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because biological tissue is optically transparent at these wavelengths. While all AuNP are sensitive to change in their shape and size, Au nanorods properties are extremely sensitive to any change in any of their dimensions regarding their length and width or their aspect ratio. When light is shone on a metal NP, the NP forms a dipole oscillation along the direction of the electric field. When the oscillation reaches its maximum, this frequency is called the surface plasmon resonance (SPR). AuNR have two SPR spectrum bands: one in the NIR region caused by its longitudinal oscillation which tends to be stronger with a longer wavelength and one in the visible region caused by the transverse electronic oscillation which tends to be weaker with a shorter wavelength. The SPR characteristics account for the increase in light absorption for the particle. As the AuNR aspect ratio increases, the absorption wavelength is redshifted and light scattering efficiency is increased. The electrons excited by the NIR lose energy quickly after absorption via electron-electron collisions, and as these electrons relax back down, the energy is released as a phonon that then heats the environment of the AuNP which in cancer treatments would be the cancerous cells. This process is observed when a laser has a continuous wave onto the AuNP. Pulsed laser light beams generally results in the AuNP melting or ablation of the particle. Continuous wave lasers take minutes rather than a single pulse time for a pulsed laser, continues wave lasers are able to heat larger areas at once.
417:
more than 30 °C. Wang et al. designed four NIR-absorbing D-A structured conjugated polymer dots (Pdots) containing diketopyrrolo-pyrrole (DPP) and thiophene units as effective photothermal materials with the PCE up to 65% for in vivo cancer therapy. Zhang et al. constructed PBIBDF-BT D-A CPs by using isoindigo derivative (BIBDF) and bithiophene (BT) as EA and ED respectively. PBIBDF-BT was further modified with poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(hexyl ethylene phosphate) (mPEG-b-PHEP) to obtain PBIBDF-BT@NP PPE with PCE of 46.7% and high stability in physiological environment. Yang’s group designed PBTPBF-BT CPs, in which the bis(5-oxothienopyrrole-6-ylidene)-benzodifurandione (BTPBF) and the 3,3′-didodecyl-2,2′-bithiophene (BT) units acting as EA and ED respectively. The D-A CPs have a maximum absorption peak at 1107 nm and a relative high photothermal conversion efficiency (66.4%). Pu et al. synthesized PC70BM-PCPDTBT D-A CPs via nanoprecipitation of EA (6,6)-phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC70BM) and ED PCPDTBT (SPs) for PA-guided PTT. Wang et al. developed D-A CPs TBDOPV-DT containing thiophene-fused benzodifurandione-based oligo(p-phenylenevinylene) (TBDOPV) as EA unit and 2,2′-bithio-phene (DT) as ED unit. TBDOPV-DT CPs have a strong absorption at 1093 nm and achieve highly efficient NIR-II photothermal conversion.
433:
animals showed no appreciable side effects for the tested dose and an excellent therapeutic efficacy under the 808 nm laser irradiation. Kang et al. synthesized magneto-conjugated polymer core−shell MNP@PEDOT:PSS nanoparticles for multimodal imaging-guided PTT. Furthermore, PEDOT:PSS NPs can not only serve as PTAs but also as a drug carrier to load various types of drugs, such as SN38, chemotherapy drugs DOX and photodynamic agent chlorin e6 (Ce6), thus achieving synergistic cancer therapy.
272:, and (III) nonradiative relaxation (heat generation). Because these three pathways of the S1 decaying back to the S0 are usually competitive in photosensitive materials, light emitting and intersystem crossing must be efficiently reduced in order to increase the heat generation and improve the photothermal conversion efficiency. For conjugated polymers, on the one hand, their unique structures lead to closed stacking of the molecular
357:
for fluorescence-guided photothermal/photodynamic therapy against oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). A biodegradable PLGA-PEGylated DPPV (poly{2,2′--pyrrole-1,4-diyl)-dithiophene]-5,5′-diyl-alt-vinylene) conjugated polymer for PA-guided PTT with PCE 71% (@ 808 nm, 0.3 W cm−2). The vinylene bonds in the main chain improves the biodegradability, biocompatibility and photothermal conversion efficiency of CPs.
334:(PPy) is suited for PTT applications because of its strong NIR absorbance, large PCE, stability, and biocompatibility. In vivo experiments show that tumors treated with PPy NPs could be effectively eliminated under the irradiation of an 808 nm laser (1 W cm, 5 min). PPy nanosheets exhibit promising photothermal ablation ability toward cancer cells in the NIR II window for deep-tissue PTT.
338:
imaging (PA), computed tomography (CT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), chemotherapy, etc. For example, PPy has been used to encapsulate ultrasmall iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) and finally develop IONP@PPy NPs for in vivo MR and PA imaging-guided PTT. Polypyrrole (I-PPy) nanocomposites have been investigated for CT imaging-guided tumor PTT.
221:, outstanding PCE, good dispersibility in aqueous medium, increased accumulation at tumor site, and long blood circulation time. Moreover, conjugated polymers can be easily combined with other imaging agents and drugs to construct multifunctional nanomaterials for selective and synergistic cancer therapy.
356:
Conjugated copolymer (C3) with promising photothermal properties can be prepared by linking 2-N,N′-bis(2-(ethyl)hexyl)-perylene-3,4,9,10-tetra-carboxylic acid bis-imide to a thienylvinylene oligomer. C3 was coprecipitated with PEG-PCL and indocyanine green (ICG) to obtain PEG-PCL-C3-ICG nanoparticles
130:
ultrasmall nanoparticles (USNPs), meanwhile the maximum light-to-heat transduction is for < 5 nm nanoparticles. On the other hand, the surface plasmon of excretable gold USNPs is in the UV/visible region (far from the first biological windows), severely limiting their potential application in
116:
was used to irradiate the cells. Only the cells incubated with the gold nanoshells conjugated with the specific antibody (anti-HER2) were damaged by the laser. Another category of gold nanoshells are gold layer on liposomes, as soft template. In this case, drug can also be encapsulated inside and/or
337:
PPy nanoparticles and its derivative nanomaterials can also be combined with imaging contrast agents and diverse drugs to construct multifunctional theranostic applications in imaging-guided PTT and synergistic treatment, including fluorescent imaging, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), photoacoustic
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gap of the D−A conjugated polymers can be easily tuned through changing the selection of electron donor (ED) and electron acceptor (EA) moieties, and thus D−A structured polymers with extremely low band gap can be developed to improve the NIR absorption and photothermal conversion efficiency of CPs.
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Furthermore, various efficient methods, especially donor-acceptor (D-A) strategy, have been designed to enhance the photothermal conversion efficiency and heat generation of conjugated polymers. The D-A assembly system in the conjugated polymers contributes to strong intermolecular electron transfer
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at a power density of 2 W/cm was used to irradiate the tumor sites on mice for 5 minutes. As noted by the authors, the power densities of lasers used to heat gold nanorods range from 2 to 4 W/cm. Thus, these nanoscale graphene sheets require a laser power on the lower end of the range used with gold
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PTT utilizes photothermal transduction agents (PTAs) which can transform light energy to heat through photothermal effect to raise the temperature of tumor area and thus cause the ablation of tumor cells. Specifically, ideal PTAs should have high photothermal conversion efficiency (PCE), excellent
158:
In 2012, Yang et al. incorporated the promising results regarding nanoscale reduced graphene oxide reported by
Robinson et al. into another in vivo mice study.< The therapeutic treatment used in this study involved the use of nanoscale reduced graphene oxide sheets, nearly identical to the ones
91:
When AuNRs are exposed to NIR light, the oscillating electromagnetic field of the light causes the free electrons of the AuNR to collectively coherently oscillate. Changing the size and shape of AuNRs changes the wavelength that gets absorbed. A desired wavelength would be between 700-1000 nm
67:
tissue. When a tumor forms, it requires new blood vessels in order to fuel its growth; these new blood vessels in/near tumors have different properties as compared to regular blood vessels, such as poor lymphatic drainage and a disorganized, leaky vasculature. These factors lead to a significantly
432:
and have strong NIR absorption. In 2012, Liu’s group first reported PEGylated PEDOT:PSS polymeric nanoparticle (PEDOT:PSS-PEG) for near-infrared photothermal therapy of cancer. PEDOT:PSS-PEG nanoparticles have high stability in vivo and long blood circulation half-life of 21.4 ± 3.1 h. The PTT in
416:
have been investigated for the medicinal purposes. Nano-PCPDTBT CPs have two moieties: 2-ethylhexyl cyclopentadithiophene and 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole. When the PCPDTBT nanoparticle solution (0.115 mg/mL) was exposed to an 808 nm NIR laser (0.6 W/cm), the temperature could be increased by
276:
with highly frequent intermolecular collisions which can efficiently quench the fluorescence and intersystem crossing, and thus enhance the yield of nonradiative relaxation. On the other hand, compared with monomeric phototherapeutic molecules, conjugated polymers possess higher stability in vivo
403:
Dopamine-melanin colloidal nanospheres is an efficient near-infrared photothermal therapeutic agent for in vivo cancer therapy. PDA can also be modified on the surface of other PTAs, such as gold nanorods, carbon-based materials, to enhance the photothermal stability and efficiency in vivo. For
138:
NAs are the first reported NIR-absorbing plasmonic ultrasmall-in-nano platforms that jointly combine: i) photothermal conversion efficacy suitable for hyperthermia, ii) multiple photothermal sequences and iii) renal excretion of the building blocks after the therapeutic action. Nowadays, tNAs
125:
The failure of clinical translation of nanoparticles-mediated PTT is mainly ascribed to concerns about their persistence in the body. Indeed, the optical response of anisotropic nanomaterials can be tuned in the NIR region by increasing their size to up to 150 nm. On the other hand, body
46:
Unlike photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy does not require oxygen to interact with the target cells or tissues. Current studies also show that photothermal therapy is able to use longer wavelength light, which is less energetic and therefore less harmful to other cells and tissues.
126:
excretion of non-biodegradable noble metals nanomaterials above 10 nm occurs through the hepatobiliary route in a slow and inefficient manner. A common approach to avoid metal persistence is to reduce the nanoparticles size below the threshold for renal clearance,
159:
used by
Robinson et al. (but without any active targeting sequences attached). Nanoscale reduced graphene oxide sheets were successfully irradiated in order to completely destroy the targeted tumors. Most notably, the required power density of the 808 nm
84:(anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies) to the surface of gold nanorods, allowing the gold nanorods to bind specifically to certain malignant cancer cells (HSC and HOC malignant cells). After incubating the cells with the gold nanorods, an 800 nm Ti:sapphire
1345:
Pierini F, Nakielski P, Urbanek O, Pawłowska S, Lanzi M, De Sio L, Kowalewski TA (November 2018). "Polymer-Based
Nanomaterials for Photothermal Therapy: From Light-Responsive to Multifunctional Nanoplatforms for Synergistically Combined Technologies".
163:
was reduced to 0.15 W/cm, an order of magnitude lower than previously required power densities. This study demonstrates the higher efficacy of nanoscale reduced graphene oxide sheets as compared to both nanoscale graphene sheets and gold nanorods.
285:. Therefore, conjugated polymers have high photothermal conversion efficiency and a large amount of heat generation. One of the most widely used equations to calculate photothermal conversion efficiency (η) of organic PTAs is as follows:
1535:
2150:
Lyu Y, Fang Y, Miao Q, Zhen X, Ding D, Pu K (April 2016). "Intraparticle
Molecular Orbital Engineering of Semiconducting Polymer Nanoparticles as Amplified Theranostics for in Vivo Photoacoustic Imaging and Photothermal Therapy".
1007:
Cassano D, Mapanao AK, Summa M, Vlamidis Y, Giannone G, Santi M, Guzzolino E, Pitto L, Poliseno L, Bertorelli R, Voliani V (2019-10-21). "Biosafety and
Biokinetics of Noble Metals: The Impact of Their Chemical Nature".
971:
Cassano D, Summa M, Pocovíd-Martínez S, Mapanao AK, Catelani T, Bertorelli R, Voliani V (February 2019). "Biodegradable
Ultrasmall-in-Nano Gold Architectures: Mid-Period In Vivo Distribution and Excretion Assessment".
181:(NIR) region (650-1350 nm) due to the deep-tissue penetration and minimal absorption of NIR light in the biological tissues. PTAs mainly include inorganic materials and organic materials. Inorganic PTAs, such as
2114:
Cao Z, Feng L, Zhang G, Wang J, Shen S, Li D, Yang X (February 2018). "Semiconducting polymer-based nanoparticles with strong absorbance in NIR-II window for in vivo photothermal therapy and photoacoustic imaging".
1824:
Lyu Y, Zeng J, Jiang Y, Zhen X, Wang T, Qiu S, et al. (February 2018). "Enhancing Both
Biodegradability and Efficacy of Semiconducting Polymer Nanoparticles for Photoacoustic Imaging and Photothermal Therapy".
1788:
Ren S, Cheng X, Chen M, Liu C, Zhao P, Huang W, et al. (September 2017). "Hypotoxic and
Rapidly Metabolic PEG-PCL-C3-ICG Nanoparticles for Fluorescence-Guided Photothermal/Photodynamic Therapy against OSCC".
2266:
Yan H, Zhao L, Shang W, Liu Z, Xie W, Qiang C, et al. (February 2017). "General synthesis of high-performing magneto-conjugated polymer core–shell nanoparticles for multifunctional theranostics".
388:, and high photothermal conversion efficiency. Furthermore, with π conjugated structure and different active groups, PDA can be easily combined with various materials to achieve multifunction, such as
2040:
Li S, Wang X, Hu R, Chen H, Li M, Wang J, et al. (December 2016). "Near-Infrared (NIR)-Absorbing
Conjugated Polymer Dots as Highly Effective Photothermal Materials for In Vivo Cancer Therapy".
1137:
Yang K, Wan J, Zhang S, Tian B, Zhang Y, Liu Z (March 2012). "The influence of surface chemistry and size of nanoscale graphene oxide on photothermal therapy of cancer using ultra-low laser power".
1581:
Tian Q, Li Y, Jiang S, An L, Lin J, Wu H, et al. (October 2019). "Tumor pH-Responsive
Albumin/Polyaniline Assemblies for Amplified Photoacoustic Imaging and Augmented Photothermal Therapy".
1905:
Cheng W, Zeng X, Chen H, Li Z, Zeng W, Mei L, Zhao Y (August 2019). "Versatile Polydopamine Platforms: Synthesis and Promising Applications for Surface Modification and Advanced Nanomedicine".
1702:
Song X, Gong H, Yin S, Cheng L, Wang C, Li Z, et al. (September 2013). "Ultra-Small Iron Oxide Doped Polypyrrole Nanoparticles for In Vivo Multimodal Imaging Guided Photothermal Therapy".
2005:
MacNeill CM, Coffin RC, Carroll DL, Levi-Polyachenko NH (January 2013). "Low band gap donor-acceptor conjugated polymer nanoparticles and their NIR-mediated thermal ablation of cancer cells".
1870:
Wang X, Zhang J, Wang Y, Wang C, Xiao J, Zhang Q, Cheng Y (March 2016). "Multi-responsive photothermal-chemotherapy with drug-loaded melanin-like nanoparticles for synergetic tumor ablation".
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Wang X, Ma Y, Sheng X, Wang Y, Xu H (April 2018). "Ultrathin Polypyrrole Nanosheets via Space-Confined Synthesis for Efficient Photothermal Therapy in the Second Near-Infrared Window".
1456:
Liu Y, Ai K, Liu J, Deng M, He Y, Lu L (March 2013). "Dopamine-melanin colloidal nanospheres: an efficient near-infrared photothermal therapeutic agent for in vivo cancer therapy".
1102:
Robinson JT, Tabakman SM, Liang Y, Wang H, Casalongue HS, Vinh D, Dai H (May 2011). "Ultrasmall reduced graphene oxide with high near-infrared absorbance for photothermal therapy".
2309:
Gong H, Cheng L, Xiang J, Xu H, Feng L, Shi X, Liu Z (December 2013). "Near-Infrared Absorbing Polymeric Nanoparticles as a Versatile Drug Carrier for Cancer Combination Therapy".
134:
Excretion of metals has been combined with NIR-triggered PTT by employing ultrasmall-in-nano architectures composed by metal USNPs embedded in biodegradable silica nanocapsules.
2196:
Cao Y, Dou JH, Zhao NJ, Zhang S, Zheng YQ, Zhang JP, et al. (January 2017). "Highly Efficient NIR-II Photothermal Conversion Based on an Organic Conjugated Polymer".
1499:
Yang J, Choi J, Bang D, Kim E, Lim EK, Park H, et al. (January 2011). "Convertible organic nanoparticles for near-infrared photothermal ablation of cancer cells".
88:
was used to irradiate the cells at varying powers. The authors reported successful destruction of the malignant cancer cells, while nonmalignant cells were unharmed.
2349:
Khlebtsov B, Zharov V, Melnikov A, Tuchin V, Khlebtsov N (September 2006). "Optical amplification of photothermal therapy with gold nanoparticles and nanoclusters".
512:
Huang X, El-Sayed IH, Qian W, El-Sayed MA (February 2006). "Cancer cell imaging and photothermal therapy in the near-infrared region by using gold nanorods".
252:
The nonradiative process for heat generation of organic PTAs is different from that of inorganic PTAs such as metals and semiconductors which is related with
1410:
Zhao L, Liu Y, Chang R, Xing R, Yan X (November 2018). "Supramolecular Photothermal Nanomaterials as an Emerging Paradigm toward Precision Cancer Therapy".
1745:
Zou Q, Huang J, Zhang X (November 2018). "One-Step Synthesis of Iodinated Polypyrrole Nanoparticles for CT Imaging Guided Photothermal Therapy of Tumors".
63:
observed with particles in a certain size range (typically 20 - 300 nm). Molecules in this range have been observed to preferentially accumulate in
1059:
Yang K, Zhang S, Zhang G, Sun X, Lee ST, Liu Z (September 2010). "Graphene in mice: ultrahigh in vivo tumor uptake and efficient photothermal therapy".
307:
from the donor to the acceptor, thus bringing efficient fluorescence and intersystem crossing quenching, and improved heat generation. In addition, the
2231:
Cheng L, Yang K, Chen Q, Liu Z (June 2012). "Organic stealth nanoparticles for highly effective in vivo near-infrared photothermal therapy of cancer".
1624:
Chen M, Fang X, Tang S, Zheng N (September 2012). "Polypyrrole nanoparticles for high-performance in vivo near-infrared photothermal cancer therapy".
213:
with large π−π conjugated skeleton and a high electron delocalization structure show potential for PTT due to their strong NIR absorption, excellent
477:
Maeda H, Wu J, Sawa T, Matsumura Y, Hori K (March 2000). "Tumor vascular permeability and the EPR effect in macromolecular therapeutics: a review".
349:(PTh) and its derivatives-based polymers are also one kind of conjugated polymers for PTT. Polythiophene-based polymers usually exhibit excellent
1253:
Yu C, Xu L, Zhang Y, Timashev PS, Huang Y, Liang XJ (September 2020). "Polymer-Based Nanomaterials for Noninvasive Cancer Photothermal Therapy".
903:
Jiang K, Smith DA, Pinchuk A (2013-12-27). "Size-Dependent Photothermal Conversion Efficiencies of Plasmonically Heated Gold Nanoparticles".
400:, PA, targeted therapy etc. In view of this, PDA and its composite nanomaterials have a broad application prospect in the biomedical field.
39:
is excited with specific band light. This activation brings the sensitizer to an excited state where it then releases vibrational energy (
282:
60:
209:, are limited in the field of cancer treatment because of their susceptibility to photobleaching and poor tumor enrichment ability.
178:
193:, but they are not biodegradable and thus have potential long-term toxicity in vivo. Organic PTAs including small molecule dyes and
303:
means the light absorbance, I is the laser power density, and Qs is the heat associated with the light absorbance of the solvent.
2420:
686:
Loo C, Lowery A, Halas N, West J, Drezek R (April 2005). "Immunotargeted nanoshells for integrated cancer imaging and therapy".
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Wang Y, Meng HM, Song G, Li Z, Zhang XB (August 2020). "Conjugated-Polymer-Based Nanomaterials for Photothermal Therapy".
643:
Huang X, Jain PK, El-Sayed IH, El-Sayed MA (July 2008). "Plasmonic photothermal therapy (PPTT) using gold nanoparticles".
197:(CPs) have good biocompatibility and biodegradability, but poor photostability. Among them, small molecule dyes, such as
112:(anti-HER2 or anti-IgG) via PEG linkers. After incubation of SKBr3 cancer cells with the gold nanoshells, an 820 nm
404:
example, PDA-modified spiky gold nanoparticles (SGNP@PDAs) have been investigated for chemo-photothermal therapy.
380:-like substance under mild alkaline conditions. PDA has strong NIR absorption, good photothermal stability, excellent
1536:"Targeted lipid-polyaniline hybrid nanoparticles for photoacoustic imaging guided photothermal therapy of cancer"
815:"Gold nanoparticle-mediated photothermal therapy: applications and opportunities for multimodal cancer treatment"
240:(PDA), donor−acceptor (D-A) conjugated polymers, and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(4-styrenesulfonate) (
2077:"A bis(2-oxoindolin-3-ylidene)-benzodifuran-dione containing copolymer for high-mobility ambipolar transistors"
457:
353:, large light-harvesting ability, easy synthesis, and facile functionalization with different substituents.
2410:
560:"Gold nanoparticles: Optical properties and implementations in cancer diagnosis and photothermal therapy"
1950:"Chemo-photothermal therapy combination elicits anti-tumor immunity against advanced metastatic cancer"
1301:
Xu L, Cheng L, Wang C, Peng R, Liu Z (2014). "Conjugated polymers for photothermal therapy of cancer".
393:
936:
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Abbasi A, Park K, Bose A, Bothun GD (May 2017). "Near-Infrared Responsive Gold-Layersome Nanoshells".
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therapeutic effect has been assessed on valuable 3D models of human pancreatic adenocarcinoma.
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Most materials of interest currently being investigated for photothermal therapy are on the
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higher concentration of certain particles in a tumor as compared to the rest of the body.
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864:"Ultrasmall-in-Nano Approach: Enabling the Translation of Metal Nanomaterials to Clinics"
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2379:"Optical amplification of photothermal therapy with gold nanoparticles and nanoclusters"
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for both cancer cell imaging as well as photothermal therapy. The authors conjugated
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937:"Photothermal effect by NIR-responsive excretable ultrasmall-in-nano architectures"
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593:"Enhancing the Toxicity of Cancer Chemotherapeutics with Gold Nanorod Hyperthermia"
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323:(PANI) is one of the earliest types of conjugated polymers reported for tumor PTT.
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281:, longer blood circulation time, and more accumulation at tumor site due to the
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where h is the heat transfer coefficient, A is the container surface area, ΔΤ
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260:(S1) under light irradiation and then excited state (S1) decays back to the
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766:"Nanomedicine for targeted photothermal cancer therapy: where are we now?"
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Hauck TS, Jennings TL, Yatsenko T, Kumaradas JC, Chan WC (October 2008).
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256:. As shown in the figure, conjugated polymers are first activated to the
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wavelengths) for the treatment of various medical conditions, including
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Cassano D, Santi M, D'Autilia F, Mapanao AK, Luin S, Voliani V (2019).
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Zhang G, Li P, Tang L, Ma J, Wang X, Lu H, et al. (March 2014).
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Nam J, Son S, Ochyl LJ, Kuai R, Schwendeman A, Moon JJ (March 2018).
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376:(PDA) is obtained through the self-aggregation of dopamine to form a
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Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology
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in bilayer and the release can be triggered by laser light.
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Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(4-styrenesulfonate)
862:
Cassano D, Pocoví-Martínez S, Voliani V (January 2018).
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means the maximum temperature change in the solution, A
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Wang J, Yan R, Guo F, Yu M, Tan F, Li N (July 2016).
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150:is viable for photothermal therapy. An 808 nm
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108:with a thin layer of gold. have been conjugated to
76:Huang et al. investigated the feasibility of using
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264:(S0) via three processes: (I) emitting a photon (
185:materials, carbon-based nanomaterials, and other
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974:Particle & Particle Systems Characterization
283:enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect
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167:
59:. One of the key reasons behind this is the
1248:
1246:
1244:
407:
43:), which is what kills the targeted cells.
1296:
1294:
1292:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1224:
224:The CPs used for tumor PTT mainly include
61:enhanced permeability and retention effect
2172:
1981:
1846:
1492:
1392:
1367:
1165:
1052:
955:
879:
838:
789:
633:
608:
575:
540:
505:
470:
1104:Journal of the American Chemical Society
812:
514:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1289:
1221:
763:
679:
71:
2393:
1791:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
341:
50:
558:Huang X, El-Sayed MA (January 2010).
360:
315:
177:, and strong light adsorption in the
326:
905:The Journal of Physical Chemistry C
31:. This approach is an extension of
13:
2341:
2129:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.11.016
1884:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.11.037
1151:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.11.064
95:
14:
2437:
248:Photothermal conversion mechanism
121:thermo Nano-Architectures (tNAs)
2302:
2259:
2224:
2189:
2143:
2107:
2068:
2033:
1998:
1941:
1898:
1863:
1817:
1781:
1738:
1695:
1652:
1617:
1574:
1527:
1000:
964:
896:
881:10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.7b00664
855:
19:(PTT) refers to efforts to use
2421:Experimental cancer treatments
1560:10.1088/0957-4484/27/28/285102
813:Riley RS, Day ES (July 2017).
806:
764:Chen F, Cai W (January 2015).
757:
722:
584:
189:, have high PCE and excellent
1:
2311:Advanced Functional Materials
2210:10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b04405
2054:10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b03738
1704:Advanced Functional Materials
1412:Advanced Functional Materials
1255:ACS Applied Polymer Materials
1187:ACS Applied Polymer Materials
491:10.1016/s0168-3659(99)00248-5
479:Journal of Controlled Release
463:
458:Experimental cancer treatment
428:(PEDOT:PSS) is often used in
1681:10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b04675
743:10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b01273
564:Journal of Advanced Research
420:
7:
2371:10.1088/0957-4484/17/20/022
436:
143:Graphene and graphene oxide
10:
2442:
1974:10.1038/s41467-018-03473-9
1360:10.1021/acs.biomac.8b01138
577:10.1016/j.jare.2010.02.002
2280:10.1007/s12274-016-1330-4
2007:Macromolecular Bioscience
1010:ACS Applied Bio Materials
657:10.1007/s10103-007-0470-x
645:Lasers in Medical Science
254:surface plasmon resonance
168:Conjugated polymers (CPs)
21:electromagnetic radiation
408:Donor−Acceptor (D−A) CPs
277:against disassembly and
2165:10.1021/acsnano.6b00168
2081:Chemical Communications
1919:10.1021/acsnano.9b04436
1839:10.1021/acsnano.7b08616
1626:Chemical Communications
2323:10.1002/adfm.201301555
2198:Chemistry of Materials
2042:Chemistry of Materials
2019:10.1002/mabi.201200241
1803:10.1021/acsami.7b09522
1759:10.1002/smll.201803101
1716:10.1002/adfm.201302463
1595:10.1002/smll.201902926
1513:10.1002/anie.201005075
1470:10.1002/adma.201204683
1424:10.1002/adfm.201806877
1267:10.1021/acsapm.0c00704
1199:10.1021/acsapm.0c00680
1022:10.1021/acsabm.9b00630
986:10.1002/ppsc.201800464
868:Bioconjugate Chemistry
610:10.1002/adma.200800921
173:optical stability and
1954:Nature Communications
412:Donor−acceptor (D−A)
2385:. November 13, 2006.
453:Hyperthermia therapy
390:fluorescence imaging
270:intersystem crossing
72:Gold NanoRods (AuNR)
33:photodynamic therapy
17:Photothermal therapy
2363:2006Nanot..17.5167K
1966:2018NatCo...9.1074N
1797:(37): 31509–31518.
1673:2018NanoL..18.2217W
1552:2016Nanot..27B5102W
1073:2010NanoL..10.3318Y
911:(51): 27073–27080.
700:2005NanoL...5..709L
430:organic electronics
414:conjugated polymers
342:Polythiophene (PTh)
211:Conjugated polymers
195:conjugated polymers
51:Nanoscale materials
2411:Medical treatments
2093:10.1039/c3cc48695h
1638:10.1039/c2cc34463g
1458:Advanced Materials
1315:10.1039/C3PY01196H
957:10.1039/C9MH00096H
944:Materials Horizons
782:10.2217/nnm.14.186
597:Advanced Materials
361:Polydopamine (PDA)
316:Polyaniline (PANI)
2357:(20): 5167–5179.
2317:(48): 6059–6067.
2245:10.1021/nn301539m
2048:(23): 8669–8675.
1501:Angewandte Chemie
1354:(11): 4147–4167.
1348:Biomacromolecules
1261:(10): 4289–4305.
1193:(10): 4258–4272.
1116:10.1021/ja2010175
1081:10.1021/nl100996u
1016:(10): 4464–4470.
917:10.1021/jp409067h
831:10.1002/wnan.1449
737:(21): 5321–5327.
708:10.1021/nl050127s
603:(20): 3832–3838.
526:10.1021/ja057254a
370:neurotransmitters
327:Polypyrrole (PPy)
2433:
2386:
2383:News-Medical.net
2374:
2335:
2334:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2228:
2222:
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2193:
2187:
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2176:
2147:
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2072:
2066:
2065:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2002:
1996:
1995:
1985:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1913:(8): 8537–8565.
1902:
1896:
1895:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1850:
1833:(2): 1801–1810.
1821:
1815:
1814:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1753:(45): e1803101.
1742:
1736:
1735:
1710:(9): 1194–1201.
1699:
1693:
1692:
1667:(4): 2217–2225.
1656:
1650:
1649:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1589:(42): e1902926.
1578:
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1490:
1489:
1453:
1444:
1443:
1407:
1390:
1389:
1371:
1342:
1327:
1326:
1309:(5): 1573–1580.
1298:
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1218:
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1163:
1162:
1134:
1128:
1127:
1099:
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1004:
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631:
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612:
588:
582:
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579:
555:
538:
537:
509:
503:
502:
474:
386:biodegradability
382:biocompatibility
175:biocompatibility
104:, coated silica
2441:
2440:
2436:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2401:Medical physics
2391:
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2342:Further reading
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1330:
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1222:
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1135:
1131:
1110:(17): 6825–31.
1100:
1096:
1057:
1053:
1005:
1001:
969:
965:
939:
933:
924:
901:
897:
860:
856:
811:
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762:
758:
727:
723:
684:
680:
641:
634:
589:
585:
556:
541:
510:
506:
485:(1–2): 271–84.
475:
471:
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439:
423:
410:
363:
344:
329:
318:
302:
298:
291:
250:
170:
145:
123:
98:
96:Gold Nanoshells
74:
53:
37:photosensitizer
23:(most often in
12:
11:
5:
2439:
2429:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2406:Photochemistry
2403:
2388:
2387:
2375:
2351:Nanotechnology
2345:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2336:
2301:
2274:(2): 704–717.
2258:
2239:(6): 5605–13.
2223:
2204:(2): 718–725.
2188:
2159:(4): 4472–81.
2142:
2106:
2087:(24): 3180–3.
2067:
2032:
1997:
1940:
1897:
1862:
1816:
1780:
1737:
1694:
1651:
1632:(71): 8934–6.
1616:
1573:
1546:(28): 285102.
1540:Nanotechnology
1526:
1491:
1445:
1418:(4): 1806877.
1391:
1328:
1288:
1220:
1164:
1145:(7): 2206–14.
1129:
1094:
1067:(9): 3318–23.
1051:
999:
980:(2): 1800464.
963:
950:(3): 531–537.
922:
895:
854:
805:
756:
721:
678:
632:
583:
539:
520:(6): 2115–20.
504:
468:
467:
465:
462:
461:
460:
455:
450:
445:
438:
435:
422:
419:
409:
406:
362:
359:
351:photostability
343:
340:
328:
325:
317:
314:
300:
296:
289:
279:photobleaching
249:
246:
215:photostability
207:phthalocyanine
191:photostability
169:
166:
144:
141:
122:
119:
97:
94:
73:
70:
52:
49:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2416:Light therapy
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2268:Nano Research
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2207:
2203:
2199:
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2166:
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2110:
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1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
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1487:
1483:
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1471:
1467:
1464:(9): 1353–9.
1463:
1459:
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1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1406:
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1400:
1398:
1396:
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1379:
1375:
1370:
1369:11573/1178237
1365:
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1341:
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987:
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958:
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869:
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836:
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828:
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809:
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797:
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779:
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771:
767:
760:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
725:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
694:(4): 709–11.
693:
689:
682:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
651:(3): 217–28.
650:
646:
639:
637:
628:
624:
620:
616:
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606:
602:
598:
594:
587:
578:
573:
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508:
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492:
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469:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
448:Light Therapy
446:
444:
443:Photomedicine
441:
440:
434:
431:
427:
418:
415:
405:
401:
399:
395:
391:
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383:
379:
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367:
358:
354:
352:
348:
347:Polythiophene
339:
335:
333:
324:
322:
313:
310:
304:
293:
292:-Qs)/I(1-10)
286:
284:
280:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
258:excited state
255:
245:
243:
239:
235:
234:polythiophene
231:
227:
222:
220:
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208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
179:near-infrared
176:
165:
162:
156:
153:
149:
140:
137:
132:
129:
118:
115:
111:
107:
106:nanoparticles
103:
93:
89:
87:
83:
79:
78:gold nanorods
69:
66:
62:
58:
48:
44:
42:
38:
35:, in which a
34:
30:
26:
22:
18:
2382:
2354:
2350:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2271:
2267:
2261:
2236:
2232:
2226:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2156:
2152:
2145:
2120:
2117:Biomaterials
2116:
2109:
2084:
2080:
2070:
2045:
2041:
2035:
2013:(1): 28–34.
2010:
2006:
2000:
1957:
1953:
1943:
1910:
1906:
1900:
1875:
1872:Biomaterials
1871:
1865:
1830:
1826:
1819:
1794:
1790:
1783:
1750:
1746:
1740:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1664:
1661:Nano Letters
1660:
1654:
1629:
1625:
1619:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1543:
1539:
1529:
1507:(2): 441–4.
1504:
1500:
1494:
1461:
1457:
1415:
1411:
1351:
1347:
1306:
1302:
1258:
1254:
1190:
1186:
1142:
1139:Biomaterials
1138:
1132:
1107:
1103:
1097:
1064:
1061:Nano Letters
1060:
1054:
1013:
1009:
1002:
977:
973:
966:
947:
943:
908:
904:
898:
871:
867:
857:
825:(4): e1449.
822:
818:
808:
773:
770:Nanomedicine
769:
759:
734:
730:
724:
691:
688:Nano Letters
687:
681:
648:
644:
600:
596:
586:
570:(1): 13–28.
567:
563:
517:
513:
507:
482:
478:
472:
424:
411:
402:
374:Polydopamine
364:
355:
345:
336:
330:
319:
305:
294:
287:
266:fluorescence
262:ground state
251:
238:polydopamine
223:
219:cytotoxicity
187:2D materials
171:
157:
146:
135:
133:
127:
124:
99:
90:
75:
54:
45:
16:
15:
2426:Oncothermia
2174:10220/42127
2123:: 103–111.
1960:(1): 1074.
1878:: 114–124.
1848:10356/91064
1303:Polym. Chem
874:(1): 4–16.
332:Polypyrrole
321:Polyaniline
274:sensitizers
230:polypyrrole
226:polyaniline
183:noble metal
2395:Categories
776:(1): 1–3.
464:References
368:is one of
110:antibodies
102:nanoshells
82:antibodies
2331:137636106
2296:100521646
2288:1998-0124
2218:0897-4756
2062:0897-4756
1935:199380635
1724:1616-301X
1611:201750011
1440:106028103
1432:1616-301X
1323:1759-9954
1283:225312270
1275:2637-6105
1215:225217380
1207:2637-6105
1046:204266885
1030:2576-6422
994:104434042
673:207053590
627:137257403
619:1521-4095
421:PEDOT:PSS
309:HOMO-LUMO
288:η = (hAΔΤ
242:PEDOT:PSS
203:porphyrin
57:nanoscale
2253:22616847
2233:ACS Nano
2183:26959505
2153:ACS Nano
2137:29175079
2101:24519589
2027:23042788
1992:29540781
1927:31369230
1907:ACS Nano
1892:26731575
1857:29385336
1827:ACS Nano
1811:28858474
1775:52946295
1767:30300473
1732:97828466
1689:29528661
1646:22847451
1603:31448572
1568:27255659
1521:21132823
1478:23280690
1386:52293861
1378:30230317
1159:22169821
1124:21476500
1089:20684528
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