99:
171:. The new company was intended to compete not only in the process control and military market, where its staff was already seasoned, but also in the office computing sector of the French market, where IBM and Bull were dominant at the time. The plan enacted government subsidies for CII between 1967 and 1971, and was reconducted for another four years. A minor side of the plan was devoted to peripherals, while CII's main parent company,
175:, received government support to develop its semiconductor plants and R & D. Overall, while CII mainframes benefitted from preferential procurement by the French government, the Plan Calcul left peripherals, components and small computers makers compete on the free market. The same went for software companies, which were already thriving in France.
219:
warned that international cooperation was necessary, however, as "something must happen or there won't be a
European computer industry". The French government had spent more than $ 100 million on Plan Calcul in the first five years, and planned to spend more than that amount in the next five. France
69:, the largest French computer manufacturer, which had the second highest market share in France, after IBM, and was a leading IT equipment maker in Europe. Following this partial takeover, known as "Affaire Bull", GE-Bull dropped two Bull computers from its product line.
232:, who was a strong opponent of the Plan Calcul; meanwhile, CII's sleeping partner, CGE-Alcatel, woke up to oppose the domination of its archrival Siemens over the European computer industry. Unidata was terminated and CII was absorbed into
525:
73:
45:, in the aftermath of two key events that made his government worry about French dependence on the US computer industry. In the mid-1960s, the United States denied export licenses for American-made
201:(1971), which became a commercial success in the following decade. The company also was a minority participant in the production of magnetic periphals thru part ownership of
228:
to form a joint
European company, Unidata, which shipped its first computers in 1974. Yet a new President of the Republic was elected then, former Finance minister
78:
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54:
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424:
229:
582:
462:
Pierre
Mounier-Kuhn, “From General Electric to Bull: A case of managerial knowledge transfer (1956-1970)”,
666:
467:
208:
As of 1971 IBM had more than 50% market share in almost every
European country. Information Bureau head
392:
280:
Changing the rules: technological change, international competition, and regulation in communications
220:
expected CII to reach $ 200 million in revenue before 1975. That year, CII began negotiations with
50:
676:
505:
L’Informatique en France, de la seconde guerre mondiale au Plan Calcul. L’émergence d’une science
168:
98:
564:
214:
543:
202:
72:
Responsibility for administering the plan was given to a newly created government agency,
8:
186:. It was accompanied with a vast educational effort in programming and computer science.
164:
307:
638:
508:
484:
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370:
343:
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42:
628:
62:
429:
633:
655:
642:
616:
20:
233:
189:
In the late 1960s, CII announced its new, internally designed mainframes
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66:
367:
Histoire d'un pionnier de l'informatique: 40 ans de recherche Ă l'Inria
468:
http://www.cairn.info/revue-entreprises-et-histoire-2014-2-page-42.htm
422:
Emmanuel
Laurentin interview with Pierre Mounier-Kuhn (26 Sep 2006)
254:
29:
was a French governmental program to promote a national or
European
198:
30:
225:
221:
194:
190:
481:
Creating the computer: government, industry, and high technology
83:(Information Bureau), answering directly to the prime minister.
249:
58:
178:
On the research side, the program also led to the creation of
183:
239:
This government initiative was ultimately deemed a failure.
340:
High-Tech Europe: the politics of international cooperation
33:
industry and associated research and education activities.
86:
312:
180:
L'Institut de recherche en informatique et en automatique
46:
443:
Information technology policy: an international history
163:) was established as a manufacturer of commercial and
617:"Industrial Policies in France: The Old and the New"
526:"IRIS 50 - FIRST OF SERIES OF NEW FRENCH COMPUTERS"
653:
386:
384:
382:
41:The plan was approved in July 1966 by President
155:As part of the program, in December 1966, the
379:
109:Part of the Plan Calcul governemental program
602:"The Rise and Fall of Philips Data Systems"
57:in order to prevent it from perfecting its
621:Journal of Industry, Competition and Trade
425:1966 : La France lance le plan Calcul
97:
632:
342:, University of California Press, 1992,
393:"Close Cooperation: Europe's Best Hope"
157:Compagnie Internationale d'Informatique
92:Compagnie Internationale d'Informatique
87:Compagnie Internationale d'Informatique
682:Computer-related introductions in 1966
654:
390:
296:
274:
272:
270:
614:
483:, Brookings Institution Press, 1988,
282:, Brookings Institution Press, 1989,
599:
432:, La fabrique de l'histoire (series)
415:
413:
334:
332:
330:
304:"COMPUTERS DENIED TO FRANCE BY U.S."
74:Délégation générale à l'informatique
356:
278:Robert W. Crandall, Kenneth Flamm,
267:
182:(IRIA) in 1967, which later became
13:
494:
473:
435:
14:
698:
445:, Oxford University Press, 2004,
410:
327:
197:, and developed a mini-computer,
55:Commissariat Ă l'Ă©nergie atomique
672:Science and technology in France
391:Forest, Robert B. (1971-12-15).
687:Presidency of Charles de Gaulle
608:
593:
575:
557:
536:
518:
167:, initially under licence from
662:History of computing in France
466:, June 2014, n° 75, p. 42-56 (
456:
365:Alain Beltran, Pascal Griset,
1:
261:
7:
242:
67:Compagnie des Machines Bull
65:had acquired a majority of
16:French governmental program
10:
703:
615:Cohen, Elie (2007-12-01).
315:. May 21, 1966. p. 12
141:Absorbed by Honeywell-Bull
36:
18:
634:10.1007/s10842-007-0024-8
145:
137:
129:
121:
113:
105:
96:
530:Computers and Automation
53:computers to the French
19:Not to be confused with
565:"Bull computer History"
464:Entreprises et Histoire
169:Scientific Data Systems
587:www.feb-patrimoine.com
569:www.feb-patrimoine.com
369:, EDP Sciences, 2007,
61:. Meanwhile, in 1964,
507:, Paris, PUPS, 2010,
503:Pierre Mounier-Kuhn,
117:Computer manufacturer
203:Magnetic Peripherals
165:scientific computers
93:
667:Politics of France
532:: 48–49. Nov 1968.
308:The New York Times
91:
513:978-2-84050-654-6
338:Wayne Sandholtz,
230:Giscard d'Estaing
153:
152:
43:Charles de Gaulle
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612:
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600:Läppinen, Arne.
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544:"Siris 8 family"
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441:Richard Coopey,
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399:. pp. 26–33
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63:General Electric
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677:1966 in France
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627:(3): 213–227.
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571:. CII systems.
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430:France Culture
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583:"CII History"
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489:0-8157-2849-2
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149:Thompson-CSF
106:Company type
71:
40:
26:
25:
501:(in French)
420:(in French)
363:(in French)
213: [
173:Thomson-CSF
77: [
27:Plan Calcul
656:Categories
403:2019-12-03
397:Datamation
319:20 October
262:References
236:in 1976.
21:PlankalkĂĽl
643:1573-7012
549:April 19,
255:Cloudwatt
491:, p. 156
243:See also
199:Mitra 15
114:Industry
31:computer
226:Philips
222:Siemens
195:Iris 80
191:Iris 50
130:Defunct
122:Founded
37:History
641:
511:
487:
453:, p. 9
449:
373:
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286:
250:Quaero
59:H bomb
350:, p.
290:, p.
217:]
205:Inc.
184:INRIA
146:Owner
81:]
639:ISSN
551:2019
509:ISBN
485:ISBN
447:ISBN
371:ISBN
344:ISBN
321:2022
284:ISBN
224:and
193:and
138:Fate
133:1976
125:1966
49:and
629:doi
313:UPI
292:285
161:CII
51:CDC
47:IBM
658::
637:.
623:.
619:.
585:.
567:.
528:.
428:,
412:^
395:.
381:^
352:76
329:^
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269:^
215:fr
79:fr
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159:(
23:.
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