1
2373:10.1093/jxb/erv535
2072:(1679): 20150024.
1887:exopolysaccharides
1541:which are made of
1505:
1192:
1049:
896:
798:, a layer rich in
762:
754:
625:. You can help by
475:
373:Eduard Strasburger
77:Thylakoid membrane
35:Plant cell diagram
7544:
7543:
7441:Microbial ecology
7427:
7426:
7423:
7422:
7400:Eyespot apparatus
7030:
7029:
7012:Choanoflagellates
6996:
6995:
6957:
6956:
6897:
6896:
6864:
6863:
6730:
6729:
6652:
6651:
6587:
6586:
6350:
6349:
6240:
6239:
6136:teleomorph/sexual
6014:
6013:
5913:
5912:
5859:Bacterial capsule
5825:Periplasmic space
5792:Lipoteichoic acid
5677:
5676:
5649:Microbial ecology
5644:Nitrogen fixation
5414:
5413:
5053:Herbaceous plants
4879:
4878:
4165:
4164:
3945:Spindle pole body
3711:978-0-8153-4072-0
3613:Becker B (2000).
3599:978-3-7091-9380-8
3566:978-0-13-042169-2
3531:978-0-19-508439-9
3246:978-0-691-08345-2
3237:The Dictyostelids
3218:978-0-471-52229-4
3004:978-0-691-02873-6
2930:978-0-8053-6844-4
2848:978-0-12-214674-9
2762:10.1111/nph.12473
2702:978-0-943088-39-6
2673:978-0-8053-6844-4
2454:Hogan CM (2010).
2440:978-1-4641-2746-5
2433:. W. H. Freeman.
2413:978-0-19-511183-5
2337:978-0-470-04737-8
2324:Evert RF (2006).
2253:Sharp LW (1921).
2124:978-1-118-62522-4
1989:coccolithophorids
1969:choanoflagellates
1953:calcium carbonate
1915:silicoflagellates
1782:hyperthermophiles
1181:Scanning electron
1035:Fungal cell walls
874:cellulose, 35-50%
770:primary cell wall
736:of several times
734:osmotic pressures
643:
642:
467:
466:
459:
191:
190:
7569:
7557:Plant physiology
7415:Mastigont system
7368:
7293:
7270:
7259:Gliding motility
7237:
7174:
7119:/plektenchymatic
7075:Amoeboflagellate
7048:
7039:
7038:
7015:
7007:
7006:
6976:
6968:
6967:
6942:
6916:
6908:
6907:
6882:
6875:
6874:
6839:
6803:
6772:
6746:
6741:
6740:
6710:
6689:
6668:
6663:
6662:
6632:
6606:
6598:
6597:
6567:
6541:
6505:
6498:
6497:
6489:
6488:
6377:
6370:
6363:
6354:
6353:
6338:
6337:
6326:
6325:
6314:
6313:
6171:anamorph/asexual
6122:
6121:
6061:Outline of fungi
6041:
6034:
6027:
6018:
6017:
6004:
6003:
5994:
5993:
5942:Former groupings
5736:
5735:
5587:Human microbiome
5510:
5509:
5441:
5434:
5427:
5418:
5417:
5404:
5403:
5383:Individual trees
5058:Secondary growth
5029:Succulent plants
5017:Prostrate shrubs
4900:Apical dominance
4885:Plant physiology
4846:Epicuticular wax
4391:
4390:
4384:
4375:Plant morphology
4192:
4185:
4178:
4169:
4168:
3763:
3756:
3749:
3740:
3739:
3716:
3715:
3697:
3691:
3690:
3680:
3648:
3642:
3641:
3633:
3627:
3626:
3610:
3604:
3603:
3577:
3571:
3570:
3549:
3536:
3535:
3520:White D (1995).
3517:
3508:
3507:
3481:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3455:
3445:
3421:
3415:
3414:
3399:
3393:
3392:
3382:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3333:
3301:
3292:
3291:
3281:
3257:
3251:
3250:
3232:
3223:
3222:
3204:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3191:
3182:. Archived from
3171:
3165:
3164:
3138:
3120:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3095:(6): 1117–1151.
3080:
3074:
3073:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3015:
3009:
3008:
2992:
2982:
2976:
2975:
2969:
2961:
2941:
2935:
2934:
2918:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2891:
2868:Plant Physiology
2859:
2853:
2852:
2830:
2824:
2823:
2813:
2790:Plant Physiology
2781:
2775:
2774:
2764:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2694:
2684:
2678:
2677:
2661:
2651:
2645:
2644:
2634:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2593:
2582:10.1002/yea.1787
2561:
2555:
2554:
2548:
2538:
2521:
2520:
2502:
2474:
2468:
2467:
2456:"Abiotic factor"
2451:
2445:
2444:
2424:
2418:
2417:
2399:
2386:
2385:
2375:
2351:
2342:
2341:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2274:Münch E (1930).
2271:
2265:
2264:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2205:Link HF (1807).
2202:
2196:
2195:
2185:
2161:
2152:
2151:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2089:
2057:
1834:Methanomicrobium
1696:Methanobacterium
1342:or valves) from
827:. The cellulose
728:Plant cell walls
669:and was part of
657:multicellularity
638:
635:
617:
610:
504:tensile strength
462:
455:
451:
448:
442:
419:
411:
386:coined the term
238:taxonomic groups
207:osmotic pressure
144:Nuclear envelope
46:
36:
27:
21:
20:
7577:
7576:
7572:
7571:
7570:
7568:
7567:
7566:
7547:
7546:
7545:
7540:
7433:
7419:
7366:
7361:
7291:
7286:
7268:
7263:
7235:
7230:
7171:
7168:
7163:
7045:
7042:
7026:
7010:
6992:
6971:
6953:
6937:
6932:
6911:
6893:
6878:
6860:
6834:
6829:
6798:
6793:
6769:Dinoflagellates
6767:
6762:
6744:
6726:
6705:
6700:
6684:
6679:
6666:
6648:
6627:
6622:
6601:
6583:
6562:
6557:
6536:
6531:
6501:
6480:
6401:classifications
6400:
6394:
6381:
6351:
6346:
6302:
6271:
6252:Dimorphic fungi
6245:Growth patterns
6236:
6200:
6113:
6094:Medicinal fungi
6067:
6054:
6045:
6015:
6010:
5982:
5937:Bacterial phyla
5921:
5909:
5893:
5851:
5845:
5836:Arabinogalactan
5741:
5725:
5673:
5570:
5514:
5502:
5494:
5480:Lysogenic cycle
5461:
5454:
5445:
5415:
5410:
5392:
5361:Botanical terms
5354:
5340:
5304:
5250:Citrus taxonomy
5228:Author citation
5194:
5088:
5067:
4989:
4983:
4979:Turgor pressure
4887:
4875:
4829:
4644:Floral symmetry
4562:
4554:
4484:
4473:Vascular bundle
4468:Vascular tissue
4427:
4387:
4378:
4377:
4363:
4334:Vascular plants
4299:
4295:Plant pathology
4219:
4201:
4196:
4166:
4161:
4140:
4075:
4000:
3891:
3808:Golgi apparatus
3784:
3777:
3767:
3725:
3720:
3719:
3712:
3698:
3694:
3649:
3645:
3634:
3630:
3611:
3607:
3600:
3578:
3574:
3567:
3550:
3539:
3532:
3518:
3511:
3479:
3473:
3469:
3422:
3418:
3400:
3396:
3365:(18): 6512–20.
3351:
3347:
3302:
3295:
3258:
3254:
3247:
3233:
3226:
3219:
3205:
3198:
3189:
3187:
3172:
3168:
3136:10.1.1.320.5895
3118:
3112:
3108:
3089:J. Plankton Res
3081:
3077:
3046:
3042:
3033:
3031:
3016:
3012:
3005:
2983:
2979:
2963:
2962:
2942:
2938:
2931:
2909:
2905:
2860:
2856:
2849:
2833:Reid J (1997).
2831:
2827:
2782:
2778:
2741:
2737:
2714:
2710:
2703:
2685:
2681:
2674:
2652:
2648:
2611:
2607:
2562:
2558:
2539:
2524:
2475:
2471:
2452:
2448:
2441:
2425:
2421:
2414:
2400:
2389:
2352:
2345:
2338:
2322:
2318:
2287:
2283:
2272:
2268:
2251:
2247:
2220:
2216:
2203:
2199:
2170:New Phytologist
2162:
2155:
2142:
2138:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2107:
2103:
2058:
2051:
2046:
2024:
1977:dinoflagellates
1911:testate amoebae
1863:
1855:polysaccharides
1840:Desulfurococcus
1765:in the case of
1761:, which may be
1759:polysaccharides
1726:is replaced by
1656:
1551:L-form bacteria
1515:
1485:plasma membrane
1473:
1468:
1428:
1374:plant pathogens
1363:
1212:polysaccharides
1196:polysaccharides
1174:
1169:
1123:plasma membrane
1076:plasma membrane
1065:polysaccharides
1037:
963:
942:wall polymers.
924:Casparian strip
904:arabinogalactan
809:
746:
730:
683:arabinogalactan
639:
633:
630:
623:needs expansion
608:
588:
550:cell walls, or
508:turgor pressure
500:
463:
452:
446:
443:
432:
420:
409:
342:
334:biogenic silica
324:, specifically
294:polysaccharides
268:. Often, other
254:polysaccharides
187:
176:Golgi apparatus
81:e. Starch grain
59:Plasma membrane
34:
25:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7575:
7565:
7564:
7559:
7542:
7541:
7539:
7538:
7533:
7528:
7527:
7526:
7525:
7524:
7519:
7509:
7504:
7499:
7489:
7488:
7487:
7476:
7475:
7474:
7469:
7455:
7454:
7453:
7448:
7437:
7435:
7429:
7428:
7425:
7424:
7421:
7420:
7418:
7417:
7412:
7407:
7402:
7397:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7377:
7371:
7369:
7363:
7362:
7360:
7359:
7358:
7357:
7354:
7351:
7343:
7342:
7341:
7338:
7335:
7332:
7324:
7319:
7314:
7313:
7312:
7302:
7296:
7294:
7288:
7287:
7285:
7284:
7279:
7273:
7271:
7265:
7264:
7262:
7261:
7256:
7251:
7246:
7240:
7238:
7232:
7231:
7229:
7228:
7223:
7218:
7213:
7208:
7203:
7198:
7193:
7188:
7183:
7177:
7175:
7165:
7164:
7162:
7161:
7148:
7147:
7146:
7145:
7144:
7143:Siphonocladous
7141:
7133:
7126:Multinucleated
7123:
7120:
7114:
7112:Parenchymatous
7109:
7103:
7102:
7101:
7096:
7093:
7090:
7079:
7078:
7077:
7072:
7067:
7062:
7051:
7049:
7036:
7032:
7031:
7028:
7027:
7025:
7024:
7018:
7016:
7004:
6998:
6997:
6994:
6993:
6991:
6990:
6985:
6979:
6977:
6965:
6959:
6958:
6955:
6954:
6952:
6951:
6945:
6943:
6934:
6933:
6931:
6930:
6925:
6919:
6917:
6913:Kinetoplastids
6905:
6899:
6898:
6895:
6894:
6892:
6891:
6885:
6883:
6872:
6866:
6865:
6862:
6861:
6859:
6858:
6853:
6848:
6842:
6840:
6831:
6830:
6828:
6827:
6822:
6817:
6812:
6806:
6804:
6795:
6794:
6792:
6791:
6786:
6781:
6775:
6773:
6764:
6763:
6761:
6760:
6755:
6749:
6747:
6738:
6732:
6731:
6728:
6727:
6725:
6724:
6719:
6713:
6711:
6702:
6701:
6699:
6698:
6692:
6690:
6681:
6680:
6678:
6677:
6671:
6669:
6660:
6654:
6653:
6650:
6649:
6647:
6646:
6641:
6635:
6633:
6624:
6623:
6621:
6620:
6615:
6609:
6607:
6595:
6589:
6588:
6585:
6584:
6582:
6581:
6579:Phycobilisomes
6576:
6574:Pit connection
6570:
6568:
6559:
6558:
6556:
6555:
6553:Phycobilisomes
6550:
6544:
6542:
6533:
6532:
6530:
6529:
6524:
6519:
6508:
6506:
6503:Chloroplastida
6495:
6493:Archaeplastida
6486:
6482:
6481:
6479:
6478:
6473:
6468:
6463:
6458:
6453:
6448:
6447:
6446:
6441:
6432:
6431:
6430:
6425:
6415:
6404:
6402:
6396:
6395:
6380:
6379:
6372:
6365:
6357:
6348:
6347:
6345:
6344:
6332:
6320:
6307:
6304:
6303:
6301:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6279:
6277:
6273:
6272:
6270:
6269:
6264:
6259:
6254:
6248:
6246:
6242:
6241:
6238:
6237:
6235:
6234:
6229:
6224:
6219:
6214:
6208:
6206:
6202:
6201:
6199:
6198:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6166:
6165:
6152:
6143:
6131:
6129:
6119:
6115:
6114:
6112:
6111:
6109:Mycotoxicology
6106:
6101:
6096:
6091:
6086:
6081:
6075:
6073:
6069:
6068:
6059:
6056:
6055:
6044:
6043:
6036:
6029:
6021:
6012:
6011:
6009:
6008:
5998:
5987:
5984:
5983:
5981:
5980:
5979:
5978:
5973:
5968:
5963:
5953:
5948:
5939:
5934:
5928:
5926:
5915:
5914:
5911:
5910:
5908:
5907:
5901:
5899:
5895:
5894:
5892:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5855:
5853:
5847:
5846:
5844:
5843:
5838:
5827:
5822:
5821:
5820:
5815:
5799:
5794:
5789:
5778:
5777:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5752:
5746:
5744:
5733:
5727:
5726:
5724:
5723:
5718:
5713:
5708:
5703:
5702:
5701:
5696:
5694:cell structure
5685:
5683:
5679:
5678:
5675:
5674:
5672:
5671:
5670:
5669:
5667:Saccharophilic
5664:
5656:
5651:
5646:
5641:
5636:
5635:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5584:
5578:
5576:
5572:
5571:
5569:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5556:Microaerophile
5553:
5552:
5551:
5546:
5536:
5535:
5534:
5529:
5518:
5516:
5507:
5496:
5495:
5493:
5492:
5487:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5466:
5464:
5456:
5455:
5444:
5443:
5436:
5429:
5421:
5412:
5411:
5409:
5408:
5397:
5394:
5393:
5391:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5374:
5373:
5363:
5357:
5355:
5353:
5352:
5351:Related topics
5349:
5345:
5342:
5341:
5339:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5312:
5310:
5306:
5305:
5303:
5302:
5300:Taxonomic rank
5297:
5292:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5275:
5274:
5273:
5272:
5267:
5262:
5252:
5242:
5241:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5218:Botanical name
5210:
5204:
5202:
5200:Plant taxonomy
5196:
5195:
5193:
5192:
5191:
5190:
5185:
5184:
5183:
5176:Megasporangium
5173:
5172:
5171:
5164:Microsporangia
5156:
5155:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5118:
5117:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5091:
5089:
5087:
5086:
5081:
5075:
5069:
5068:
5066:
5065:
5060:
5055:
5050:
5049:
5048:
5047:
5046:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5025:
5024:
5019:
5009:
5004:
5002:Cushion plants
4993:
4991:
4985:
4984:
4982:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4955:
4954:
4949:
4939:
4937:Plant hormones
4934:
4929:
4928:
4927:
4920:Photosynthesis
4917:
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4891:
4889:
4881:
4880:
4877:
4876:
4874:
4873:
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4837:
4835:
4831:
4830:
4828:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4806:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4785:
4784:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4758:
4753:
4752:
4751:
4750:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4738:
4737:
4732:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4701:
4700:
4699:
4698:
4693:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4653:
4652:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4639:Floral formula
4636:
4634:Floral diagram
4631:
4626:
4616:
4615:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4603:
4602:
4597:
4587:
4577:
4572:
4566:
4564:
4563:(incl. Flower)
4556:
4555:
4553:
4552:
4551:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4539:
4538:
4533:
4523:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4492:
4490:
4486:
4485:
4483:
4482:
4477:
4476:
4475:
4465:
4463:Storage organs
4460:
4455:
4454:
4453:
4443:
4437:
4435:
4429:
4428:
4426:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4399:
4397:
4388:
4386:
4385:
4371:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4349:Spermatophytes
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4319:Archaeplastida
4316:
4310:
4308:
4301:
4300:
4298:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4281:
4280:
4273:Phytogeography
4270:
4268:Phytochemistry
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4229:
4227:
4225:Subdisciplines
4221:
4220:
4218:
4217:
4212:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4195:
4194:
4187:
4180:
4172:
4163:
4162:
4160:
4159:
4154:
4148:
4146:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4127:
4126:
4121:
4111:
4110:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4089:
4083:
4081:
4080:Other internal
4077:
4076:
4074:
4073:
4068:
4067:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4016:
4010:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3999:
3998:
3997:
3996:
3991:
3981:
3980:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3954:
3949:
3948:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3901:
3899:
3893:
3892:
3890:
3889:
3888:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3857:
3856:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3789:
3787:
3779:
3778:
3766:
3765:
3758:
3751:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3731:
3724:
3723:External links
3721:
3718:
3717:
3710:
3692:
3643:
3628:
3625:on 2013-02-12.
3605:
3598:
3572:
3565:
3537:
3530:
3509:
3467:
3430:Genome Biology
3416:
3394:
3345:
3293:
3272:(3): 25R–36R.
3252:
3245:
3224:
3217:
3196:
3180:Biology Online
3166:
3129:(1): 195–212.
3106:
3075:
3056:(2): 179–207.
3040:
3010:
3003:
2977:
2936:
2929:
2903:
2854:
2847:
2825:
2796:(3): 1137–46.
2776:
2755:(2): 388–402.
2735:
2708:
2701:
2679:
2672:
2646:
2605:
2556:
2522:
2469:
2466:on 2013-06-08.
2446:
2439:
2419:
2412:
2387:
2343:
2336:
2316:
2281:
2266:
2245:
2234:(22): 157–90.
2214:
2197:
2176:(2): 167–192.
2153:
2136:
2123:
2101:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2023:
2020:
1907:foraminiferans
1862:
1859:
1847:, known as an
1748:Methanosarcina
1702:Methanothermus
1670:, though some
1655:
1652:
1600:Actinomycetota
1581:teichoic acids
1523:polysaccharide
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1427:
1424:
1420:hydroxyproline
1362:
1359:
1314:
1313:
1287:
1277:
1271:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1145:
1126:
1036:
1033:
1012:secondary wall
967:middle lamella
962:
959:
912:hydroxyproline
888:
887:
881:
875:
839:, mediated by
808:
805:
804:
803:
795:middle lamella
790:
773:
745:
742:
729:
726:
710:tandem repeats
671:Archaeplastida
650:photosynthetic
641:
640:
620:
618:
607:
604:
587:
584:
516:water currents
499:
496:
465:
464:
423:
421:
414:
408:
405:
377:Julius Wiesner
341:
338:
262:hemicelluloses
189:
188:
186:
185:
179:
172:
170:Golgi vesicles
166:
160:
154:
153:
152:
146:
140:
128:
122:
119:
113:
107:
101:
100:
99:
93:
84:
83:
82:
79:
67:
61:
55:
47:
39:
38:
30:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7574:
7563:
7560:
7558:
7555:
7554:
7552:
7537:
7534:
7532:
7529:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7514:
7513:
7510:
7508:
7505:
7503:
7500:
7498:
7495:
7494:
7493:
7490:
7486:
7483:
7482:
7481:
7477:
7473:
7472:Fertilization
7470:
7468:
7465:
7464:
7463:
7459:
7456:
7452:
7449:
7447:
7444:
7443:
7442:
7439:
7438:
7436:
7430:
7416:
7413:
7411:
7408:
7406:
7403:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7381:
7378:
7376:
7373:
7372:
7370:
7364:
7355:
7352:
7349:
7348:
7347:
7344:
7340:Pleuromitosis
7339:
7336:
7333:
7330:
7329:
7328:
7325:
7323:
7320:
7318:
7315:
7311:
7308:
7307:
7306:
7303:
7301:
7298:
7297:
7295:
7289:
7283:
7280:
7278:
7277:Hydrogenosome
7275:
7274:
7272:
7266:
7260:
7257:
7255:
7252:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7242:
7241:
7239:
7233:
7227:
7224:
7222:
7219:
7217:
7214:
7212:
7209:
7207:
7204:
7202:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7182:
7179:
7178:
7176:
7173:
7166:
7159:
7155:
7152:
7151:Multicellular
7149:
7142:
7139:
7138:
7137:
7134:
7132:
7129:
7128:
7127:
7124:
7121:
7118:
7115:
7113:
7110:
7108:
7104:
7100:
7097:
7094:
7091:
7088:
7087:
7086:
7083:
7080:
7076:
7073:
7071:
7068:
7066:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7057:
7056:
7053:
7052:
7050:
7047:
7040:
7037:
7033:
7023:
7020:
7019:
7017:
7013:
7008:
7005:
7003:
6999:
6989:
6986:
6984:
6981:
6980:
6978:
6974:
6973:Dictyostelids
6969:
6966:
6964:
6960:
6950:
6947:
6946:
6944:
6940:
6935:
6929:
6926:
6924:
6921:
6920:
6918:
6914:
6909:
6906:
6904:
6900:
6890:
6887:
6886:
6884:
6881:
6876:
6873:
6871:
6867:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6843:
6841:
6837:
6836:Apicomplexans
6832:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6807:
6805:
6801:
6796:
6790:
6787:
6785:
6782:
6780:
6777:
6776:
6774:
6770:
6765:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6750:
6748:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6733:
6723:
6720:
6718:
6715:
6714:
6712:
6708:
6703:
6697:
6694:
6693:
6691:
6687:
6682:
6676:
6673:
6672:
6670:
6664:
6661:
6659:
6658:Stramenopiles
6655:
6645:
6642:
6640:
6637:
6636:
6634:
6630:
6625:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6610:
6608:
6604:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6590:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6571:
6569:
6565:
6560:
6554:
6551:
6549:
6546:
6545:
6543:
6539:
6534:
6528:
6525:
6523:
6520:
6518:
6514:
6510:
6509:
6507:
6504:
6499:
6496:
6494:
6490:
6487:
6483:
6477:
6474:
6472:
6469:
6467:
6464:
6462:
6459:
6457:
6454:
6452:
6449:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6436:
6433:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6420:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6410:
6409:
6406:
6405:
6403:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6378:
6373:
6371:
6366:
6364:
6359:
6358:
6355:
6343:
6342:
6333:
6331:
6330:
6321:
6319:
6318:
6309:
6308:
6305:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6280:
6278:
6274:
6268:
6265:
6263:
6260:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6249:
6247:
6243:
6233:
6230:
6228:
6225:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6209:
6207:
6203:
6197:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6186:Chlamydospore
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6168:
6167:
6164:
6160:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6137:
6133:
6132:
6130:
6128:
6125:Reproduction/
6123:
6120:
6116:
6110:
6107:
6105:
6102:
6100:
6097:
6095:
6092:
6090:
6087:
6085:
6082:
6080:
6079:Ethnomycology
6077:
6076:
6074:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6042:
6037:
6035:
6030:
6028:
6023:
6022:
6019:
6007:
5999:
5997:
5989:
5988:
5985:
5977:
5974:
5972:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5958:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
5947:
5946:Schizomycetes
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5929:
5927:
5925:
5920:
5916:
5906:
5903:
5902:
5900:
5896:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5856:
5854:
5848:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5810:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5800:
5798:
5795:
5793:
5790:
5788:
5787:Teichoic acid
5785:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5765:
5762:
5761:
5760:
5759:Peptidoglycan
5756:
5753:
5751:
5750:Cell membrane
5748:
5747:
5745:
5743:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5728:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5712:
5709:
5707:
5704:
5700:
5697:
5695:
5692:
5691:
5690:
5687:
5686:
5684:
5680:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5660:
5659:
5657:
5655:
5652:
5650:
5647:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5617:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5589:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5579:
5577:
5573:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5541:
5540:
5537:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5524:
5523:
5520:
5519:
5517:
5511:
5508:
5506:
5501:
5497:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5483:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5467:
5465:
5463:
5457:
5453:
5449:
5442:
5437:
5435:
5430:
5428:
5423:
5422:
5419:
5407:
5399:
5398:
5395:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5372:
5369:
5368:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5358:
5356:
5350:
5347:
5346:
5343:
5337:
5336:Phytochemical
5334:
5332:
5329:
5327:
5324:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5314:
5313:
5311:
5307:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5257:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5247:
5246:
5243:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5215:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5205:
5203:
5201:
5197:
5189:
5186:
5182:
5179:
5178:
5177:
5174:
5170:
5167:
5166:
5165:
5162:
5161:
5160:
5157:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5134:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5116:
5113:
5112:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5092:
5090:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5076:
5074:
5070:
5064:
5061:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5045:
5042:
5041:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5014:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5003:
5000:
4999:
4998:
4995:
4994:
4992:
4986:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4974:Transpiration
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4944:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4926:
4923:
4922:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4892:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4838:
4836:
4832:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4790:
4789:
4786:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4762:
4761:Inflorescence
4759:
4757:
4754:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4727:
4726:
4723:
4722:
4721:
4718:
4717:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4688:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4658:
4657:
4654:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4621:
4620:
4617:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4592:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4583:
4582:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4567:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4528:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4518:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4493:
4491:
4487:
4481:
4478:
4474:
4471:
4470:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4452:
4449:
4448:
4447:
4446:Ground tissue
4444:
4442:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4434:
4430:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4396:
4392:
4389:
4382:
4376:
4373:
4372:
4370:
4369:Plant anatomy
4366:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4302:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4290:Plant ecology
4288:
4286:
4285:Plant anatomy
4283:
4279:
4276:
4275:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4233:Archaeobotany
4231:
4230:
4228:
4226:
4222:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4207:
4204:
4200:
4193:
4188:
4186:
4181:
4179:
4174:
4173:
4170:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4149:
4147:
4143:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4116:
4115:
4112:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4094:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4078:
4072:
4069:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4054:Proteinoplast
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4021:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4014:Mitochondrion
4012:
4011:
4009:
4007:
4006:Endosymbionts
4003:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3989:Lamellipodium
3987:
3986:
3985:
3982:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3927:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3905:Microfilament
3903:
3902:
3900:
3898:
3894:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3858:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3825:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3818:Autophagosome
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3793:Cell membrane
3791:
3790:
3788:
3786:
3783:Endomembrane
3780:
3776:
3772:
3764:
3759:
3757:
3752:
3750:
3745:
3744:
3741:
3735:
3734:The Cell Wall
3732:
3730:
3727:
3726:
3713:
3707:
3703:
3696:
3688:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3647:
3639:
3632:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3609:
3601:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3576:
3568:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3533:
3527:
3523:
3516:
3514:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3490:(5): 439–44.
3489:
3485:
3478:
3471:
3463:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3420:
3412:
3408:
3407:Fortschr. Med
3404:
3398:
3390:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3349:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3316:(4): 673–87.
3315:
3311:
3307:
3300:
3298:
3289:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3256:
3248:
3242:
3238:
3231:
3229:
3220:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3201:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3170:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3117:
3110:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3079:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3044:
3029:
3025:
3024:Botany Online
3021:
3014:
3006:
3000:
2996:
2991:
2990:
2981:
2973:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2940:
2932:
2926:
2922:
2917:
2916:
2907:
2899:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2874:(4): 1485–6.
2873:
2869:
2865:
2858:
2850:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2829:
2821:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2780:
2772:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2712:
2704:
2698:
2693:
2692:
2683:
2675:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2659:
2650:
2642:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2625:(3): 225–43.
2624:
2620:
2616:
2609:
2601:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2576:(8): 479–88.
2575:
2571:
2567:
2560:
2552:
2547:
2546:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2473:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2442:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2423:
2415:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2396:
2394:
2392:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2366:(2): 449–61.
2365:
2361:
2357:
2350:
2348:
2339:
2333:
2329:
2328:
2320:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2297:(5): 688–94.
2296:
2292:
2285:
2277:
2270:
2262:
2258:
2257:
2249:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2218:
2211:. Danckwerts.
2210:
2209:
2201:
2193:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2160:
2158:
2149:
2148:
2140:
2126:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2097:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2054:
2049:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2019:
2017:
2014:are the most
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1933:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1841:
1836:
1835:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1822:Halobacterium
1819:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1796:Halobacterium
1793:
1789:
1788:
1787:Halobacterium
1783:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1755:
1750:
1749:
1743:
1741:
1740:L-amino acids
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1685:(also called
1684:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1668:peptidoglycan
1665:
1664:peptidoglycan
1661:
1651:
1650:
1649:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1627:
1622:
1621:
1616:
1615:cephalosporin
1612:
1608:
1603:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1584:
1582:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1570:gram-negative
1567:
1566:gram-positive
1562:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1529:containing D-
1528:
1524:
1520:
1519:peptidoglycan
1514:
1510:
1509:Cell envelope
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1489:peptidoglycan
1486:
1482:
1477:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1432:dictyostelids
1423:
1421:
1418:
1414:
1413:
1408:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1391:
1388:, related to
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1372:
1368:
1358:
1356:
1355:phlorotannins
1352:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1334:
1331:known as the
1330:
1327:The group of
1325:
1323:
1319:
1318:sporopollenin
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1263:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1252:
1247:
1246:
1241:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1224:
1221:
1220:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1204:glycoproteins
1201:
1197:
1189:
1185:
1182:
1178:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1099:Basidiomycota
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1077:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1047:polymer chain
1046:
1041:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1006:
1005:plasmodesmata
1002:
998:
995:
991:
987:
983:
980:
976:
972:
968:
958:
956:
950:
948:
943:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
892:
885:
882:
879:
876:
873:
872:
871:
869:
866:that make up
865:
860:
858:
857:plant cuticle
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
821:hemicellulose
818:
814:
813:carbohydrates
801:
797:
796:
791:
788:
784:
780:
779:
774:
771:
767:
766:
765:
758:
750:
741:
739:
735:
725:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
694:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
675:endosymbiosis
672:
668:
667:
666:Cyanobacteria
662:
658:
654:
651:
646:
637:
628:
624:
621:This section
619:
616:
612:
611:
603:
601:
597:
593:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
538:In plants, a
536:
534:
530:
524:
519:
517:
514:that bend in
513:
509:
505:
495:
493:
489:
488:osmotic lysis
485:
481:
480:morphogenesis
471:
461:
458:
450:
447:November 2017
440:
436:
430:
429:
424:This section
422:
418:
413:
412:
404:
402:
397:
395:
391:
390:
385:
380:
378:
374:
370:
366:
365:Hugo von Mohl
361:
359:
355:
354:Karl Rudolphi
350:
347:
337:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
306:peptidoglycan
303:
299:
295:
291:
290:glycoproteins
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
203:cell membrane
200:
196:
184:
180:
177:
173:
171:
167:
165:
161:
159:
155:
151:
147:
145:
141:
139:
135:
134:
133:
129:
127:
123:
120:
118:
114:
112:
108:
106:
105:Mitochondrion
102:
98:
94:
92:
88:
87:
85:
80:
78:
74:
73:
72:
68:
66:
62:
60:
56:
54:
53:Plasmodesmata
50:
49:
45:
40:
37:
31:
28:
22:
19:
7492:Heterotrophy
7462:Reproduction
7337:Orthomitosis
7322:Heterokaryon
7269:Mitochondria
7200:
7170:Cell surface
7046:organization
7002:Opisthokonta
6825:Micronucleus
6820:Macronucleus
6722:Pneumatocyst
6538:Glaucophytes
6522:Phragmoplast
6461:Thallophytes
6388:Protistology
6384:Microbiology
6339:
6327:
6315:
6226:
6169:
6155:Basidiospore
6134:
6089:Marine fungi
6048:Microbiology
5976:Mendosicutes
5961:Gracilicutes
5941:
5841:Mycolic acid
5831:Mycobacteria
5829:
5801:
5780:
5754:
5716:Coccobacilli
5616:in pregnancy
5582:Extremophile
5566:Aerotolerant
5500:Biochemistry
5462:microbiology
5448:Microbiology
5331:Horticulture
5321:Floriculture
5223:Correct name
5073:Reproduction
5063:Woody plants
4988:Plant growth
4947:Gas Exchange
4932:Phytomelanin
4810:Plant embryo
4560:Reproductive
4408:Phragmoplast
4402:
4151:
4034:Gerontoplast
3984:Pseudopodium
3977:Radial spoke
3957:Undulipodium
3897:Cytoskeleton
3813:Parenthesome
3701:
3695:
3660:
3656:
3646:
3637:
3631:
3623:the original
3618:
3608:
3581:
3575:
3556:
3521:
3487:
3483:
3470:
3433:
3429:
3419:
3410:
3406:
3397:
3362:
3358:
3348:
3313:
3309:
3269:
3266:Glycobiology
3265:
3255:
3236:
3208:
3188:. Retrieved
3184:the original
3179:
3169:
3126:
3122:
3109:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3078:
3053:
3049:
3043:
3032:. Retrieved
3028:the original
3023:
3013:
2988:
2980:
2966:cite journal
2952:(2): 75–79.
2949:
2945:
2939:
2914:
2906:
2871:
2867:
2857:
2838:
2828:
2793:
2789:
2779:
2752:
2748:
2738:
2721:
2717:
2711:
2690:
2682:
2657:
2649:
2622:
2618:
2608:
2573:
2569:
2559:
2544:
2482:
2478:
2472:
2464:the original
2459:
2449:
2429:
2422:
2403:
2363:
2359:
2326:
2319:
2294:
2290:
2284:
2275:
2269:
2255:
2248:
2231:
2227:
2217:
2207:
2200:
2173:
2169:
2146:
2139:
2128:. Retrieved
2114:
2104:
2069:
2065:
1997:
1987:plates, and
1961:golden algae
1951:skeleton of
1945:Corallinales
1937:Dasycladales
1930:
1903:radiolarians
1864:
1848:
1838:
1832:
1830:
1821:
1795:
1785:
1778:glycoprotein
1776:consists of
1771:
1766:
1752:
1746:
1744:
1735:
1731:
1706:
1700:
1694:
1687:pseudomurein
1680:
1657:
1646:
1624:
1618:
1604:
1592:lipoproteins
1585:
1578:
1563:
1516:
1429:
1410:
1404:
1371:saprotrophic
1364:
1348:
1344:silicic acid
1326:
1322:calcium ions
1315:
1280:Alginic acid
1265:
1259:
1251:Acetabularia
1249:
1243:
1237:
1193:
1154:and contain
1152:glycosylated
1073:
1050:
1011:
1009:
982:microfibrils
964:
951:
944:
918:may contain
908:glycosylated
897:
861:
829:microfibrils
810:
793:
776:
769:
763:
731:
696:Fungi use a
695:
664:
647:
644:
634:October 2013
631:
627:adding to it
622:
589:
586:Permeability
539:
537:
526:
521:
501:
476:
453:
444:
433:Please help
428:verification
425:
398:
387:
381:
362:
351:
346:Robert Hooke
343:
235:
194:
192:
183:Cytoskeleton
178:(Golgi body)
138:Nuclear pore
64:
26:Cell biology
18:
7522:Necrotrophy
7507:Saprotrophy
7497:Phagotrophy
7485:Phototrophy
7478:Nutrition:
7467:Life cycles
7458:Development
7432:Ecology and
7300:Nucleomorph
7254:Pseudopodia
7055:Unicellular
6939:Euglenoidea
6923:Kinetoplast
6707:Brown algae
6675:Mastigoneme
6613:Mastigoneme
6603:Cryptophyta
6513:green algae
6471:Slime molds
6341:WikiProject
6196:Pycniospore
6084:Lichenology
5864:Slime layer
5544:Facultative
5532:Facultative
5147:Pollen tube
5142:Pollinators
5132:Pollination
5127:Germination
4942:Respiration
4925:Chlorophyll
4771:Pedicellate
4705:Gametophyte
4624:Aestivation
4575:Antheridium
4570:Archegonium
4418:Plasmodesma
4395:Plant cells
4258:Paleobotany
4253:Ethnobotany
4238:Astrobotany
4136:Magnetosome
4102:Spliceosome
4029:Chromoplast
4024:Chloroplast
3915:Microtubule
2724:(1): 1–11.
2008:composition
1939:, and some
1927:green algae
1807:amino acids
1792:methanogens
1790:, and some
1691:methanogens
1672:methanogens
1639:teicoplanin
1531:amino acids
1436:slime molds
1426:Slime molds
1412:Saprolegnia
1393:brown algae
1390:autotrophic
1386:heterokonts
1361:Water molds
1351:brown algae
1306:furcelleran
1298:carrageenan
1284:brown algae
1230:green algae
1184:micrographs
1057:Myxogastria
1015:the gritty
1001:pectic acid
975:cytokinesis
837:acid growth
807:Composition
712:subject to
687:brown algae
663:evolved in
592:plant cells
384:Ernst Münch
369:Carl Nägeli
358:J.H.F. Link
298:carrageenan
250:land plants
227:prokaryotes
86:2. Vacuole
71:Chloroplast
7562:Organelles
7551:Categories
7536:Auxotrophy
7531:Mixotrophy
7512:Parasitism
7502:Osmotrophy
7480:Autotrophy
7434:physiology
7310:Plasmodium
7236:Locomotion
7172:structures
7136:Coenocytic
6880:Phytomyxea
6851:Apicoplast
6779:Dinokaryon
6758:Trichocyst
6629:Haptophyte
6517:Phycoplast
6485:Morphology
6456:Cryptogams
6217:Haustorium
6176:Sporangium
6163:Teliospore
5971:Mollicutes
5966:Firmicutes
5956:Prokaryota
5874:Glycocalyx
5699:plasticity
5662:Lipophilic
5515:preference
5490:Resistance
5169:Microspore
5159:Sporangium
5137:Artificial
4825:Sporophyte
4820:Sporophyll
4815:Receptacle
4710:Gynandrium
4580:Androecium
4489:Vegetative
4359:Angiosperm
4354:Gymnosperm
4248:Dendrology
4131:Proteasome
4124:Inclusions
4071:Nitroplast
4064:Apicoplast
4049:Elaioplast
4044:Amyloplast
4039:Leucoplast
3994:Filopodium
3940:Basal body
3930:Centrosome
3880:Peroxisome
3875:Glyoxysome
3865:Melanosome
3775:organelles
3413:: 185–189.
3190:2007-10-29
3034:2007-10-29
2500:10379/6762
2485:: 567–90.
2130:2016-03-14
2044:References
2038:Plant cell
1993:coccoliths
1929:, such as
1818:neutralize
1767:Halococcus
1754:Halococcus
1714:chains of
1693:, such as
1643:telavancin
1635:vancomycin
1611:penicillin
1574:Gram stain
1555:penicillin
1444:sporangium
1417:amino acid
1378:structural
1365:The group
1336:synthesize
1290:Sulfonated
1245:Dasycladus
1208:Volvocales
1131:: glucose
1111:Zygomycota
1095:Ascomycota
1063:and other
999:(salts of
971:cell plate
955:nasturtium
940:cross-link
930:roots and
928:endodermis
910:, contain
833:xyloglucan
653:eukaryotes
580:leaf stalk
564:waterproof
492:cell cycle
407:Properties
296:, such as
246:cell cycle
233:bacteria.
211:eukaryotes
199:cell types
111:Peroxisome
7517:Biotrophy
7390:Extrusome
7380:Cytostome
7244:Flagellum
7201:Cell wall
7160:/histonal
7140:Siphonous
7131:Syncytial
7099:Coenobial
7095:Sarcinoid
7044:Levels of
6983:Macrocyst
6963:Amoebozoa
6928:Glycosome
6856:Microneme
6736:Alveolata
6644:Haptonema
6639:Coccolith
6618:Periplast
6564:Red algae
6548:Cyanelles
6435:Infusoria
6232:Sporocarp
6227:Cell wall
6146:Ascospore
6141:Zygospore
6118:Structure
5924:evolution
5898:Composite
5797:Endospore
5755:Cell wall
5731:Structure
5622:Placental
5561:Nanaerobe
5539:Anaerobic
5470:Infection
5366:Botanists
5284:Herbarium
5181:Megaspore
5079:Evolution
5022:Subshrubs
4990:and habit
4915:Nutrition
4910:Cellulose
4905:Bulk flow
4888:Materials
4851:Epidermis
4715:Gynoecium
4696:Endosperm
4691:Dispersal
4607:Staminode
4543:Sessility
4531:Cataphyll
4451:Mesophyll
4403:Cell wall
4344:Lycophyte
4324:Bryophyte
4278:Geobotany
4263:Phycology
4152:Cell wall
4114:Cytoplasm
4087:Nucleolus
4059:Tannosome
3967:Flagellum
3952:Myofibril
3935:Centriole
3870:Microbody
3843:Phagosome
3131:CiteSeerX
3050:Biol. Rev
2150:. London.
2012:collagens
2004:metazoans
1985:cellulose
1957:inorganic
1941:red algae
1921:, called
1596:Bacillota
1543:cellulose
1456:cellulase
1452:cellulose
1382:molecular
1367:Oomycetes
1340:frustules
1302:porphyran
1256:red algae
1109:) in the
1069:cellulose
1019:cells in
990:magnesium
979:cellulose
961:Formation
916:epidermis
841:expansins
817:cellulose
691:oomycetes
606:Evolution
574:cells of
529:inflation
382:In 1930,
352:In 1804,
258:cellulose
231:mollicute
195:cell wall
150:Nucleolus
117:Cytoplasm
97:Tonoplast
65:Cell wall
7410:Axostyle
7405:Pyrenoid
7385:Fimbriae
7317:Dikaryon
7282:Mitosome
7211:Skeleton
7196:Frustule
7186:Mucilage
7158:tissular
7082:Colonial
7065:Amoeboid
7060:Monadoid
6988:Sorocarp
6903:Excavate
6870:Rhizaria
6800:Ciliates
6784:Dinocyst
6745:General:
6696:Frustule
6667:General:
6593:Hacrobia
6444:Sporozoa
6439:Ciliates
6428:Heliozoa
6408:Protozoa
6392:Protists
6317:Category
6267:Mushroom
6222:Mycelium
6181:Conidium
6159:Basidium
6099:Mycology
5996:Category
5919:Taxonomy
5852:envelope
5742:envelope
5632:Salivary
5549:Obligate
5527:Obligate
5475:Exotoxin
5452:Bacteria
5406:Category
5326:Forestry
5316:Agronomy
5309:Practice
5260:Cultivar
5255:Cultigen
5115:timeline
5007:Rosettes
4895:Aleurone
4871:Trichome
4788:Perianth
4600:Filament
4458:Meristem
4381:glossary
4243:Bryology
4145:External
4097:Ribosome
3853:Acrosome
3838:Endosome
3833:Lysosome
3687:21123617
3553:Brock TD
3504:15451497
3462:11864374
3403:Gram, HC
3389:17586646
3340:14557293
3288:11320055
3153:15839490
3070:86067386
2898:24296786
2820:10069853
2771:24033322
2641:19891730
2600:20641026
2517:11961888
2509:21351878
2382:26689854
2192:33874640
2096:26370936
2022:See also
2016:abundant
1965:ciliates
1949:secreted
1935:and the
1932:Halimeda
1919:minerals
1895:frustule
1893:build a
1883:mucilage
1871:bacteria
1867:protists
1845:proteins
1826:salinity
1800:proteins
1763:sulfated
1559:lysozyme
1527:peptides
1261:Porphyra
1216:taxonomy
1148:proteins
1141:chitosan
1133:polymers
1119:chitosan
1107:chitosan
1087:polymers
1053:Oomycete
1017:sclereid
997:pectates
900:proteins
864:polymers
596:proteins
512:seaweeds
394:symplast
389:apoplast
379:(1886).
314:S-layers
310:archaeal
308:, while
272:such as
270:polymers
158:Ribosome
7353:Zygotic
7350:Gametic
7292:Nucleus
7070:Coccoid
7035:General
6846:Rhoptry
6753:Alveoli
6686:Diatoms
6423:Testate
6329:Commons
6104:Mycosis
6006:Commons
5905:Biofilm
5884:Fimbria
5869:S-layer
5850:Outside
5711:Bacilli
5627:Uterine
5612:Vaginal
5522:Aerobic
5505:ecology
5460:Medical
5084:Ecology
4841:Cuticle
4671:Capsule
4661:Anatomy
4612:Tapetum
4536:Petiole
4511:Rhizome
4506:Rhizoid
4433:Tissues
4423:Vacuole
4413:Plastid
4215:Outline
4210:History
4119:Cytosol
4019:Plastid
3972:Axoneme
3848:Vacuole
3828:Exosome
3823:Vesicle
3798:Nucleus
3678:2995612
3380:2045188
3161:1540749
3085:In situ
2915:Biology
2889:3850196
2658:Biology
2591:3074402
2311:7833049
2087:4632600
1979:have a
1975:. Some
1891:Diatoms
1850:S-layer
1774:Archaea
1720:peptide
1712:polymer
1660:Archaea
1501:capsule
1460:pronase
1440:amoebae
1401:glucans
1397:diatoms
1333:diatoms
1310:funoran
1294:agarose
1258:, like
1223:Mannans
1188:diatoms
1160:mannans
1156:mannose
1144:matrix.
1129:glucans
1113:. Both
1093:in the
994:calcium
973:during
936:suberin
926:in the
800:pectins
706:mannose
552:suberin
484:osmotic
340:History
330:diatoms
278:suberin
242:species
132:Nucleus
91:Vacuole
7356:Sporic
7334:Closed
7249:Cilium
7206:Lorica
7107:hyphal
6815:Cirrus
6810:Cilium
6717:Lamina
6399:Former
6191:Oidium
6072:Branch
6052:Fungus
5951:Monera
5721:Spiral
5513:Oxygen
5388:Plants
5291:(IAPT)
5044:Lianas
5012:Shrubs
4964:Starch
4856:Nectar
4776:Raceme
4742:Stigma
4730:Locule
4720:Carpel
4681:Pyrena
4619:Flower
4595:Anther
4590:Stamen
4585:Pollen
4307:groups
4199:Botany
3962:Cilium
3785:system
3708:
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2006:. Its
1973:lorica
1943:, the
1899:silica
1811:sodium
1804:acidic
1798:, the
1794:. In
1716:glycan
1707:pseudo
1633:(e.g.
1629:. The
1609:(e.g.
1547:chitin
1535:plants
1448:spores
1406:Achlya
1274:Xylans
1267:Bangia
1248:, and
1239:Codium
1234:genera
1227:marine
1200:glucan
1137:chitin
1115:chitin
1083:chitin
1061:chitin
1045:chitin
1025:quince
947:silica
922:. The
884:lignin
845:pectin
825:pectin
787:lignin
744:Layers
718:chitin
673:since
544:lignin
322:chitin
274:lignin
266:pectin
264:, and
223:plants
7367:Other
7221:Theca
7191:Scale
6789:Theca
6451:Algae
6262:Yeast
6212:Hypha
6205:Other
6150:Ascus
6127:spore
5879:Pilus
5833:only:
5813:Porin
5805:only:
5784:only:
5706:Cocci
5682:Shape
5602:Mouth
5575:Other
5348:Lists
5265:Group
5188:Spore
5122:Flora
5039:Vines
5034:Trees
4997:Habit
4969:Sugar
4861:Stoma
4803:Sepal
4798:Petal
4793:Tepal
4781:Umbel
4766:Bract
4747:Style
4735:Ovule
4725:Ovary
4666:Berry
4656:Fruit
4649:Whorl
4516:Shoot
4314:Algae
4305:Plant
4107:Vault
3480:(PDF)
3157:S2CID
3119:(PDF)
3066:S2CID
2811:32096
2570:Yeast
2513:S2CID
1991:have
1981:theca
1897:from
1879:algae
1865:Many
1816:that
1539:fungi
1329:algae
1172:Algae
920:cutin
878:xylan
849:cutin
783:xylem
576:trees
560:rigid
548:xylem
286:Algae
282:cutin
256:like
248:. In
219:algae
215:fungi
7375:Cyst
7331:Open
7216:Test
7154:s.s.
7085:s.s.
6276:List
6257:Mold
5922:and
5740:Cell
5607:Skin
5597:Lung
5503:and
5270:Grex
5152:Self
4686:Seed
4548:Stem
4526:Leaf
4501:Root
4496:Bulb
4480:Wood
4441:Cork
4339:Fern
3771:cell
3706:ISBN
3683:PMID
3594:ISBN
3561:ISBN
3526:ISBN
3500:PMID
3458:PMID
3385:PMID
3336:PMID
3284:PMID
3241:ISBN
3213:ISBN
3149:PMID
2999:ISBN
2972:link
2925:ISBN
2894:PMID
2843:ISBN
2816:PMID
2767:PMID
2697:ISBN
2668:ISBN
2637:PMID
2596:PMID
2505:PMID
2435:ISBN
2408:ISBN
2378:PMID
2332:ISBN
2307:PMID
2188:PMID
2119:ISBN
2092:PMID
1967:and
1923:test
1913:and
1869:and
1837:and
1814:ions
1751:and
1699:and
1598:and
1590:and
1568:and
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1430:The
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1380:and
1320:and
1308:and
1264:and
1117:and
1097:and
1055:and
1029:pits
1023:and
1021:pear
992:and
965:The
932:cork
868:wood
851:and
823:and
815:are
792:The
775:The
768:The
689:and
648:The
572:bark
570:and
568:wood
562:and
556:cork
356:and
302:agar
300:and
292:and
221:and
6515:":
5774:DAP
5769:NAG
5764:NAM
5592:Gut
4959:Sap
4676:Nut
4521:Bud
4092:RNA
3673:PMC
3665:doi
3661:123
3586:doi
3492:doi
3448:PMC
3438:doi
3375:PMC
3367:doi
3363:189
3326:PMC
3318:doi
3274:doi
3141:doi
3097:doi
3058:doi
2954:doi
2921:119
2884:PMC
2876:doi
2872:163
2806:PMC
2798:doi
2794:119
2757:doi
2753:201
2726:doi
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2627:doi
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2578:doi
2553:–7.
2495:hdl
2487:doi
2368:doi
2299:doi
2236:doi
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2082:PMC
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1998:An
1983:of
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1139:or
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600:kDa
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