Philosophy of science

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in order to meaningfully study it. "The assumption of spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws is by no means unique to geology since it amounts to a warrant for inductive inference which, as Bacon showed nearly four hundred years ago, is the basic mode of reasoning in empirical science. Without assuming this spatial and temporal invariance, we have no basis for extrapolating from the known to the unknown and, therefore, no way of reaching general conclusions from a finite number of observations. (Since the assumption is itself vindicated by induction, it can in no way "prove" the validity of induction — an endeavor virtually abandoned after Hume demonstrated its futility two centuries ago)." Gould also notes that natural processes such as Lyell's "uniformity of process" are an assumption: "As such, it is another

587: 3120: 5170:. However, neo-positivism failed dismally to give a faithful account of science, whether natural or social. It failed because it remained anchored to sense-data and to a phenomenalist metaphysics, overrated the power of induction and underrated that of hypothesis, and denounced realism and materialism as metaphysical nonsense. Although it has never been practiced consistently in the advanced natural sciences and has been criticized by many philosophers, notably Popper (1959 , 1963), logical positivism remains the tacit philosophy of many scientists. Regrettably, the anti-positivism fashionable in the metatheory of social science is often nothing but an excuse for sloppiness and wild speculation. 1443: 1786: 3018: 5080:

verifiability (later confirmability) criterion of meaningfulness. Until a competing tradition emerged (about the late 1950s), the problems of logical positivism continued to be attacked from within that tradition. But as the new tradition in the philosophy of science began to demonstrate its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing old problems as well as by generating new ones—philosophers began to shift allegiances to the new tradition, even though that tradition has yet to receive a canonical formulation.

3170:, the monogenetic conception of disease and the conceptualization of 'placebos' and 'placebo effects'. There is also a growing interest in the metaphysics of medicine, particularly the idea of causation. Philosophers of medicine might not only be interested in how medical knowledge is generated, but also in the nature of such phenomena. Causation is of interest because the purpose of much medical research is to establish causal relationships, e.g. what causes disease, or what causes people to get better. 2216:"The basis for rationality is acceptance of an external objective reality." "Objective reality is clearly an essential thing if we are to develop a meaningful perspective of the world. Nevertheless its very existence is assumed." "Our belief that objective reality exist is an assumption that it arises from a real world outside of ourselves. As infants we made this assumption unconsciously. People are happy to make this assumption that adds meaning to our sensations and feelings, than live with 1774: 3237:? If the latter, an important question is how the internal experiences of others can be measured. Self-reports of feelings and beliefs may not be reliable because, even in cases in which there is no apparent incentive for subjects to intentionally deceive in their answers, self-deception or selective memory may affect their responses. Then even in the case of accurate self-reports, how can responses be compared across individuals? Even if two individuals respond with the same answer on a 3192:. The philosopher of science and medicine Dominic Murphy identifies three areas of exploration in the philosophy of psychiatry. The first concerns the examination of psychiatry as a science, using the tools of the philosophy of science more broadly. The second entails the examination of the concepts employed in discussion of mental illness, including the experience of mental illness, and the normative questions it raises. The third area concerns the links and discontinuities between the 2372: 1509: 11898: 2083: 2957:. Determining reaction mechanisms is difficult because they cannot be observed directly. Chemists can use a number of indirect measures as evidence to rule out certain mechanisms, but they are often unsure if the remaining mechanism is correct because there are many other possible mechanisms that they have not tested or even thought of. Philosophers have also sought to clarify the meaning of chemical concepts which do not refer to specific physical entities, such as 1311: 8245: 3524: 992: 11862: 11188: 10353: 3215: 1657: 11163: 56: 1557:. That is, one does not make an observation passively, but rather is actively engaged in distinguishing the phenomenon being observed from surrounding sensory data. Therefore, observations are affected by one's underlying understanding of the way in which the world functions, and that understanding may influence what is perceived, noticed, or deemed worthy of consideration. In this sense, it can be argued that all observation is theory-laden. 11887: 1466:. So the chicken would be right to conclude from all those mornings that it is likely the farmer will come with food again the next morning, even if it cannot be certain. However, there remain difficult questions about the process of interpreting any given evidence into a probability that the general statement is true. One way out of these particular difficulties is to declare that all beliefs about scientific theories are 2430:

argued that there is insufficient difference between social practices in science and other disciplines to maintain this distinction. For them, social factors play an important and direct role in scientific method, but they do not serve to differentiate science from other disciplines. On this account, science is socially constructed, though this does not necessarily imply the more radical notion that reality itself is a

11874: 1319: 2288: 3895:. According to Brian Baigrie (1988, 438), "hat is objectionable about these beliefs is that they masquerade as genuinely scientific ones." These and many other authors assume that to be pseudoscientific, an activity or a teaching has to satisfy the following two criteria (Hansson 1996): (1) it is not scientific, and (2) its major proponents try to create the impression that it is scientific". 1636:. This concept delves into the investigation of patterns observed in scientific phenomena to ascertain whether they signify underlying truths or are mere constructs of human interpretation. Dennett provides a unique ontological account concerning real patterns, examining the extent to which these recognized patterns have predictive utility and allow for efficient compression of information. 1653:

distributed among several cultures in the society. When it comes to the justification of science in the sense of general public participation by single practitioners, science plays the role of a mediator between evaluating the standards and policies of society and its participating individuals, wherefore science indeed falls victim to vandalism and sabotage adapting the means to the end.

10340: 8233: 3510: 1007: 70: 3975:'s (1997) definition of pseudoscience: '"claims presented so that they appear scientific even though they lack supporting evidence and plausibility"(p. 33). In contrast, science is "a set of methods designed to describe and interpret observed and inferred phenomena, past or present, and aimed at building a testable body of knowledge open to rejection or confirmation" (p. 17)'. 3444:'; the view that the methods of the natural sciences may be applied to all areas of investigation, be it philosophical, social scientific, or otherwise. Among most social scientists and historians, orthodox positivism has long since lost popular support. Today, practitioners of both social and physical sciences instead take into account the distorting effect of observer 1423:. This view has been subjected to substantial criticism, resulting in several widely acknowledged counterexamples to the theory. It is especially challenging to characterize what is meant by an explanation when the thing to be explained cannot be deduced from any law because it is a matter of chance, or otherwise cannot be perfectly predicted from what is known. 5502:, pp. 24–48, "Uniformity is an unprovable postulate justified, or indeed required, on two grounds. First, nothing in our incomplete but extensive knowledge of history disagrees with it. Second, only with this postulate is a rational interpretation of history possible and we are justified in seeking—as scientists we must seek—such a rational interpretation." 4924:" states: "proceed to apply what is perhaps the most valuable part of the Baconian method, the process of exclusion or rejection. This elimination of the non-essential, ..., is the most important of Bacon's contributions to the logic of induction, and that in which, as he repeatedly says, his method differs from all previous philosophies." 3386:". For Comte, the natural sciences had to necessarily arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex "Queen science" of human society itself. Comte offers an evolutionary system proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general ' 5449:

made this assumption unconsciously when we began to learn about the world as infants. The world outside ourselves appears to respond in ways which are consistent with it being real. The assumption of objectivism is essential if we are to attach the contemporary meanings to our sensations and feelings and make more sense of them.

3494:. Specific research topics include study of the role of tacit and explicit knowledge in creating and using technology, the nature of functions in technological artifacts, the role of values in design, and ethics related to technology. Technology and engineering can both involve the application of scientific knowledge. The 2155:. According to Kuhn, a paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm. 5564:

A simple random sample (SRS) is the most basic probabilistic option used for creating a sample from a population. Each SRS is made of individuals drawn from a larger population, completely at random. As a result, said individuals have an equal chance of being selected throughout the sampling process.

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The upshot is that the positivists seem caught between insisting on the V.C. —but for no defensible reason—or admitting that the V.C. requires a background language, etc., which opens the door to relativism, etc. In light of this dilemma, many folk—especially following Popper's "last-ditch" effort to

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Evaluation of real patterns also holds significance in broader scientific inquiries. Researchers, like Tyler Millhouse, propose criteria for evaluating the realness of a pattern, particularly in the context of universal patterns and the human propensity to perceive patterns, even where there might be

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Stanley Sobottka said: "The assumption of external reality is necessary for science to function and to flourish. For the most part, science is the discovering and explaining of the external world." "Science attempts to produce knowledge that is as universal and objective as possible within the realm

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of a second object around the sides. Alternatively, if other scientists suspect that something is wrong with the telescope and only one object is actually being observed, they are operating under yet another theory. Observations that cannot be separated from theoretical interpretation are said to be

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can refer to one of several philosophical positions related to this approach. One type of reductionism suggests that phenomena are amenable to scientific explanation at lower levels of analysis and inquiry. Perhaps a historical event might be explained in sociological and psychological terms, which

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Physical objects are conceptually imported into the situation as convenient intermediaries not by definition in terms of experience, but simply as irreducible posits comparable, epistemologically, to the gods of Homer ... For my part I do, qua lay physicist, believe in physical objects and not

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is justified by its being coherent with broader beliefs about celestial mechanics and earlier observations. As explained above, observation is a cognitive act. That is, it relies on a pre-existing understanding, a systematic set of beliefs. An observation of a transit of Venus requires a huge range

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assumption shared by all scientists and not a statement about the empirical world." According to R. Hooykaas: "The principle of uniformity is not a law, not a rule established after comparison of facts, but a principle, preceding the observation of facts ... It is the logical principle of parsimony

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referred to these two closely related propositions as the constancy of nature's laws and the operation of known processes. Simpson agrees that the axiom of uniformity of law, an unprovable postulate, is necessary in order for scientists to extrapolate inductive inference into the unobservable past

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also claims that all science is based on assumptions about the character of the universe, rather than merely on empirical facts. These assumptions – a paradigm – comprise a collection of beliefs, values and techniques that are held by a given scientific community, which legitimize their systems and

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or other measures. Yet, although various measures of simplicity have been brought forward as potential candidates, it is generally accepted that there is no such thing as a theory-independent measure of simplicity. In other words, there appear to be as many different measures of simplicity as there

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In addition to addressing the general questions regarding science and induction, many philosophers of science are occupied by investigating foundational problems in particular sciences. They also examine the implications of particular sciences for broader philosophical questions. The late 20th and

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argues that scientific studies that attempt to show one segment of the population as being less intelligent, less successful, or emotionally backward compared to others have a political feedback effect which further excludes such groups from access to science. Thus such studies undermine the broad

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According to Robert Priddy, all scientific study inescapably builds on at least some essential assumptions that cannot be tested by scientific processes; that is, that scientists must start with some assumptions as to the ultimate analysis of the facts with which it deals. These assumptions would

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Although it is often taken for granted, it is not at all clear how one can infer the validity of a general statement from a number of specific instances or infer the truth of a theory from a series of successful tests. For example, a chicken observes that each morning the farmer comes and gives it

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Objective reality exists beyond or outside our self. Any belief that it arises from a real world outside us is actually an assumption. It seems more beneficial to assume that an objective reality exists than to live with solipsism, and so people are quite happy to make this assumption. In fact we

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According to Kuhn, science is an inherently communal activity which can only be done as part of a community. For him, the fundamental difference between science and other disciplines is the way in which the communities function. Others, especially Feyerabend and some post-modernist thinkers, have

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Kuhn denied that it is ever possible to isolate the hypothesis being tested from the influence of the theory in which the observations are grounded, and he argued that it is not possible to evaluate competing paradigms independently. More than one logically consistent construct can paint a usable

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philosophy, including philosophy of science, while influencing sciences, into the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems, and its doctrines were increasingly assaulted. Nevertheless, it brought about the establishment of philosophy of science as a distinct subdiscipline of

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For Kuhn, the choice of paradigm was sustained by rational processes, but not ultimately determined by them. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more "portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a

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has argued for some decades that unity rather than simplicity is the key non-empirical factor in influencing the choice of theory in science, persistent preference for unified theories in effect committing science to the acceptance of a metaphysical thesis concerning unity in nature. In order to

1765:(1214–1294), an English thinker and experimenter heavily influenced by al-Haytham, is recognized by many to be the father of modern scientific method. His view that mathematics was essential to a correct understanding of natural philosophy is considered to have been 400 years ahead of its time. 1615:

criticisms of objectivity as evidence against scientific realism. Antirealists attempt to explain the success of scientific theories without reference to truth. Some antirealists claim that scientific theories aim at being accurate only about observable objects and argue that their success is

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When making observations, scientists look through telescopes, study images on electronic screens, record meter readings, and so on. Generally, on a basic level, they can agree on what they see, e.g., the thermometer shows 37.9 degrees C. But, if these scientists have different ideas about the

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The discourse on real patterns extends beyond philosophical circles, finding relevance in various scientific domains. For example, in biology, inquiries into real patterns seek to elucidate the nature of biological explanations, exploring how recognized patterns contribute to a comprehensive

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The secondary and historical literature on logical positivism affords substantial grounds for concluding that logical positivism failed to solve many of the central problems it generated for itself. Prominent among the unsolved problems was the failure to find an acceptable statement of the

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argued that "... hypotheses ... have no place in experimental philosophy. In this philosophy propositions are deduced from the phenomena and rendered general by induction." This passage influenced a "later generation of philosophically-inclined readers to pronounce a ban on causal

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available explanation, thus plays an important role in some versions of this approach. To return to the example of the chicken, would it be simpler to suppose that the farmer cares about it and will continue taking care of it indefinitely or that the farmer is fattening it up for slaughter?

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Values intersect with science in different ways. There are epistemic values that mainly guide the scientific research. The scientific enterprise is embedded in particular culture and values through individual practitioners. Values emerge from science, both as product and process and can be

2228:"Science, at least today, assumes that the universe obeys knowable principles that don't depend on time or place, nor on subjective parameters such as what we think, know or how we behave." Hugh Gauch argues that science presupposes that "the physical world is orderly and comprehensible." 2143:

likeness of the world, but there is no common ground from which to pit two against each other, theory against theory. Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. Neither provides a standard by which the other can be judged, so there is no clear way to measure

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Logical positivism is commonly portrayed as taking the extreme position that scientific language should never refer to anything unobservable—even the seemingly core notions of causality, mechanism, and principles—but that is an exaggeration. Talk of such unobservables could be allowed as

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like to believe, but is rather the product of systems of power relations struggling to construct scientific disciplines and knowledge within given societies. With the advances of scientific disciplines, such as psychology and anthropology, the need to separate, categorize, normalize and

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In contrast to the view that science rests on foundational assumptions, coherentism asserts that statements are justified by being a part of a coherent system. Or, rather, individual statements cannot be validated on their own: only coherent systems can be justified. A prediction of a

5478:, p. 154, "Expressed as a single grand statement, science presupposes that the physical world is orderly and comprehensible. The most obvious components of this comprehensive presupposition are that the physical world exists and that our sense perceptions are generally reliable." 1477:, or inference to the best explanation. In this account, science is not about generalizing specific instances but rather about hypothesizing explanations for what is observed. As discussed in the previous section, it is not always clear what is meant by the "best explanation". 2253:

of causes and of economy of scientific notions. By explaining past changes by analogy with present phenomena, a limit is set to conjecture, for there is only one way in which two things are equal, but there are an infinity of ways in which they could be supposed different."

3105:'s work), and the role of viruses as persistent symbionts in host genomes. As a consequence, the evolution of genetic content order is seen as the result of competent genome editors in contrast to former narratives in which error replication events (mutations) dominated. 3003:(solid earth). Earth scientists' ways of knowing and habits of mind share important commonalities with other sciences, but also have distinctive attributes that emerge from the complex, heterogeneous, unique, long-lived, and non-manipulatable nature of the Earth system. 2571:(1884–1962) wrote their works with this world-historical approach to science, predating Kuhn's 1962 work by a generation or more. All of these approaches involve a historical and sociological turn to science, with a priority on lived experience (a kind of Husserlian 2977:

can be studied. Given that astronomers rely and use theories and formulas from other scientific disciplines, such as chemistry and physics, the pursuit of understanding how knowledge can be obtained about the cosmos, as well as the relation in which our planet and

3287:. Philosophy of mind, by contrast, has been a well-established discipline since before psychology was a field of study at all. It is concerned with questions about the very nature of mind, the qualities of experience, and particular issues like the debate between 2483:

institutionalize populations into constructed social identities became a staple of the sciences. Constructions of what were considered "normal" and "abnormal" stigmatized and ostracized groups of people, like the mentally ill and sexual and gender minorities.

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became popular among physicists around the turn of the 20th century, after which logical positivism defined the field for several decades. Logical positivism accepts only testable statements as meaningful, rejects metaphysical interpretations, and embraces

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A simple random sample (SRS) is the most basic probabilistic option used for creating a sample from a population. The benefit of SRS is that the investigator is guaranteed to choose a sample that represents the population that ensures statistically valid

1982:, whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless "pseudostatements"—metaphysical, emotive, or such—not worthy of further review by philosophers, who were newly tasked to organize knowledge rather than develop new knowledge. 1407:

for events that occur regularly or have already occurred. Philosophers have investigated the criteria by which a scientific theory can be said to have successfully explained a phenomenon, as well as what it means to say a scientific theory has

5490:, p. 120, "You cannot go to a rocky outcrop and observe either the constancy of nature's laws or the working of known processes. It works the other way around." You first assume these propositions and "then you go to the outcrop of rock." 2491:

in Homer's gods; and I consider it a scientific error to believe otherwise. But in point of epistemological footing, the physical objects and the gods differ only in degree and not in kind. Both sorts of entities enter our conceptions only as

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argue that scientific theories should only be evaluated on whether they are useful. In their view, whether theories are true or not is beside the point, because the purpose of science is to make predictions and enable effective technology.

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developed a model in which a good scientific explanation must be statistically relevant to the outcome to be explained. Others have argued that the key to a good explanation is unifying disparate phenomena or providing a causal mechanism.

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in the 19th century led not to the rejection of Newton's Law but rather to the rejection of the hypothesis that the solar system comprises only seven planets. The investigations that followed led to the discovery of an eighth planet,

5342:, quote, "The great majority of contemporary philosophers would happily... reject 'supernatural' entities, and allow that science is a possible route (if not necessarily the only one) to important truths about the 'human spirit'." 1673:

can play a role ranging from determining which research gets funded to influencing which theories achieve scientific consensus. For example, in the 19th century, cultural values held by scientists about race shaped research on

6696: 1389:" for cases in which researchers believe they are doing science because their activities have the outward appearance of it but actually lack the "kind of utter honesty" that allows their results to be rigorously evaluated. 2982:

have within our personal views of our place in the universe, philosophical insights into how facts about space can be scientifically analyzed and configure with other established knowledge is a main point of inquiry.

2945:. It is explored by philosophers, chemists, and philosopher-chemist teams. It includes research on general philosophy of science issues as applied to chemistry. For example, can all chemical phenomena be explained by 1271:? The general questions of philosophy of science also arise with greater specificity in some particular sciences. For instance, the question of the validity of scientific reasoning is seen in a different guise in the 1668:

If it is unclear what counts as science, how the process of confirming theories works, and what the purpose of science is, there is considerable scope for values and other social influences to shape science. Indeed,

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The 'war' is between scientists who believe that science and its methods are objective, and an increasing number of social scientists, historians, philosophers, and others gathered under the umbrella of Science

3073:), philosophy of biology only emerged as an independent field of philosophy in the 1960s and 1970s. Philosophers of science began to pay increasing attention to developments in biology, from the rise of the 2348:. If a test fails, something is wrong. But there is a problem in figuring out what that something is: a missing planet, badly calibrated test equipment, an unsuspected curvature of space, or something else. 2191:

then be justified partly by their adherence to the types of occurrence of which we are directly conscious, and partly by their success in representing the observed facts with a certain generality, devoid of

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none. This evaluation is pivotal in advancing research in diverse fields, from climate change to machine learning, where recognition and validation of real patterns in scientific models play a crucial role.

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of scientific explanation as a way of identifying the logical form of explanations without any reference to the suspect notion of "causation". The logical positivist movement became a major underpinning of

4016:"A pretended or spurious science; a collection of related beliefs about the world mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method or as having the status that scientific truths now have," from the 3891:. The Stanford article states: "Many writers on pseudoscience have emphasized that pseudoscience is non-science posing as science. The foremost modern classic on the subject (Gardner 1957) bears the title 1346:

called this the central question in the philosophy of science. However, no unified account of the problem has won acceptance among philosophers, and some regard the problem as unsolvable or uninteresting.

2320:. If the prediction fails and a transit is not observed, that is likely to occasion an adjustment in the system, a change in some auxiliary assumption, rather than a rejection of the theoretical system. 5938: 2384:(1924–1994) argued that no description of scientific method could possibly be broad enough to include all the approaches and methods used by scientists, and that there are no useful and exception-free 2127:"portrait" of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. A paradigm also encompasses the set of questions and practices that define a scientific discipline. He characterized 2395:

Feyerabend said that science started as a liberating movement, but that over time it had become increasingly dogmatic and rigid and had some oppressive features, and thus had become increasingly an

3229:. Some of these issues are epistemological concerns about the methodology of psychological investigation. For example, is the best method for studying psychology to focus only on the response of 4822:

Douglas Allchin, "Values in Science and in Science Education," in International Handbook of Science Education, B.J. Fraser and K.G. Tobin (eds.), 2:1083–1092, Kluwer Academic Publishers (1988).

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are not traditionally categorized as philosophers of science. However, they have much to say about science, some of which has anticipated themes in the analytical tradition. For example, in

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Realists often point to the success of recent scientific theories as evidence for the truth (or near truth) of current theories. Antirealists point to either the many false theories in the

4274: 2220:." "Without this assumption, there would be only the thoughts and images in our own mind (which would be the only existing mind) and there would be no need of science, or anything else." 1403:

A closely related question is what counts as a good scientific explanation. In addition to providing predictions about future events, society often takes scientific theories to provide

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who is the subject of more mainstream scientific knowledge, taken now as an object, sitting between these more conventional areas, and of course associating with disciplines such as

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The benefit of SRS is that as a result, the investigator is guaranteed to choose a sample which is representative of the population, which ensures statistically valid conclusions.

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A broad issue affecting the neutrality of science concerns the areas which science chooses to explore—that is, what part of the world and of humankind are studied by science.

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Karl Popper in the 1980s. Popper is credited with formulating 'the demarcation problem', which considers the question of how we distinguish between science and pseudoscience.

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A major development in recent decades has been the study of the formation, structure, and evolution of scientific communities by sociologists and anthropologists – including

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The philosophy of astronomy seeks to understand and analyze the methodologies and technologies used by experts in the discipline, focusing on how observations made about

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in general, which of course includes the scientific attitude. For this reason, the continental tradition has remained much more skeptical of the importance of science in

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Other issues in philosophy of psychology are philosophical questions about the nature of mind, brain, and cognition, and are perhaps more commonly thought of as part of

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One approach is to acknowledge that induction cannot achieve certainty, but observing more instances of a general statement can at least make the general statement more

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improve this problematic thesis, it needs to be represented in the form of a hierarchy of theses, each thesis becoming more insubstantial as one goes up the hierarchy.

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Instead, he argued that the paradigm determines the kinds of experiments scientists perform, the types of questions they ask, and the problems they consider important.

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One consequence of the Duhem–Quine thesis is that one can make any theory compatible with any empirical observation by the addition of a sufficient number of suitable

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Salmon, Merrilee; Earman, John; Glymour, Clark; Lenno, James G.; Machamer, Peter; McGuire, J.E.; Norton, John D.; Salmon, Wesley C.; Schaffner, Kenneth F. (1992).

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Some claim that naturalism is the implicit philosophy of working scientists, and that the following basic assumptions are needed to justify the scientific method:

2575:), rather than a progress-based or anti-historical approach as emphasised in the analytic tradition. One can trace this continental strand of thought through the 1885:

are also considered important in the formation of current conceptions of the scientific method, as well as anticipating later accounts of scientific explanation.

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are theories themselves, and the task of choosing between measures of simplicity appears to be every bit as problematic as the job of choosing between theories.

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An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is referred to as

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as the steady, cumulative acquisition of knowledge based on a fixed method of systematic experimentation and instead arguing that any progress is relative to a "

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as five different objects in space. In light of that theory, however, astronomers will tell you that there are actually only two objects, one in the center and

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sought to analyze and uncover how disciplines within the social sciences developed and adopted the methodologies used by their practitioners. In works like

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in the solar system, one needs information about the masses and positions of the Sun and all the planets. Famously, the failure to predict the orbit of

5904: 2335:, it is impossible to test a theory in isolation. One must always add auxiliary hypotheses in order to make testable predictions. For example, to test 2095: 1362:

grounded science in observation while non-science was non-observational and hence meaningless. Popper argued that the central property of science is

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and structural limitations. This scepticism has been facilitated by a general weakening of deductivist accounts of science by philosophers such as

4916:, 1620. Bacon's work described many of the accepted principles, underscoring the importance of empirical results, data gathering and experiment. 2204:, i.e. anything above, beyond, or outside of nature. The scientific method is to be used to investigate all reality, including the human spirit. 1459:

morning. However, one morning, the farmer comes and kills the chicken. How is scientific reasoning more trustworthy than the chicken's reasoning?

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view of scientific inquiry, Foucault argued throughout his work that scientific discourse is not simply an objective study of phenomena, as both

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for understanding the efficiency of scientific communities in the production of knowledge. This interdisciplinary field has come to be known as

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and ungrounded. Promulgation of this epistemological anarchism earned Feyerabend the title of "the worst enemy of science" from his detractors.

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Philosophy of psychology is a relatively young field, because psychology only became a discipline of its own in the late 1800s. In particular,

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set the limitations to their investigation. For naturalists, nature is the only reality, the "correct" paradigm, and there is no such thing as

2183: 6188: 3260:, and how does that relate to the experience of making choices? Philosophy of psychology also closely monitors contemporary work conducted in 2033:

In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and America. By then, many had replaced Mach's phenomenalism with

6813: 6232: 5548: 1966:—whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, which is the content of all sciences, whether physics or psychology—and 118: 4802: 3878: 3699: 3593: 2991:

The philosophy of Earth science is concerned with how humans obtain and verify knowledge of the workings of the Earth system, including the

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theories that have been developed to explain these basic observations, they may disagree about what they are observing. For example, before

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as yielding definite scientific knowledge. Philosophers of science also consider philosophical problems within particular sciences (such as

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There is no such thing as philosophy-free science; there is only science whose philosophical baggage is taken on board without examination.

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approach to science, in which a theory is validated if it makes sense of observations as part of a coherent whole, became prominent due to

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That experimental procedures will be done satisfactorily without any deliberate or unintentional mistakes that will influence the results

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are also addressed. Research in current philosophy of biology includes investigation of the foundations of evolutionary theory (such as

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understanding of biological phenomena. Similarly, in chemistry, debates around the reality of chemical bonds as real patterns continue.

9137: 5624: 4184: 2450:. The human sciences do not comprise mainstream academic disciplines; they are rather an interdisciplinary space for the reflection on 1124:

Many of the central problems concerned with the philosophy of science lack contemporary consensus, including whether science can infer

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movement, which aimed to formulate criteria for ensuring all philosophical statements' meaningfulness and objectively assessing them.

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and in philosophical inquiry. Nonetheless, there have been a number of important works: especially those of a Kuhnian precursor,

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of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose and meaning of science as a human endeavour. Philosophy of science focuses on

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Laudan, Larry (1983). "The Demise of the Demarcation Problem". In Grünbaum, Adolf; Cohen, Robert Sonné; Laudan, Larry (eds.).

2363:. Instead, he favored a "survival of the fittest" view in which the most falsifiable scientific theories are to be preferred. 1314:

In formulating 'the problem of induction', David Hume devised one of the most pervasive puzzles in the philosophy of science.

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in turn might be described in terms of human physiology, which in turn might be described in terms of chemistry and physics.

2628:. Post-Heideggerian authors contributing to continental philosophy of science in the second half of the 20th century include 6026: 4972: 4247: 2788: 612: 6317: 5981: 5649:(Taylor & Francis e-Library ed.). London and New York: Routledge / Taylor & Francis e-Library. chapters 3–4. 5182: 3678: 2715:

consensus required for good science by excluding certain people, and so proving themselves in the end to be unscientific.

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controls. Related to these areas of investigation, ontologies of specific interest to the philosophy of medicine include

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avoids claims about whether evidence supports a hypothesis or makes it more probable. Instead, the typical test yields a

1189:", the set of questions, concepts, and practices that define a scientific discipline in a particular historical period. 11945: 11148: 8621: 7434: 6937: 6907: 4892: 1516:

seems to provide evidence for five different objects, but this observation is theory-laden. If we assume the theory of

1419:

model. It says that a successful scientific explanation must deduce the occurrence of the phenomena in question from a

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or is it not possible to reduce chemistry to physics? For another example, chemists have discussed the philosophy of

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The largest effect on the continental tradition with respect to science came from Martin Heidegger's critique of the

2527: 2424: 1035: 1470:, or personal, and correct reasoning is merely about how evidence should change one's subjective beliefs over time. 11878: 10820: 10235: 6851: 6287: 4408: 549: 523: 3057:

sciences. Although philosophers of science and philosophers generally have long been interested in biology (e.g.,

2637: 11814: 10929: 10265: 8287: 8055: 7342: 7323: 6753: 5200:"save" empiricism/positivism/realism with the falsifiability criterion—have agreed that positivism is a dead-end. 3548: 3074: 649: 385: 30: 11902: 9873: 3321:. Philosophers of social science are concerned with the differences and similarities between the social and the 3119: 586: 11930: 11771: 11425: 11266: 10399: 10291: 9451: 8225: 7392: 6209: 4434: 3833: 3645: 2760: 2531: 1947: 617: 258: 4618:

Winsberg, Eric (September 2006). "Models of Success Versus the Success of Models: Reliability without Truth".

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Gould, Stephen J (1984). "Toward the vindication of punctuational change in catastrophes and earth history".

6254: 1670: 1288: 1275:. The question of what counts as science and what should be excluded arises as a life-or-death matter in the 128: 7250:

Salmon, Merrilee H.; Science, University of Pittsburgh. Department of the History and Philosophy of (1992).

2399:. Because of this, he said it was impossible to come up with an unambiguous way to distinguish science from 1159:, the general philosophy of science emerged as a distinct discipline only in the 20th century following the 11950: 11940: 11719: 11629: 11116: 10946: 10874: 10574: 10503: 10270: 10175: 9823: 8540: 7915: 7908: 6365:"The philosophy of evolution: Godfrey-Smith takes an ingenious evolutionary approach to how the mind works" 4724: 4172: 3304: 3158:(EBM) (or evidence-based practice (EBP)) has attracted attention, most notably the roles of randomisation, 2884: 2547: 2442: 2240:

That Nature has uniformity of laws and most if not all things in nature must have at least a natural cause.

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Hull D. (1969), What philosophy of biology is not, Journal of the History of Biology, 2, pp. 241–268.

2534:. Here the approach to the philosophy of science is to study how scientific communities actually operate. 1950:, logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness. From 11271: 10074: 9788: 8417: 7767: 7742: 7727: 7270: 6875: 4907: 3995: 3968: 2780: 2741:

early 21st century has seen a rise in the number of practitioners of philosophy of a particular science.

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governing the progress of science. He argued that "the only principle that does not inhibit progress is:

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to the terms of another. Can chemistry be reduced to physics, or can sociology be reduced to individual

10924: 9941: 9610: 8916: 8692: 8280: 7022: 5578: 5139: 3430: 2825:. Is asking whether "1 + 1 = 2" is true fundamentally different from asking whether a ball is red? Was 2731: 2576: 1932: 456: 8326: 7009: 6372: 5318: 3598: 2841:

is correct? Philosophers of mathematics also aim to clarify the relationships between mathematics and

2360: 1093:, and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship between science and the concept of 11533: 11261: 11174: 11131: 11126: 11101: 11016: 11006: 11001: 10147: 8359: 8349: 7940: 7920: 7828: 7824: 7747: 7439: 6683: 4018: 3852: 3568: 3495: 3066: 2830: 2800: 2756: 2556:

advanced the thesis that the motive for the search for truth in sciences is a kind of ascetic ideal.

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The public backlash of scientists against such views, particularly in the 1990s, became known as the

1366:. That is, every genuinely scientific claim is capable of being proven false, at least in principle. 1272: 270: 7140: 6522: 4556: 4084: 1263:. A central theme is whether the terms of one scientific theory can be intra- or intertheoretically 1148:). Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to reach conclusions about 11955: 11866: 11714: 11704: 11501: 11227: 11011: 10914: 10561: 10508: 10250: 9813: 9063: 8903: 8900: 8626: 8460: 8445: 7945: 7585: 7570: 7559: 7536: 6180: 5832: 5237: 3994: 3563: 3481: 3465: 3209: 3179: 2750: 2295: 1550: 1268: 1256: 867: 147: 1725:, who distinguished the forms of approximate and exact reasoning, set out the threefold scheme of 11897: 11676: 11564: 11459: 11031: 10859: 10810: 9828: 9769: 9722: 9580: 9543: 8911: 8826: 8816: 8740: 8606: 8578: 8183: 7930: 7925: 7898: 7833: 7787: 7782: 7717: 7610: 6810: 6224: 4794: 3886: 3707: 3603: 3553: 3269: 3155: 2932: 2775:-value is too low, the hypothesis is rejected, in a way analogous to falsification. In contrast, 2676:

involves breaking an observation or theory down into simpler concepts in order to understand it.

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The expectations chickens might form about farmer behavior illustrate the "problem of induction".

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Woodhouse, Edward. Science Technology and Society. Spring 2015 ed. n.p.: U Readers, 2014. Print.

5101: 5050: 4344: 4336: 4306: 3847:"Pseudoscientific – pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific". 3325:, causal relationships between social phenomena, the possible existence of social laws, and the 2779:

seeks to assign probabilities to hypotheses. Related topics in philosophy of statistics include

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as the process of observation and "puzzle solving" which takes place within a paradigm, whereas

1800:, who lived 300 years earlier) was a seminal figure in philosophy of science at the time of the 1591:

argue that science does not aim (or at least does not succeed) at truth, especially truth about

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metaphorical—direct observations viewed in the abstract—or at worst metaphysical or emotional.

1869:, though both theses would be contested by the end of the 18th century by Immanuel Kant in his 1398: 1339: 1276: 1241: 832: 513: 466: 431: 179: 159: 95: 7352: 7152: 5552: 5436: 3979:

Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time

3405:

Comte's positivism established the initial philosophical foundations for formal sociology and

2805:

Philosophy of mathematics is concerned with the philosophical foundations and implications of

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being such as it is, under the assumption that the hypothesis being tested is true. If the

2375: 2124: 1866: 1608: 1467: 1437: 1209: 1129: 900: 882: 817: 461: 342: 323: 209: 5756: 5414: 5130:

To conclude, logical positivism was progressive compared with the classical positivism of

4043: 8: 11836: 11830: 11756: 11671: 11616: 11491: 11356: 11302: 11046: 11036: 10894: 10864: 10788: 10773: 10733: 10728: 10653: 10538: 10356: 10311: 10301: 10260: 10208: 10193: 10122: 10102: 10084: 9916: 9883: 9744: 9731: 9538: 9335: 9246: 9201: 9107: 8993: 8806: 8654: 8030: 7712: 7605: 7580: 7565: 7494: 6015:]. Translated by Murphy, Jonathan; Khalfa, Jean. London: Routledge (published 2013). 3387: 3284: 3102: 3082: 2908: 2687: 2620: 2553: 2486:

However, some (such as Quine) do maintain that scientific reality is a social construct:

2317: 2144: 2071: 1943: 1834: 1749:) conducted his research in optics by way of controlled experimental testing and applied 1734: 1730: 1726: 1584: 1474: 1452: 1359: 1305: 1182: 1066: 812: 707: 645: 528: 332: 287: 241: 174: 154: 105: 90: 9068: 7047: 4946: 4372: 1954:'s logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic. They also embraced Russell's 11781: 11346: 11091: 10961: 10763: 10663: 10658: 10443: 10306: 10275: 10255: 10203: 10185: 10160: 10155: 10107: 10094: 10061: 9956: 9858: 9793: 9749: 9693: 9533: 9362: 9256: 9164: 8968: 8847: 8838: 8801: 8796: 8702: 8697: 8674: 8593: 8407: 8334: 8178: 8133: 8020: 7843: 7664: 7499: 7489: 7212: 7074: 6778: 6688: 6626: 6535: 6490: 6482: 6447: 5930: 5695: 5094: 5043: 4770: 4737: 4696:

Burnston, D. C. (2017). Real Patterns in Biological Explanation. Philosophy of Science.

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Stanford, P. Kyle (June 2000). "An Antirealist Explanation of the Success of Science".

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makes the first observation of the transit of Venus in 1639, as imagined by the artist

2123:

argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm, a

2066: 2062: 1924: 1894: 1703: 1604: 1566: 1538: 1530: 1517: 1442: 1386: 1252: 1160: 1125: 1098: 622: 602: 446: 352: 312: 307: 292: 282: 275: 226: 221: 199: 137: 6614: 6049: 3461: 2629: 2611: 2232:

That reality can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation.

1785: 11751: 11746: 11734: 11729: 11601: 11591: 11511: 11454: 11398: 11179: 11162: 11143: 10778: 10713: 10683: 10344: 10245: 10240: 10225: 10165: 10127: 10112: 10069: 9640: 9600: 9518: 9446: 9429: 9407: 9035: 9010: 8821: 8641: 8384: 8237: 8010: 7867: 7657: 7622: 7516: 7455: 7295: 7276: 7255: 7222: 7216: 7168: 7158: 7107: 7085: 6970: 6933: 6883: 6734: 6618: 6583: 6579: 6451: 6203: 6156: 6122: 6085: 6016: 5934: 5863: 5836: 5798: 5703: 5650: 5614: 5270: 5115: 5105: 5064: 5054: 4888: 4863: 4775: 4757: 4598: 4573: 4519: 4492: 4414: 4348: 4149: 4120: 3999: 3982: 3935: 3910: 3813: 3753: 3726: 3651: 3641: 3515: 3288: 3265: 3245: 3167: 2946: 2850: 2755:

The problem of induction discussed above is seen in another form in debates over the

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social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of

1773: 1554: 1478: 1409: 1217: 1201: 1168: 1155:

While philosophical thought pertaining to science dates back at least to the time of

1011: 958: 948: 872: 722: 664: 508: 503: 436: 367: 362: 302: 297: 246: 231: 214: 164: 74: 8108: 6782: 6630: 6539: 6494: 4674: 4639: 4101: 3630: 3348:, a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842. The first three volumes of the 2829:

invented or discovered? A related question is whether learning mathematics requires

2526:. Concepts and methods (such as rational choice, social choice or game theory) from 1829: 1575:

Should science aim to determine ultimate truth, or are there questions that science

1244:

approaches science from the perspective of a rigorous analysis of human experience.

11766: 11611: 11586: 11393: 11383: 11373: 11096: 11071: 10971: 10832: 10827: 10608: 10296: 10230: 10220: 9921: 9868: 9818: 9798: 9759: 9754: 9595: 9523: 9241: 9152: 9043: 9015: 9000: 8963: 8669: 8649: 8616: 8521: 8483: 8208: 8163: 8143: 7679: 7669: 7652: 7287: 7051: 6768: 6726: 6692: 6678: 6670: 6610: 6575: 6527: 6474: 6439: 5925: 5920: 5784:"'Disciplining' Truth and Science: Michel Foucault and the Power of Social Science" 5147: 4765: 4749: 4662: 4627: 4590: 4561: 4267: 4089: 3774: 3353: 3225:

Philosophy of psychology refers to issues at the theoretical foundations of modern

3159: 3124: 3054: 2596: 2568: 2304: 2023: 2015: 1951: 1882: 1496: 1491: 1424: 1335: 1021: 953: 822: 742: 683: 607: 347: 263: 5017: 4705:

Seifert, V. A. (2022). The Chemical Bond is a Real Pattern. Philosophy of Science.

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Exceeding Our Grasp: Science, History, and the Problem of Unconceived Alternatives

2692:

which denies real complexities and leaps too quickly to sweeping generalizations.

11776: 11543: 11538: 11351: 11111: 10956: 10934: 10703: 10618: 10603: 10368: 10002: 9971: 9936: 9901: 9779: 9630: 9528: 9486: 9397: 9385: 9370: 9345: 9320: 9090: 8958: 8953: 8870: 8855: 8528: 8412: 8198: 8158: 8080: 8035: 7872: 7777: 7762: 7737: 7551: 7531: 7371: 7076:

Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time

6817: 6116: 6006: 6002: 5675: 5671: 5223: 5024: 5004: 4968: 4835: 4289: 4278: 4032: 3972: 3625: 3434: 3406: 3322: 3310: 3280: 3276: 3197: 2645: 2615: 2603: 2475: 2437: 2381: 2022:. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a 1955: 1904: 1899: 1881:

made a major contribution to the theory of science. The 19th century writings of

1817: 1596: 1570: 1526: 1382: 1247:

Philosophies of the particular sciences range from questions about the nature of

1237: 1213: 1167:

criticized logical positivism and helped establish a modern set of standards for

1118: 923: 918: 908: 797: 754: 690: 357: 9142: 6730: 5335: 4239: 1832:

established a new framework for grounding scientific knowledge in his treatise,

1690:, sociologists of science, and others explore how social values affect science. 1473:

Some argue that what scientists do is not inductive reasoning at all but rather

11891: 11739: 11651: 11646: 11403: 11324: 11319: 11250: 11169: 11121: 11076: 10869: 10805: 10718: 10678: 10518: 10478: 9911: 9906: 9774: 9739: 9671: 9645: 9481: 9330: 9269: 9182: 9025: 8921: 8664: 8344: 8249: 8118: 7978: 7617: 7526: 6309: 6179:

Bickle, John; Mandik, Peter; Landreth, Anthony (2010). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).

6112: 5973: 5186: 5167: 5159: 4714:

Millhouse, T. (2020). Really real patterns. Australasian Journal of Philosophy.

3573: 3529: 3377: 3221:(seated) with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind 3189: 3135: 2958: 2707: 2682: 2580: 2523: 2479: 2411:. He saw the exclusive dominance of science as a means of directing society as 2136: 2027: 2019: 2007: 1971: 1967: 1742: 1661: 1629: 1534: 1513: 1420: 1374: 1363: 1348: 1331: 1149: 996: 963: 913: 673: 441: 9352: 9127: 6773: 6674: 6121:. Oxford Studies in Philosophy of Science. New York: Oxford University Press. 4631: 3749:

The Pseudoscience Wars: Immanuel Velikovsky and the Birth of the Modern Fringe

11924: 11842: 11798: 11761: 11691: 11666: 11576: 11474: 11420: 11415: 10981: 10951: 10889: 10690: 10638: 10633: 10543: 9966: 9878: 9808: 9550: 9340: 9274: 9231: 9100: 8725: 8511: 8493: 8168: 8103: 8075: 8003: 7732: 7647: 7361: 7123:

The principle of uniformity in geology, biology, and theology, 2nd impression

5802: 5143: 4911: 4761: 4467: 4455: 3457: 3337: 3309:

The philosophy of social science is the study of the logic and method of the

3218: 3070: 3022: 2511: 2412: 2042: 1963: 1936: 1878: 1853:

hypotheses in natural philosophy". In particular, later in the 18th century,

1806: 1793: 1778: 1625: 1370: 1260: 877: 8259: 6443: 3670: 3655: 2658:

Probleme und Resultate der Wissenschaftstheorie und Analytischen Philosophie

11641: 11581: 11329: 11287: 10941: 10800: 10738: 10473: 9997: 9987: 9946: 9926: 9698: 9661: 9620: 9506: 9456: 9117: 9095: 9073: 9020: 8988: 8860: 8720: 8631: 8427: 8213: 8193: 8148: 8123: 8113: 8085: 8015: 7973: 7847: 7801: 7772: 7752: 7130:

Simpson, G.G. (1963). "Historical science". In Albritton, Jr., C.C. (ed.).

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Darwinian Populations and Natural Selection. Oxford University Press. 2010.

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are more typically cited as the fathers of contemporary social science. In

3238: 3143: 3098: 3038: 2979: 2974: 2916: 2677: 2592: 2564: 2515: 2500: 2455: 2371: 2328: 2094:

in Ptolemaic astronomy was "normal science" within a paradigm, whereas the

2054: 2034: 1908: 1843: 1842:

as opposed to sensory experience. By contrast, in 1713, the 2nd edition of

1679: 1592: 1543: 1378: 1284: 1264: 1221: 1078: 727: 700: 393: 337: 7055: 6992: 6717:

Worrall, J (2011). "Causality in medicine: getting back to the Hill top".

6622: 6587: 6531: 5718:, conversely, a scientific community consists of men who share a paradigm. 3723:

Physics, Philosophy, and Psychoanalysis: Essays in Honor of Adolf Grünbaum

11793: 11681: 11606: 11523: 11442: 11435: 11292: 10976: 10673: 10643: 10628: 10493: 10488: 9992: 9931: 9803: 9783: 9688: 9625: 9585: 9565: 9491: 9461: 9122: 9058: 8750: 8735: 8611: 8601: 8550: 8516: 8455: 8203: 8188: 8173: 8153: 8070: 7998: 7815: 7805: 7792: 7757: 7707: 7637: 7590: 7477: 7467: 5824: 5155: 4753: 4404: 4067: 3803: 3637: 3558: 3449: 3253: 3230: 3151: 3142:, the philosophy of medicine is a branch of philosophy that includes the 3090: 3042: 2996: 2938: 2920: 2912: 2822: 2806: 2784: 2519: 2507: 2385: 2356: 2282: 2196: 2120: 2087: 2075: 2038: 1920: 1839: 1797: 1762: 1463: 1404: 1343: 1327: 1310: 1233: 1193: 1172: 1164: 1074: 1070: 1058: 852: 759: 747: 737: 678: 408: 7384: 6279: 4725:

https://www.santafe.edu/news-center/news/real-patterns-science-cognition

2082: 1220:", so all approaches to science should be allowed, including explicitly 11847: 11686: 11528: 11486: 11430: 10909: 10904: 10849: 10513: 10483: 10465: 9838: 9666: 9615: 9605: 9476: 9380: 9325: 9132: 9112: 8978: 8745: 8659: 8488: 8435: 8399: 8303: 8090: 7819: 7810: 7797: 7541: 7504: 7356: 6486: 6081:

Darwin Loves You: Natural Selection and the Re-enchantment of the World

5151: 5135: 3491: 3487: 3422: 3357: 3341: 3226: 3214: 3185: 3094: 2992: 2923:(for example, those about causality, determinism, and space and time). 2868: 2459: 2263:

That experimenters won't be significantly biased by their presumptions.

2152: 1959: 1916: 1858: 1854: 1754: 1683: 1656: 1612: 1482: 1224:

ones. Another approach to thinking about science involves studying how

1145: 1102: 1054: 978: 857: 847: 837: 807: 712: 416: 47: 8244: 7031: 4723:

Santa Fe Institute. (2022). Real patterns in science & cognition.

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Philosophy of psychiatry explores philosophical questions relating to

1753:, especially in his investigations into the images resulting from the 991: 11621: 11518: 11447: 11341: 11314: 11086: 10553: 10528: 10407: 9853: 9848: 9708: 9635: 9570: 9441: 9375: 9187: 9177: 9172: 9147: 8943: 8503: 8465: 7857: 7450: 7134:. Stanford, California: Freeman, Cooper, and Company. pp. 24–48. 5287: 4831: 3441: 3418: 3382: 3369: 3361: 3314: 3257: 3139: 3062: 3058: 3030: 3000: 2942: 2624:(1966) and his study of power and corruption within the "science" of 2572: 2463: 2408: 2313: 2217: 1862: 1821: 1758: 1722: 1675: 1487: 1229: 1205: 1156: 1141: 1106: 1082: 968: 732: 29:

This article is about the branch of philosophy. For the journal, see

9078: 55: 9683: 9590: 9555: 9513: 9501: 9289: 9083: 8983: 8926: 8730: 8684: 8568: 7877: 7595: 6478: 5730: 5714:

A paradigm is what the members of a community of scientists share,

4666: 4565: 4093: 3469: 3410: 3326: 3147: 2826: 2817:, and other mathematical entities exist independently of the human 2814: 2673: 2625: 2400: 2396: 2287: 2212:

That there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers

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food, for hundreds of days in a row. The chicken may therefore use

1415:

One early and influential account of scientific explanation is the

1186: 1086: 973: 862: 764: 717: 451: 11886: 11219: 5119: 5045:

Behaviorism and Logical Positivism: A Reassessment of the Alliance

3498:

is an emerging sub-field of the broader philosophy of technology.

2919:. Classically, several of these questions were studied as part of 2174:

Naturalism (philosophy)#Providing assumptions required for science

1923:

to ground philosophy on a basis consistent with examples from the

11368: 10430: 9310: 9284: 9279: 9221: 9216: 9048: 8936: 8931: 8890: 8712: 8558: 8440: 7575: 5154:. It was even more so by comparison with its contemporary rivals— 5131: 4070:; Oppenheim, Paul (1948). "Studies in the Logic of Explanation". 3373: 3365: 3163: 3050: 3029:, which discusses the philosophical foundations of the theory of 2892: 2872: 2834: 2764: 2467: 2345: 1927:). Seeking to overhaul all of philosophy and convert it to a new 1812: 1746: 1738: 1508: 1279:. Additionally, the philosophies of biology, psychology, and the 1062: 802: 573: 7172: 6643:

Nunn, R., 2009. It's time to put the placebo out of our misery"

6465:

Worrall, J (2002). "What Evidence in Evidence-Based Medicine?".

6416:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, and Godfrey-Smith P. (2009), 5068: 2883:

and how they interact. The main questions concern the nature of

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That random sampling is representative of the entire population.

1664:' to describe the creation and evolution of scientific theories. 11063: 9575: 9496: 9226: 8885: 8875: 8573: 8475: 7642: 4939:"The Impact of Newton's Principia on the Philosophy of Science" 3812:(reprint ed.). London & New York: Routledge Classics. 3292: 3046: 2880: 2876: 2810: 2340: 2309: 1330:

is referred to as the demarcation problem. For example, should

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aspects of scientific practice, and overlaps with metaphysics,

398: 6839:

Mason, Kelby; Sripada, Chandra Sekhar; Stich, Stephen (2010).

4932: 4930: 3468:

as meaning that scientific-thinking becomes something akin to

3376:), whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of 3272:, questioning what they can and cannot explain in psychology. 1583:

claim that science aims at truth and that one ought to regard

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4687:

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4460:

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into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a

1718: 1094: 1090: 842: 792: 403: 4000:"Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding" 3425:, a positivistic approach has historically been favoured in 3340:(1798–1857), established the epistemological perspective of 3077:

in the 1930s and 1940s to the discovery of the structure of

7521: 6152:

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5610:

Can theories be refuted?: essays on the Dunhem–Quine thesis

4927: 3905:

Hewitt, Paul G.; Suchocki, John; Hewitt, Leslie A. (2003).

3445: 3414: 2888: 2818: 1355:("I know it when I see it") for recognizing pseudoscience. 782: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5348: 4283:

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2937:

Philosophy of chemistry is the philosophical study of the

1533:, observers would have likely interpreted an image of the 11410: 9236: 6601:

Gøtzsche, P.C. (1994). "Is there logic in the placebo?".

6508:

Worrall, J. (2007). "Why there's no cause to randomize".

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5459: 5457: 5269:, 2nd. ed., Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1970, p. 206. 3279:

has just recently become its own field with the works of

2685:

distinguishes legitimate reductionism from what he calls

1632:, as an intermediate position between strong realism and 1587:

as true, approximately true, or likely true. Conversely,

827: 6308:

Weisberg, Michael; Needham, Paul; Hendry, Robin (2011).

5822: 5505: 5298: 4969:"John Stuart Mill (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)" 4738:"Attacks on Science: The Risks to Evidence-Based Policy" 4114: 2559:

In general, continental philosophy views science from a

5345: 5183:"Popper, Falsifiability, and the Failure of Positivism" 2867:

Philosophy of physics is the study of the fundamental,

2614:(1892–1964). Another important development was that of 2224:

That this objective reality is governed by natural laws

7237:

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7157:. Lowell Lectures. New York: Free Press. p. 135. 5613:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 9–. 5529: 5454: 5379: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5371: 5369: 5367: 4876: 2308:

of auxiliary beliefs, such as those that describe the

1503: 1232:

perspective, an approach represented by scholars like

7104:

The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science

6993:"Atheism and the Assumptions of Science and Religion" 6826:, edited by Edward N. Zalta. Accessed 18 August 2016. 6307: 5856:

Ashman, Keith M.; Barringer, Philip S., eds. (2001).

4736:

Rosenstock, Linda; Lee, Lore Jackson (January 2002).

4487:. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 4343:. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 3440:

The positivist perspective has been associated with '

3233:

to external stimuli or should psychologists focus on

2163: 6430:

Papineau, D (1994). "The Virtues of Randomization".

6223:

Romeijn, Jan-Willem (2014). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).

6178: 5905:"How Does the Ascetic Ideal Function in Nietzsche's 5396: 5394: 5392: 3971:

report on Science and engineering indicators quoted

3904: 3866:

Hansson, Sven Ove (1996). "Defining Pseudoscience".

3505: 2718: 2618:'s analysis of historical and scientific thought in 2057:'s close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, 1287:

can achieve objectivity or are inevitably shaped by

6848:

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5517: 5364: 3998:; Division of Science Resources Statistics (2006). 1717:The origins of philosophy of science trace back to 1520:, the image only provides evidence for two objects. 1216:

in particular, argue against the existence of the "

10398: 7073: 5288:"Chapter Five, Scientific Objectivity in Question" 5093: 5042: 4585: 4583: 4443: 4141: 3629: 3241:, they may be experiencing very different things. 3154:of medicine. Within the epistemology of medicine, 1097:. Philosophy of science is both a theoretical and 6991:Chen, Christina S. (2009). Larson, Thomas (ed.). 6880:The Philosophy of Social Science: An Introduction 6838: 6754:"What are randomised controlled trials good for?" 5579:"Coherentist Theories of Epistemic Justification" 5389: 4862:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 350–351. 4144:Statistical Explanation and Statistical Relevance 3256:creatures? Is there any sense in which they have 2079:philosophy, with Carl Hempel playing a key role. 1939:propounded logical positivism in the late 1920s. 1820:to improve upon the old philosophical process of 1101:, relying on philosophical theorising as well as 11922: 7218:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd. ed 6745: 6554:The Philosophical Foundations of Modern Medicine 6301: 6174: 6172: 5700:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd. ed 5688: 5638: 5236:Bird, Alexander (2013). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 4423:First published 1963 by Routledge and Kegan Paul 4300: 4298: 4203: 4201: 4025: 2316:of the telescope mount, and an understanding of 2135:occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a 7080:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 6659:"Placebos" and the logic of placebo comparison" 6278:Ismael, Jenann (2015). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 5855: 4795:"The Social Dimensions of Scientific Knowledge" 4580: 4542:(1981). "A Confutation of Convergent Realism". 4167: 4165: 4066: 3752:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 12–13. 3486:The philosophy of technology is a sub-field of 3298: 2986: 2589:Nature: Course Notes from the Collège de France 1660:Thomas Kuhn is credited with coining the term ' 1105:of scientific practice. Ethical issues such as 6594: 6559: 6423: 6253:Horsten, Leon (2015). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 5606: 5166:, dialectical materialism, phenomenology, and 5010: 4996:(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 4945:. Pari Center for New Learning. Archived from 4148:. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. 1067:the difference between science and non-science 11235: 10384: 8288: 8264: 7400: 7249: 6954:Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective 6834: 6832: 6710: 6510:British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 6501: 6458: 6432:British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 6169: 5577:Olsson, Erik (2014). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 5319:"Chapter 6, The Privileged Status of Science" 5205: 4986: 4735: 4413:. London & New York: Routledge Classics. 4295: 4198: 2950: 2419:Sociology of scientific knowledge methodology 1490:principle more precise regarding theoretical 1029: 550: 7286: 6650: 4838:", Hugh Tredennick (trans.), pp. 181–531 in 4646: 4611: 4589: 4507: 4162: 3822:First published 1959 by Hutchinson & Co. 2833:. What does it mean to prove a mathematical 2794: 2366: 2359:accepted this thesis, leading him to reject 1849:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica 1828:to eliminate alternative theories. In 1637, 1628:has been propounded, notably by philosopher 1181:was also formative, challenging the view of 1130:whether inductive reasoning can be justified 7310:Real Science: what it is, and what it means 7211: 7067:. Princeton University Press. p. 9–34. 6566:Grünbaum, A (1981). "The Placebo Concept". 6418:Darwinian Populations and Natural Selection 6356: 6084:. Princeton University Press. p. 104. 5965: 5600: 5279: 4366: 4364: 3662: 3475: 3203: 3173: 3027:Darwinian Populations and Natural Selection 2744: 1875:Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science 11242: 11228: 10391: 10377: 8295: 8281: 7407: 7393: 7254:. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall. 6829: 6751: 6637: 6412:Recent examples include Okasha S. (2006), 5694: 4885:The First Scientist: A Life of Roger Bacon 4786: 4532: 4481:"The Current Status of Scientific Realism" 4231: 4133: 4108: 4060: 3624: 3452:, and new philosophical movements such as 3093:reactions as well as the incorporation of 2964: 2926: 1861:about the ability of science to determine 1737:inference, and also analyzed reasoning by 1283:explore whether the scientific studies of 1036: 1022: 557: 543: 8063: 8026:Relationship between religion and science 7414: 7312:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7252:Introduction to the Philosophy of Science 7246:. Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford. 7150: 6772: 6684:1983/6426ce5a-ab57-419c-bc3c-e57d20608807 6682: 6546: 6521: 6339:"Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method" 6041: 5924: 5304: 5085: 5034: 4769: 4555: 4328: 4117:Introduction to the Philosophy of Science 4083: 3893:Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science 3796: 3714: 3108: 3081:(DNA) in 1953 to more recent advances in 2537: 2006:. Mathematics in physics would reduce to 1865:and gave a definitive formulation of the 1607:, epistemic morals, the success of false 1560: 1455:to infer that the farmer will bring food 1392: 7138: 7120: 7101: 6600: 6565: 6429: 6001: 5754: 5535: 5463: 5358: 5259: 4855: 4652: 4617: 4513: 4361: 4171: 3766: 3668: 3620: 3618: 3616: 3429:. Positivism has also been espoused by ' 3213: 3118: 3016: 3006: 2856: 2695: 2370: 2286: 2081: 1824:. Bacon's method relied on experimental 1784: 1772: 1655: 1507: 1441: 1317: 1309: 1212:. A vocal minority of philosophers, and 7129: 6927: 6904:"Stanford Encyclopaedia: Auguste Comte" 6823:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6716: 6507: 6464: 6362: 6252: 6222: 6148: 6111: 5971: 5952: 5669: 5499: 5340:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5316: 5267:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 4792: 4207: 4004:Science and engineering indicators 2006 3976: 3929: 3865: 3235:mental perception and thought processes 2895:. Also included are the predictions of 2821:and what is the nature of mathematical 2116:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 2109:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 1178:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 1121:rather than the philosophy of science. 14: 11923: 7201:, Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, MA. 6969:, Polity Press (Second Edition 2009), 6874: 6656: 6556:, London/New York, Palgrave/Macmillan. 6277: 6077: 5962:, Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, MA. 5644: 5576: 5285: 4538: 4466: 4454: 4403: 4139: 3981:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. 3802: 3745: 3720: 3433:' who believe in the inevitability of 11223: 10372: 10034: 8776: 8314: 8276: 8263: 7388: 7244:Problems of the Philosophy of Science 7106:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7071: 7062: 7029: 7016: 7010:"The nature of reality and knowledge" 7007: 6414:Evolution and the Levels of Selection 5902: 5781: 5523: 5511: 5487: 5475: 5400: 5091: 5049:. Stanford University Press. p. 5040: 4882: 4462:. London: Cambridge University Press. 4441: 4334: 4304: 4272:The Comprehensibility of the Universe 4237: 3772: 3613: 2158: 1888: 1741:. The eleventh century Arab polymath 1686:(considered scientific at the time). 1647: 1486:Philosophers have tried to make this 1431: 11873: 7273:: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge 7188:Bovens, L. and Hartmann, S. (2003), 7008:Durak, Antoine Berke (6 June 2008). 6990: 5383: 5235: 5096:Finding Philosophy in Social Science 4961: 4936: 4478: 4370: 4337:"What Kind of Explanation is Truth?" 3021:Peter Godfrey-Smith was awarded the 2809:. The central questions are whether 1616:primarily judged by that criterion. 1065:. Amongst its central questions are 11249: 10885:Digital media use and mental health 10599:Sociology of the history of science 7377:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 7366:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project 6967:Habermas: Key Contemporary Thinkers 6850:. London: Routledge. Archived from 6314:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6284:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6259:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6229:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6185:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6054:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 6047: 5978:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5735:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5681:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5663: 5583:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5434: 5412: 5242:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5029:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4799:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4474:. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 4377:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4311:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4307:"Theory and Observation in Science" 4244:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4214:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4181:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4031: 3883:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3779:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3704:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3675:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3346:The Course in Positivist Philosophy 2901:interpretation of quantum mechanics 2544:continental philosophical tradition 2030:could verify its falsity or truth. 1595:like electrons or other universes. 1504:Observation inseparable from theory 1326:Distinguishing between science and 1299: 24: 7239:, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 7194:, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 7181: 6420:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6155:. Simon and Schuster. p. 21. 4846:, William Heinemann, London, 1938. 3636:(3rd ed.). London; New York: 2767:, which is the probability of the 2563:perspective. Philosophers such as 2164:Naturalism's axiomatic assumptions 1810:(1620)—an allusion to Aristotle's 1789:Theory of Science by Auguste Comte 1200:and others. Some thinkers such as 25: 11967: 10594:Sociology of scientific ignorance 10439:History and philosophy of science 10421:Economics of scientific knowledge 8046:Sociology of scientific knowledge 8041:Sociology of scientific ignorance 7994:History and philosophy of science 7317: 7199:Continental Philosophy of Science 7032:"Is uniformitarianism necessary?" 6363:Gewertz, Ken (February 8, 2007). 6029:from the original on 15 July 2019 5960:Continental Philosophy of Science 5823:Quine, Willard Van Orman (1980). 5647:The Logic of Scientific Discovery 5100:. Yale University Press. p. 4742:American Journal of Public Health 3809:The logic of scientific discovery 3544:History and philosophy of science 3037:Philosophy of biology deals with 2719:Philosophy of particular sciences 2425:Sociology of scientific knowledge 1838:, advocating the central role of 1126:truth about unobservable entities 524:Social and political philosophers 11936:Academic discipline interactions 11896: 11885: 11872: 11861: 11860: 11187: 11186: 11161: 10352: 10351: 10338: 8243: 8231: 6959: 6946: 6921: 6896: 6868: 6809:Murphy, Dominic (Spring 2015). " 6803: 6406: 6181:"The Philosophy of Neuroscience" 5913:The Journal of Nietzsche Studies 5812:from the original on 2022-10-09. 5213:Reconsidering Logical Positivism 4994:Reconsidering Logical Positivism 3934:(3rd ed.). Addison Wesley. 3909:(3rd ed.). Addison Wesley. 3522: 3508: 3437:through science and technology. 2837:and how does one know whether a 2528:economics have also been applied 2065:, in America, who expounded the 1688:Feminist philosophers of science 1619: 1057:concerned with the foundations, 1005: 990: 585: 68: 54: 11815:List of social science journals 7294:. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 6910:from the original on 2017-10-11 6792:from the original on 2018-07-24 6699:from the original on 2018-12-29 6397: 6388: 6345:from the original on 2012-08-02 6331: 6320:from the original on 2014-04-07 6290:from the original on 2015-11-06 6271: 6246: 6235:from the original on 2018-09-14 6216: 6191:from the original on 2013-12-02 6142: 6105: 6071: 6060:from the original on 2014-04-07 5995: 5984:from the original on 2015-10-16 5941:from the original on 2016-03-04 5896: 5887: 5849: 5816: 5775: 5748: 5723: 5627:from the original on 2016-06-28 5589:from the original on 2018-09-14 5570: 5541: 5493: 5481: 5469: 5428: 5406: 5328: 5310: 5248:from the original on 2017-07-13 5229: 5185:. 7 August 2000. Archived from 5175: 4975:from the original on 2010-01-06 4901: 4849: 4825: 4816: 4805:from the original on 2014-03-26 4729: 4717: 4708: 4699: 4690: 4681: 4597:. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 4394: 4383:from the original on 2007-07-06 4317:from the original on 2014-02-27 4261: 4250:from the original on 2014-03-26 4220:from the original on 2014-04-07 4187:from the original on 2007-07-06 4010: 3961: 3948: 3923: 3898: 3859: 3785:from the original on 2007-06-26 3681:from the original on 2007-06-27 3549:List of philosophers of science 2668: 2663: 2583:(1859–1938), the late works of 1294: 11772:Science and technology studies 10400:Science and technology studies 8302: 7435:Analytic–synthetic distinction 7208:, University of Chicago Press. 7065:Catastrophes and Earth History 6568:Behaviour Research and Therapy 5926:10.2307/jnietstud.35.2008.0106 4472:Meaning and the Moral Sciences 4446:Between Science and Philosophy 3840: 3739: 3692: 3586: 3460:. The philosopher-sociologist 3085:. Other key ideas such as the 2941:and content of the science of 2761:statistical hypothesis testing 2532:science and technology studies 2276: 2102: 1611:assumptions, or widely termed 1549:All observation involves both 1512:Seen through a telescope, the 1481:, which counsels choosing the 1342:be considered pseudosciences? 13: 1: 10035: 7204:Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003), 7019:Scientific Method in Practice 6615:10.1016/s0140-6736(94)92273-x 6118:Science, Truth, and Democracy 3956:Scientific Method in Practice 3580: 2953:in the context of confirming 2845:, human capabilities such as 2787:, and the difference between 2712:Science, Truth, and Democracy 2638:Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker 1712: 10947:Normalization process theory 10504:Philosophy of social science 9824:Ordinary language philosophy 8315: 7343:Resources in other libraries 7154:Science and the Modern World 7102:Heilbron, J.L., ed. (2003). 6580:10.1016/0005-7967(81)90040-1 6005:(1961). Khalfa, Jean (ed.). 5829:From a Logical Point of View 5670:Preston, John (2007-02-15). 4887:. Da Capo Press. p. 2. 3930:Bennett, Jeffrey O. (2003). 3879:"Science and Pseudo-science" 3700:"Science and Pseudo-science" 3305:Philosophy of social science 3299:Philosophy of social science 2987:Philosophy of Earth sciences 2871:questions underlying modern 2443:The Archaeology of Knowledge 1700:History of scientific method 1531:general theory of relativity 1351:has argued for the use of a 1140:and social sciences such as 7: 9874:Contemporary utilitarianism 9789:Internalism and externalism 7768:Hypothetico-deductive model 7743:Deductive-nomological model 7728:Constructivist epistemology 7271:Conjectures and Refutations 7036:American Journal of Science 6731:10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.08.009 6255:"Philosophy of Mathematics" 5903:Hatab, Lawrence J. (2008). 4856:Lindberg, David C. (1980). 4518:. Oxford University Press. 4483:. In Jarrett Leplin (ed.). 4410:Conjectures and Refutations 4400:Specific examples include: 4339:. In Jarrett Leplin (ed.). 3996:National Science Foundation 3969:National Science Foundation 3907:Conceptual Physical Science 3746:Gordin, Michael D. (2012). 3501: 3490:that studies the nature of 2781:probability interpretations 2759:. The standard approach to 2337:Newton's Law of Gravitation 10: 11972: 10570:construction of technology 9138:Svatantrika and Prasangika 8777: 7221:. Univ. of Chicago Press. 7139:Sobottka, Stanley (2005). 7023:Cambridge University Press 6983: 6846:. In Moral, Dermot (ed.). 6841:"Philosophy of Psychology" 6369:Harvard University Gazette 6225:"Philosophy of Statistics" 6208:: CS1 maint: postscript ( 5825:"Two Dogmas of Empiricism" 4859:Science in the Middle Ages 4514:Stanford, P. Kyle (2006). 4433:: CS1 maint: postscript ( 4210:"The Problem of Induction" 3849:Oxford American Dictionary 3832:: CS1 maint: postscript ( 3669:Thornton, Stephen (2006). 3479: 3302: 3252:. For example, are humans 3207: 3177: 3112: 3010: 2951:how theories are confirmed 2930: 2860: 2831:experience or reason alone 2798: 2748: 2699: 2422: 2323:In fact, according to the 2280: 2167: 2106: 1998:would garner meaning from 1892: 1857:would famously articulate 1777:Francis Bacon's statue at 1697: 1693: 1564: 1435: 1396: 1303: 1240:. Finally, a tradition in 1204:seek to ground science in 813:Interdisciplinary sciences 28: 11946:Historiography of science 11856: 11823: 11807: 11554: 11280: 11257: 11157: 11102:Politicization of science 11062: 10848: 10617: 10552: 10464: 10429: 10406: 10332: 10284: 10184: 10146: 10093: 10060: 10051: 10047: 10030: 9980: 9892: 9730: 9721: 9654: 9437: 9428: 9406: 9361: 9303: 9255: 9209: 9200: 9163: 9034: 8899: 8846: 8837: 8787: 8783: 8772: 8711: 8683: 8640: 8592: 8549: 8502: 8474: 8426: 8398: 8360:Philosophy of mathematics 8350:Philosophy of information 8325: 8321: 8310: 8270: 8265:Links to related articles 8222: 8054: 7956: 7886: 7829:Semantic view of theories 7748:Epistemological anarchism 7700: 7685:dependent and independent 7422: 7338:Resources in your library 7151:Whitehead, A.N. (1997) . 7072:Gould, Stephen J (1987). 7030:Gould, Stephen J (1965). 6965:Outhwaite, William, 1988 6928:Giddens, Anthony (1974). 6774:10.1007/s11098-009-9450-2 6675:10.1007/s10539-011-9289-8 6310:"Philosophy of Chemistry" 5972:Wheeler, Michael (2015). 5755:Morrison, Thomas (2018). 4632:10.1007/s11229-004-5404-6 4450:. New York: Random House. 4292:, Paragon House, St. Paul 4019:Oxford English Dictionary 3977:Shermer, Michael (1997). 3853:Oxford English Dictionary 3569:Philosophy of engineering 3496:philosophy of engineering 3089:of all life processes to 2801:Philosophy of mathematics 2795:Philosophy of mathematics 2789:correlation and causation 2757:foundations of statistics 2367:Anything goes methodology 1768: 1291:and by social relations. 1273:foundations of statistics 1255:, to the implications of 1208:assumptions, such as the 271:Middle Eastern philosophy 10509:Philosophy of technology 7571:Intertheoretic reduction 7560:Ignoramus et ignorabimus 7537:Functional contextualism 6930:Positivism and Sociology 6811:Philosophy of Psychiatry 6663:Biology & Philosophy 6149:Dennett, Daniel (1995). 5833:Harvard University Press 5782:Power, Jason L. (2015). 5549:"Simple Random Sampling" 4840:Aristotle, Volume 1 4281:Clarendon Press; (2017) 4177:"Scientific Explanation" 3564:Objectivity (philosophy) 3482:Philosophy of technology 3476:Philosophy of technology 3466:instrumental rationality 3336:The French philosopher, 3210:Philosophy of psychology 3204:Philosophy of psychology 3180:Philosophy of psychiatry 3174:Philosophy of psychiatry 2751:Philosophy of statistics 2745:Philosophy of statistics 2296:W. R. Lavender 2236:of human understanding." 1678:, and values concerning 1589:scientific anti-realists 868:Research and development 11460:international relations 9829:Postanalytic philosophy 9770:Experimental philosophy 8056:Philosophers of science 7834:Scientific essentialism 7783:Model-dependent realism 7718:Constructive empiricism 7611:Evidence-based practice 7372:"Philosophy of science" 7242:Papineau, David (2005) 7017:Gauch, Hugh G. (2002). 6645:British Medical Journal 6078:Levine, George (2008). 5607:Sandra Harding (1976). 5286:Priddy, Robert (1998). 5215:(Cambridge U P, 1999), 4918:Encyclopædia Britannica 4793:Longino, Helen (2013). 4335:Levin, Michael (1984). 4140:Salmon, Wesley (1971). 3599:Encyclopædia Britannica 3554:Metaphysical naturalism 3352:dealt chiefly with the 3270:artificial intelligence 3156:evidence-based medicine 2975:astrophysical phenomena 2965:Philosophy of astronomy 2933:Philosophy of chemistry 2927:Philosophy of chemistry 2732:Darwin's Dangerous Idea 2634:Truth and Justification 2549:The Genealogy of Morals 2012:rational reconstruction 1871:Critique of Pure Reason 1796:(no direct relation to 1634:eliminative materialism 1353:Potter Stewart standard 18:Philosophies of science 11787:Quantum social science 10582:Sociology of knowledge 9962:Social constructionism 8974:Hellenistic philosophy 8390:Theoretical philosophy 8365:Philosophy of religion 8355:Philosophy of language 8139:Alfred North Whitehead 8129:Charles Sanders Peirce 7197:Gutting, Gary (2004), 6752:Cartwright, N (2009). 6050:"The Unity of Science" 5958:Gutting, Gary (2004), 5859:After the Science Wars 4971:. plato.stanford.edu. 4844:Loeb Classical Library 4479:Boyd, Richard (1984). 4442:Smart, J.J.C. (1968). 4371:Boyd, Richard (2002). 4208:Vickers, John (2013). 4022:, second edition 1989. 3932:The Cosmic Perspective 3885:. 2008. Archived from 3773:Uebel, Thomas (2006). 3706:. 2008. Archived from 3356:already in existence ( 3262:cognitive neuroscience 3222: 3131: 3115:Philosophy of medicine 3109:Philosophy of medicine 3034: 2738: 2649: 2591:, 1956–1960), and the 2538:Continental philosophy 2497: 2378: 2299: 2099: 2045:had sought to replace 1980:cognitively meaningful 1948:philosophy of language 1816:—Bacon outlined a new 1790: 1782: 1781:, South Square, London 1682:influenced debates on 1665: 1561:The purpose of science 1521: 1447: 1399:Scientific explanation 1393:Scientific explanation 1358:Early attempts by the 1340:historical materialism 1323: 1315: 1277:philosophy of medicine 1242:continental philosophy 1169:scientific methodology 1061:, and implications of 775:Extrascientific fields 494:Aesthetic philosophers 11931:Philosophy of science 11824:Other categorizations 11677:International studies 11662:History of technology 11597:Communication studies 11480:public administration 11149:Transition management 11139:Technology assessment 11107:Regulation of science 11082:Evidence-based policy 10967:Sociotechnical system 10816:Traditional knowledge 10696:Psychology of science 10669:Mapping controversies 10575:shaping of technology 10534:Social constructivism 10499:Philosophy of science 10456:History of technology 10345:Philosophy portal 9864:Scientific skepticism 9844:Reformed epistemology 8370:Philosophy of science 8238:Philosophy portal 7989:Hard and soft science 7984:Faith and rationality 7853:Scientific skepticism 7633:Scientific Revolution 7416:Philosophy of science 7362:Philosophy of science 7353:Philosophy of science 7329:Philosophy of science 7268:Popper, Karl, (1963) 7191:Bayesian Epistemology 7125:. London: E.J. Brill. 7056:10.2475/ajs.263.3.223 6761:Philosophical Studies 6467:Philosophy of Science 6444:10.1093/bjps/45.2.437 6198:(Summer 2010 Edition) 5862:. London: Routledge. 5791:World Scientific News 5757:"Foucault's Elephant" 5645:Popper, Karl (2005). 5317:Boldman, Lee (2007). 4883:Clegg, Brian (2004). 4655:Philosophy of Science 4544:Philosophy of Science 4072:Philosophy of Science 3868:Philosophia Naturalis 3390:'. These are (1) the 3319:cultural anthropology 3217: 3122: 3079:deoxyribonucleic acid 3020: 3013:Philosophy of biology 3007:Philosophy of biology 2905:statistical mechanics 2903:, the foundations of 2863:Philosophy of physics 2857:Philosophy of physics 2722: 2702:The Mismeasure of Man 2696:Social accountability 2650:Die Einheit der Natur 2488: 2374: 2290: 2133:revolutionary science 2098:was a paradigm shift. 2096:Copernican revolution 2085: 1929:scientific philosophy 1909:theories of knowledge 1802:Scientific Revolution 1788: 1776: 1708:History of philosophy 1659: 1539:four different images 1511: 1445: 1417:deductive-nomological 1321: 1313: 1251:raised by Einstein's 1113:are often considered 1111:scientific misconduct 1051:Philosophy of science 1012:Philosophy portal 944:Science communication 788:Communication studies 75:Philosophy portal 32:Philosophy of Science 11657:Historical sociology 11054:Women in engineering 10900:Financial technology 10880:Digital anthropology 10649:Criticism of science 10562:Actor–network theory 10524:Religion and science 10416:Economics of science 9765:Critical rationalism 9472:Edo neo-Confucianism 9316:Acintya bheda abheda 9295:Renaissance humanism 9006:School of the Sextii 8380:Practical philosophy 8375:Political philosophy 7964:Criticism of science 7839:Scientific formalism 7723:Constructive realism 7628:Scientific pluralism 7601:Problem of induction 7308:Ziman, John (2000). 7292:The Scientific Image 7121:Hooykaas, R (1963). 5092:Bunge, M.A. (1996). 5041:Smith, L.D. (1986). 4754:10.2105/ajph.92.1.14 4595:The Scientific Image 4373:"Scientific Realism" 4238:Baker, Alan (2013). 4037:"Cargo Cult Science" 3539:Criticism of science 3331:structure and agency 2915:, and the nature of 2604:theoretical attitude 2542:Philosophers in the 2386:methodological rules 2376:Paul Karl Feyerabend 2125:logically consistent 2010:via logicism, while 2004:correspondence rules 1990:would be reduced to 1974:. Thereby, only the 1867:problem of induction 1438:Problem of induction 1226:knowledge is created 1210:uniformity of nature 1099:empirical discipline 901:Scientific integrity 883:Vocational education 818:Knowledge management 708:Behavioural sciences 519:Philosophers of mind 11951:Philosophy by topic 11941:Analytic philosophy 11837:Geisteswissenschaft 11831:Behavioral sciences 11757:Political sociology 11672:Information science 11617:Development studies 10895:Engineering studies 10865:Cyborg anthropology 10654:Demarcation problem 10539:Social epistemology 9336:Nimbarka Sampradaya 9247:Korean Confucianism 8994:Academic Skepticism 8031:Rhetoric of science 7969:Descriptive science 7713:Confirmation holism 7606:Scientific evidence 7566:Inductive reasoning 7495:Demarcation problem 7048:1965AmJS..263..223G 6719:Preventive Medicine 6532:10.1093/bjps/axm024 6375:on October 11, 2008 6280:"Quantum Mechanics" 6048:Cat, Jordi (2013). 5514:, pp. 223–228. 4305:Bogen, Jim (2013). 3464:has critiqued pure 3388:law of three stages 3285:Patricia Churchland 3103:Peter Godfrey-Smith 3083:genetic engineering 2955:reaction mechanisms 2688:greedy reductionism 2654:Wolfgang Stegmüller 2642:The Unity of Nature 2621:The Order of Things 2554:Friedrich Nietzsche 2446:, he used the term 2361:naïve falsification 2318:celestial mechanics 2312:of telescopes, the 2145:scientific progress 2072:analytic philosophy 2028:empirical operation 2000:observational terms 1978:was scientific and 1944:Ludwig Wittgenstein 1835:Discourse on Method 1745:(known in Latin as 1585:scientific theories 1581:Scientific realists 1475:abductive reasoning 1453:inductive reasoning 1360:logical positivists 1306:Demarcation problem 1183:scientific progress 529:Women in philosophy 259:Indigenous American 42:Part of a series on 11892:Society portal 11379:auxiliary sciences 11175:History of science 11092:Funding of science 10962:Skunkworks project 10659:Double hermeneutic 10444:History of science 9957:Post-structuralism 9859:Scientific realism 9814:Quinean naturalism 9794:Logical positivism 9750:Analytical Marxism 8969:Peripatetic school 8881:Chinese naturalism 8408:Aesthetic response 8335:Applied philosophy 8250:Science portal 8179:Carl Gustav Hempel 8134:Wilhelm Windelband 8021:Questionable cause 7844:Scientific realism 7665:Underdetermination 7500:Empirical evidence 7490:Creative synthesis 7235:Losee, J. (1998), 6816:2019-03-18 at the 6657:Turner, A (2012). 6008:History of Madness 5974:"Martin Heidegger" 5919:(35/36): 106–123. 5731:"Foucault, Michel" 5222:2016-06-28 at the 5189:on January 7, 2014 5023:2015-08-10 at the 5003:2016-06-28 at the 4992:Michael Friedman, 4949:on 24 October 2015 4485:Scientific Realism 4341:Scientific Realism 4288:2018-02-20 at the 4277:2018-02-27 at the 3250:philosophy of mind 3223: 3194:philosophy of mind 3132: 3123:A fragment of the 3035: 3025:for his 2009 book 2839:mathematical proof 2777:Bayesian inference 2379: 2325:Duhem–Quine thesis 2300: 2159:Current approaches 2147:across paradigms. 2100: 2090:, the addition of 2067:covering law model 2059:logical empiricism 1925:empirical sciences 1895:Logical positivism 1889:Logical positivism 1877:. In 19th century 1791: 1783: 1704:History of science 1666: 1648:Values and science 1605:history of science 1567:Scientific realism 1522: 1518:general relativity 1448: 1432:Justifying science 1387:cargo cult science 1324: 1316: 1253:general relativity 1192:Subsequently, the 1161:logical positivist 997:Science portal 222:Eastern philosophy 11918: 11917: 11912: 11911: 11752:Political economy 11747:Political ecology 11602:Community studies 11592:Cognitive science 11555:Interdisciplinary 11455:Political science 11217: 11216: 11144:Technology policy 10875:Dematerialization 10684:black swan events 10366: 10365: 10328: 10327: 10324: 10323: 10320: 10319: 10026: 10025: 10022: 10021: 10018: 10017: 9745:Analytic feminism 9717: 9716: 9679:Kierkegaardianism 9641:Transcendentalism 9601:Neo-scholasticism 9447:Classical Realism 9424: 9423: 9196: 9195: 9011:Neopythagoreanism 8768: 8767: 8764: 8763: 8385:Social philosophy 8257: 8256: 8099: 8098: 8011:Normative science 7868:Uniformitarianism 7623:Scientific method 7517:Explanatory power 7324:Library resources 7301:978-0-19-824424-0 7288:van Fraassen, Bas 7261:978-0-13-663345-7 7228:978-0-226-45804-5 7164:978-0-684-83639-3 7132:Fabric of geology 7113:978-0-19-511229-0 7096:You first assume. 7091:978-0-674-89199-9 6975:978-0-7456-4328-1 6889:978-0-521-44780-5 6609:(8927): 925–926. 6162:978-1-4391-2629-5 6091:978-0-691-13639-4 5869:978-0-415-21209-0 5842:978-0-674-32351-3 5709:978-0-226-45808-3 5702:. . p. 176. 5672:"Paul Feyerabend" 5656:978-0-203-99462-7 5620:978-90-277-0630-0 5111:978-0-300-06606-7 5060:978-0-8047-1301-6 4937:McMullin, Ernan. 4914:(The New Organon) 4869:978-0-226-48233-0 4604:978-0-19-824424-0 4591:van Fraassen, Bas 4525:978-0-19-517408-3 4498:978-0-520-05155-3 4420:978-0-415-28594-0 4354:978-0-520-05155-3 4126:978-0-13-663345-7 4119:. Prentice-Hall. 3988:978-0-7167-3090-3 3819:978-0-415-27844-7 3759:978-0-226-30442-7 3732:978-90-277-1533-3 3516:Philosophy portal 3266:psycholinguistics 3246:cognitive science 3168:Cartesian dualism 3129:the third century 2947:quantum mechanics 2851:material universe 2480:social scientists 2292:Jeremiah Horrocks 2245:Stephen Jay Gould 2113:In the 1962 book 2061:, led largely by 2016:ordinary language 1996:theoretical terms 1630:Daniel C. Dennett 1410:explanatory power 1385:coined the term " 1218:scientific method 1202:Stephen Jay Gould 1150:philosophy itself 1053:is the branch of 1046: 1045: 959:Scientific method 949:Science education 890: 889: 873:Strategic studies 665:Scientific fields 567: 566: 375: 374: 16:(Redirected from 11963: 11900: 11890: 11889: 11876: 11875: 11864: 11863: 11767:Regional science 11612:Cultural studies 11587:Business studies 11244: 11237: 11230: 11221: 11220: 11190: 11189: 11165: 11117:Right to science 11097:Horizon scanning 11072:Academic freedom 10972:Technical change 10833:Women in science 10828:Unity of science 10609:Strong programme 10393: 10386: 10379: 10370: 10369: 10355: 10354: 10343: 10342: 10341: 10058: 10057: 10049: 10048: 10032: 10031: 9922:Frankfurt School 9869:Transactionalism 9819:Normative ethics 9799:Legal positivism 9775:Falsificationism 9760:Consequentialism 9755:Communitarianism 9728: 9727: 9596:New Confucianism 9435: 9434: 9242:Neo-Confucianism 9207: 9206: 9016:Second Sophistic 9001:Middle Platonism 8844: 8843: 8785: 8784: 8774: 8773: 8617:Epiphenomenalism 8484:Consequentialism 8418:Institutionalism 8323: 8322: 8312: 8311: 8297: 8290: 8283: 8274: 8273: 8261: 8260: 8248: 8247: 8236: 8235: 8234: 8209:Bas van Fraassen 8164:Hans Reichenbach 8144:Bertrand Russell 8061: 8060: 7887:Philosophy of... 7670:Unity of science 7463:Commensurability 7409: 7402: 7395: 7386: 7385: 7381: 7305: 7265: 7232: 7176: 7147: 7145: 7135: 7126: 7117: 7098: 7079: 7068: 7059: 7026: 7013: 7004: 6978: 6963: 6957: 6950: 6944: 6943: 6925: 6919: 6918: 6916: 6915: 6900: 6894: 6893: 6872: 6866: 6865: 6863: 6862: 6856: 6845: 6836: 6827: 6807: 6801: 6800: 6798: 6797: 6791: 6776: 6758: 6749: 6743: 6742: 6725:(4–5): 235–238. 6714: 6708: 6707: 6705: 6704: 6686: 6654: 6648: 6641: 6635: 6634: 6598: 6592: 6591: 6563: 6557: 6550: 6544: 6543: 6525: 6505: 6499: 6498: 6462: 6456: 6455: 6427: 6421: 6410: 6404: 6401: 6395: 6392: 6386: 6384: 6382: 6380: 6371:. 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Rejecting the 2432:social construct 2305:transit of Venus 2187: 2168:This section is 2074:, and dominated 2024:logical calculus 1988:Theoretical laws 1952:Bertrand Russell 1883:John Stuart Mill 1597:Instrumentalists 1497:Nicholas Maxwell 1336:creation science 1300:Defining science 1038: 1031: 1024: 1010: 1009: 1008: 995: 994: 954:Research funding 823:Language studies 755:Applied sciences 691:Natural sciences 661: 660: 589: 569: 568: 559: 552: 545: 264:Aztec philosophy 143:Ancient Egyptian 125: 124: 77: 73: 72: 71: 58: 39: 38: 21: 11971: 11970: 11966: 11965: 11964: 11962: 11961: 11960: 11956:Science studies 11921: 11920: 11919: 11914: 11913: 11908: 11884: 11852: 11819: 11803: 11777:Science studies 11561:Administration 11550: 11276: 11253: 11251:Social sciences 11248: 11218: 11213: 11153: 11112:Research ethics 11058: 10957:Reverse salient 10851: 10844: 10620: 10613: 10604:Sociotechnology 10548: 10460: 10425: 10402: 10397: 10367: 10362: 10339: 10337: 10316: 10280: 10180: 10142: 10089: 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2753: 2747: 2737: 2728: 2721: 2704: 2698: 2671: 2666: 2630:Jürgen Habermas 2616:Michel Foucault 2612:Alexandre Koyré 2540: 2493:cultural posits 2438:Michel Foucault 2427: 2421: 2382:Paul Feyerabend 2369: 2285: 2279: 2270: 2242: 2234: 2227: 2215: 2195:suppositions." 2188: 2177: 2166: 2161: 2111: 2105: 1956:logical atomism 1905:verificationism 1900:Instrumentalism 1897: 1891: 1818:system of logic 1771: 1715: 1710: 1696: 1650: 1622: 1573: 1571:Instrumentalism 1563: 1527:Albert Einstein 1506: 1440: 1434: 1401: 1395: 1383:Richard Feynman 1308: 1302: 1297: 1281:social sciences 1214:Paul Feyerabend 1119:science studies 1042: 1006: 1004: 989: 984: 983: 939: 938: 929: 928: 924:Research ethics 919:Logical fallacy 909:Reproducibility 904: 903: 892: 891: 728:Anthropological 674:Formal sciences 658: 657: 637: 613:Article indexes 594: 593: 592: 591: 590: 563: 534: 533: 499:Epistemologists 489: 488: 477: 476: 413: 389: 388: 377: 376: 122: 121: 110: 69: 67: 66: 37: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11969: 11959: 11958: 11953: 11948: 11943: 11938: 11933: 11916: 11915: 11910: 11909: 11907: 11906: 11894: 11882: 11870: 11857: 11854: 11853: 11851: 11850: 11845: 11840: 11833: 11827: 11825: 11821: 11820: 11818: 11817: 11811: 11809: 11805: 11804: 11802: 11801: 11796: 11791: 11790: 11789: 11784: 11774: 11769: 11764: 11759: 11754: 11749: 11744: 11743: 11742: 11737: 11732: 11724: 11723: 11722: 11720:social science 11717: 11712: 11707: 11702: 11694: 11689: 11684: 11679: 11674: 11669: 11664: 11659: 11654: 11652:Global studies 11649: 11647:Gender studies 11644: 11639: 11638: 11637: 11632: 11630:social science 11626:Environmental 11624: 11619: 11614: 11609: 11604: 11599: 11594: 11589: 11584: 11579: 11574: 11573: 11572: 11567: 11558: 11556: 11552: 11551: 11549: 11548: 11547: 11546: 11541: 11536: 11531: 11526: 11516: 11515: 11514: 11509: 11504: 11499: 11494: 11484: 11483: 11482: 11477: 11472: 11467: 11462: 11452: 11451: 11450: 11440: 11439: 11438: 11433: 11428: 11423: 11418: 11408: 11407: 11406: 11401: 11396: 11391: 11386: 11381: 11376: 11366: 11365: 11364: 11359: 11354: 11349: 11339: 11338: 11337: 11332: 11327: 11325:macroeconomics 11322: 11320:microeconomics 11312: 11311: 11310: 11305: 11300: 11295: 11284: 11282: 11278: 11277: 11275: 11274: 11269: 11264: 11258: 11255: 11254: 11247: 11246: 11239: 11232: 11224: 11215: 11214: 11212: 11211: 11210: 11209: 11204: 11199: 11184: 11183: 11182: 11177: 11172: 11158: 11155: 11154: 11152: 11151: 11146: 11141: 11136: 11135: 11134: 11129: 11122:Science policy 11119: 11114: 11109: 11104: 11099: 11094: 11089: 11084: 11079: 11077:Digital divide 11074: 11068: 11066: 11060: 11059: 11057: 11056: 11051: 11050: 11049: 11044: 11039: 11034: 11029: 11021: 11020: 11019: 11014: 11009: 11004: 10999: 10993:Technological 10991: 10990: 10989: 10979: 10974: 10969: 10964: 10959: 10954: 10949: 10944: 10939: 10938: 10937: 10932: 10927: 10922: 10917: 10907: 10902: 10897: 10892: 10887: 10882: 10877: 10872: 10870:Design studies 10867: 10862: 10856: 10854: 10846: 10845: 10843: 10842: 10841: 10840: 10830: 10825: 10824: 10823: 10813: 10808: 10806:Scientometrics 10803: 10798: 10797: 10796: 10791: 10786: 10781: 10776: 10771: 10766: 10761: 10756: 10751: 10743: 10742: 10741: 10736: 10731: 10726: 10721: 10716: 10711: 10706: 10698: 10693: 10688: 10687: 10686: 10679:Paradigm shift 10676: 10671: 10666: 10661: 10656: 10651: 10646: 10641: 10636: 10631: 10625: 10623: 10615: 10614: 10612: 10611: 10606: 10601: 10596: 10591: 10590: 10589: 10579: 10578: 10577: 10572: 10564: 10558: 10556: 10550: 10549: 10547: 10546: 10541: 10536: 10531: 10526: 10521: 10519:Postpositivism 10516: 10511: 10506: 10501: 10496: 10491: 10486: 10481: 10479:Antipositivism 10476: 10470: 10468: 10462: 10461: 10459: 10458: 10453: 10452: 10451: 10449:and technology 10441: 10435: 10433: 10427: 10426: 10424: 10423: 10418: 10412: 10410: 10404: 10403: 10396: 10395: 10388: 10381: 10373: 10364: 10363: 10361: 10360: 10348: 10333: 10330: 10329: 10326: 10325: 10322: 10321: 10318: 10317: 10315: 10314: 10309: 10304: 10299: 10294: 10288: 10286: 10282: 10281: 10279: 10278: 10273: 10268: 10263: 10258: 10253: 10248: 10243: 10238: 10233: 10228: 10223: 10218: 10213: 10212: 10211: 10201: 10196: 10190: 10188: 10182: 10181: 10179: 10178: 10173: 10168: 10163: 10158: 10152: 10150: 10148:Middle Eastern 10144: 10143: 10141: 10140: 10135: 10130: 10125: 10120: 10115: 10110: 10105: 10099: 10097: 10091: 10090: 10088: 10087: 10082: 10077: 10072: 10066: 10064: 10055: 10045: 10044: 10041: 10040: 10036: 10028: 10027: 10024: 10023: 10020: 10019: 10016: 10015: 10013: 10012: 10005: 10000: 9995: 9990: 9984: 9982: 9978: 9977: 9975: 9974: 9969: 9964: 9959: 9954: 9949: 9944: 9939: 9934: 9929: 9924: 9919: 9914: 9912:Existentialism 9909: 9907:Deconstruction 9904: 9898: 9896: 9890: 9889: 9887: 9886: 9881: 9876: 9871: 9866: 9861: 9856: 9851: 9846: 9841: 9836: 9831: 9826: 9821: 9816: 9811: 9806: 9801: 9796: 9791: 9786: 9777: 9772: 9767: 9762: 9757: 9752: 9747: 9742: 9740:Applied ethics 9736: 9734: 9725: 9719: 9718: 9715: 9714: 9712: 9711: 9706: 9704:Nietzscheanism 9701: 9696: 9691: 9686: 9681: 9676: 9675: 9674: 9664: 9658: 9656: 9652: 9651: 9649: 9648: 9646:Utilitarianism 9643: 9638: 9633: 9628: 9623: 9618: 9613: 9608: 9603: 9598: 9593: 9588: 9583: 9578: 9573: 9568: 9563: 9558: 9553: 9548: 9547: 9546: 9544:Transcendental 9541: 9536: 9531: 9526: 9521: 9511: 9510: 9509: 9499: 9494: 9489: 9484: 9482:Existentialism 9479: 9474: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9454: 9449: 9444: 9438: 9432: 9426: 9425: 9422: 9421: 9419: 9418: 9412: 9410: 9404: 9403: 9401: 9400: 9395: 9388: 9383: 9378: 9373: 9367: 9365: 9359: 9358: 9356: 9355: 9350: 9349: 9348: 9343: 9338: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9318: 9307: 9305: 9301: 9300: 9298: 9297: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9270:Augustinianism 9267: 9261: 9259: 9253: 9252: 9250: 9249: 9244: 9239: 9234: 9229: 9224: 9219: 9213: 9211: 9204: 9198: 9197: 9194: 9193: 9191: 9190: 9185: 9183:Zoroastrianism 9180: 9175: 9169: 9167: 9161: 9160: 9158: 9157: 9156: 9155: 9150: 9145: 9140: 9135: 9130: 9125: 9120: 9115: 9105: 9104: 9103: 9098: 9088: 9087: 9086: 9081: 9076: 9071: 9066: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9040: 9038: 9032: 9031: 9029: 9028: 9026:Church Fathers 9023: 9018: 9013: 9008: 9003: 8998: 8997: 8996: 8991: 8986: 8981: 8971: 8966: 8961: 8956: 8951: 8946: 8941: 8940: 8939: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8908: 8906: 8897: 8896: 8894: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8852: 8850: 8841: 8835: 8834: 8832: 8831: 8830: 8829: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8809: 8799: 8793: 8791: 8781: 8780: 8770: 8769: 8766: 8765: 8762: 8761: 8759: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8717: 8715: 8709: 8708: 8706: 8705: 8700: 8695: 8689: 8687: 8681: 8680: 8678: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8646: 8644: 8638: 8637: 8635: 8634: 8629: 8624: 8619: 8614: 8609: 8604: 8598: 8596: 8590: 8589: 8587: 8586: 8581: 8576: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8555: 8553: 8547: 8546: 8544: 8543: 8541:Libertarianism 8538: 8537: 8536: 8526: 8525: 8524: 8514: 8508: 8506: 8500: 8499: 8497: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8480: 8478: 8472: 8471: 8469: 8468: 8463: 8458: 8453: 8448: 8443: 8438: 8432: 8430: 8424: 8423: 8421: 8420: 8415: 8410: 8404: 8402: 8396: 8395: 8393: 8392: 8387: 8382: 8377: 8372: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8352: 8347: 8345:Metaphilosophy 8342: 8337: 8331: 8329: 8319: 8318: 8308: 8307: 8300: 8299: 8292: 8285: 8277: 8271: 8268: 8267: 8255: 8254: 8252: 8240: 8228: 8223: 8220: 8219: 8217: 8216: 8211: 8206: 8201: 8196: 8191: 8186: 8184:W. V. O. Quine 8181: 8176: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8141: 8136: 8131: 8126: 8121: 8119:Rudolf Steiner 8116: 8111: 8109:Henri Poincaré 8106: 8100: 8097: 8096: 8094: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8067: 8065: 8058: 8052: 8051: 8049: 8048: 8043: 8038: 8033: 8028: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8007: 8006: 7996: 7991: 7986: 7981: 7979:Exact sciences 7976: 7971: 7966: 7960: 7958: 7957:Related topics 7954: 7953: 7951: 7950: 7949: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7923: 7916:Social science 7913: 7912: 7911: 7909:Space and time 7901: 7896: 7890: 7888: 7884: 7883: 7881: 7880: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7860: 7855: 7850: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7822: 7813: 7808: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7780: 7775: 7770: 7765: 7760: 7755: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7704: 7702: 7698: 7697: 7695: 7694: 7689: 7688: 7687: 7682: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7661: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7640: 7635: 7630: 7625: 7620: 7618:Scientific law 7615: 7614: 7613: 7603: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7583: 7578: 7573: 7568: 7563: 7556: 7555: 7554: 7549: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7527:Falsifiability 7524: 7519: 7514: 7513: 7512: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7486: 7485: 7475: 7470: 7465: 7460: 7459: 7458: 7456:Mill's Methods 7448: 7437: 7432: 7426: 7424: 7420: 7419: 7412: 7411: 7404: 7397: 7389: 7383: 7382: 7368: 7359: 7346: 7345: 7340: 7334: 7333: 7322: 7321: 7319: 7318:External links 7316: 7314: 7313: 7306: 7300: 7284: 7266: 7260: 7247: 7240: 7233: 7227: 7209: 7202: 7195: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7177: 7163: 7148: 7136: 7127: 7118: 7112: 7099: 7090: 7069: 7060: 7042:(3): 223–228. 7027: 7014: 7005: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6979: 6958: 6945: 6939:978-0435823405 6938: 6920: 6895: 6888: 6876:Hollis, Martin 6867: 6828: 6802: 6744: 6709: 6669:(3): 419–432. 6649: 6636: 6593: 6574:(2): 157–167. 6558: 6545: 6516:(3): 451–488. 6500: 6479:10.1086/341855 6457: 6438:(2): 437–450. 6422: 6405: 6396: 6387: 6355: 6330: 6300: 6270: 6245: 6215: 6168: 6161: 6141: 6127: 6104: 6090: 6070: 6040: 6021: 5994: 5964: 5951: 5895: 5886: 5868: 5848: 5841: 5815: 5774: 5763:. No. 127 5761:Philosophy Now 5747: 5722: 5708: 5687: 5662: 5655: 5637: 5619: 5599: 5569: 5540: 5528: 5516: 5504: 5492: 5480: 5468: 5453: 5437:"Objectiveism" 5427: 5405: 5388: 5363: 5361:, p. vii. 5344: 5327: 5309: 5307:, p. 135. 5305:Whitehead 1997 5297: 5278: 5258: 5228: 5204: 5174: 5168:existentialism 5160:neo-Kantianism 5110: 5084: 5059: 5033: 5009: 4985: 4960: 4943:paricenter.com 4926: 4922:Bacon, Francis 4908:Bacon, Francis 4900: 4894:978-0786713585 4893: 4875: 4868: 4848: 4824: 4815: 4785: 4728: 4716: 4707: 4698: 4689: 4680: 4667:10.1086/392775 4661:(2): 266–284. 4645: 4610: 4603: 4579: 4566:10.1086/288975 4531: 4524: 4506: 4504: 4503: 4497: 4476: 4468:Putnam, Hilary 4464: 4456:Putnam, Hilary 4452: 4439: 4419: 4393: 4360: 4353: 4327: 4294: 4260: 4230: 4197: 4161: 4154: 4132: 4125: 4107: 4094:10.1086/286983 4078:(2): 135–175. 4059: 4024: 4009: 3987: 3960: 3947: 3940: 3922: 3915: 3897: 3889:on 2015-09-05. 3876:, as cited in 3858: 3839: 3818: 3795: 3765: 3758: 3738: 3731: 3713: 3710:on 2015-09-05. 3691: 3661: 3646: 3632:Against Method 3612: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3577: 3576: 3574:Science policy 3571: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3535: 3534: 3533: 3530:Science portal 3519: 3503: 3500: 3480:Main article: 3477: 3474: 3398:, and (3) the 3378:social science 3303:Main article: 3300: 3297: 3208:Main article: 3205: 3202: 3190:mental illness 3178:Main article: 3175: 3172: 3136:medical ethics 3113:Main article: 3110: 3107: 3049:issues in the 3011:Main article: 3008: 3005: 2988: 2985: 2966: 2963: 2959:chemical bonds 2931:Main article: 2928: 2925: 2885:space and time 2861:Main article: 2858: 2855: 2799:Main article: 2796: 2793: 2749:Main article: 2746: 2743: 2726: 2720: 2717: 2708:Philip Kitcher 2697: 2694: 2683:Daniel Dennett 2670: 2667: 2665: 2662: 2660:, 1973–1986). 2581:Edmund Husserl 2539: 2536: 2524:Anselm Strauss 2448:human sciences 2423:Main article: 2420: 2417: 2368: 2365: 2281:Main article: 2278: 2275: 2274: 2273: 2265: 2260: 2254: 2237: 2229: 2221: 2165: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2137:paradigm shift 2129:normal science 2107:Main article: 2104: 2101: 2020:logical syntax 2014:would convert 2008:symbolic logic 1992:empirical laws 1972:operationalism 1968:Percy Bridgman 1911:that combines 1893:Main article: 1890: 1887: 1830:René Descartes 1804:. In his work 1770: 1767: 1743:Ibn al-Haytham 1714: 1711: 1695: 1692: 1662:paradigm shift 1649: 1646: 1624:The notion of 1621: 1618: 1562: 1559: 1535:Einstein cross 1514:Einstein cross 1505: 1502: 1479:Ockham's razor 1436:Main article: 1433: 1430: 1421:scientific law 1397:Main article: 1394: 1391: 1375:fringe science 1364:falsifiability 1349:Martin Gardner 1332:psychoanalysis 1304:Main article: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1044: 1043: 1041: 1040: 1033: 1026: 1018: 1015: 1014: 986: 985: 982: 981: 976: 971: 966: 964:Science policy 961: 956: 951: 946: 940: 936: 935: 934: 931: 930: 927: 926: 921: 916: 914:Cognitive bias 911: 905: 899: 898: 897: 894: 893: 888: 887: 886: 885: 880: 875: 870: 865: 860: 855: 850: 845: 840: 835: 830: 825: 820: 815: 810: 805: 800: 795: 790: 785: 777: 776: 772: 771: 770: 769: 768: 767: 762: 752: 751: 750: 745: 740: 738:Criminological 735: 730: 725: 720: 715: 705: 704: 703: 698: 688: 687: 686: 681: 668: 667: 659: 644: 643: 642: 639: 638: 636: 635: 630: 625: 620: 615: 610: 605: 599: 596: 595: 584: 583: 582: 581: 580: 577: 576: 565: 564: 562: 561: 554: 547: 539: 536: 535: 532: 531: 526: 521: 516: 514:Metaphysicians 511: 506: 501: 496: 490: 484: 483: 482: 479: 478: 475: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 442:Metaphilosophy 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 412: 411: 406: 401: 396: 390: 384: 383: 382: 379: 378: 373: 372: 371: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 340: 335: 327: 326: 320: 319: 318: 317: 316: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 280: 279: 278: 268: 267: 266: 256: 255: 254: 249: 244: 239: 234: 229: 219: 218: 217: 212: 207: 194: 193: 187: 186: 185: 184: 183: 182: 177: 167: 162: 157: 152: 151: 150: 145: 132: 131: 123: 117: 116: 115: 112: 111: 109: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 63: 60: 59: 51: 50: 44: 43: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11968: 11957: 11954: 11952: 11949: 11947: 11944: 11942: 11939: 11937: 11934: 11932: 11929: 11928: 11926: 11905: 11904: 11899: 11895: 11893: 11888: 11883: 11881: 11880: 11871: 11869: 11868: 11859: 11858: 11855: 11849: 11846: 11844: 11843:Human science 11841: 11839: 11838: 11834: 11832: 11829: 11828: 11826: 11822: 11816: 11813: 11812: 11810: 11806: 11800: 11799:Vegan studies 11797: 11795: 11792: 11788: 11785: 11783: 11780: 11779: 11778: 11775: 11773: 11770: 11768: 11765: 11763: 11762:Public health 11760: 11758: 11755: 11753: 11750: 11748: 11745: 11741: 11738: 11736: 11733: 11731: 11728: 11727: 11725: 11721: 11718: 11716: 11713: 11711: 11708: 11706: 11703: 11701: 11698: 11697: 11696:Philosophies 11695: 11693: 11692:Media studies 11690: 11688: 11685: 11683: 11680: 11678: 11675: 11673: 11670: 11668: 11667:Human ecology 11665: 11663: 11660: 11658: 11655: 11653: 11650: 11648: 11645: 11643: 11640: 11636: 11633: 11631: 11628: 11627: 11625: 11623: 11620: 11618: 11615: 11613: 11610: 11608: 11605: 11603: 11600: 11598: 11595: 11593: 11590: 11588: 11585: 11583: 11580: 11578: 11577:Anthrozoology 11575: 11571: 11568: 11566: 11563: 11562: 11560: 11559: 11557: 11553: 11545: 11542: 11540: 11537: 11535: 11532: 11530: 11527: 11525: 11522: 11521: 11520: 11517: 11513: 11510: 11508: 11505: 11503: 11502:developmental 11500: 11498: 11495: 11493: 11490: 11489: 11488: 11485: 11481: 11478: 11476: 11475:public policy 11473: 11471: 11468: 11466: 11463: 11461: 11458: 11457: 11456: 11453: 11449: 11446: 11445: 11444: 11441: 11437: 11434: 11432: 11429: 11427: 11426:legal systems 11424: 11422: 11421:legal history 11419: 11417: 11416:jurisprudence 11414: 11413: 11412: 11409: 11405: 11402: 11400: 11397: 11395: 11392: 11390: 11387: 11385: 11382: 11380: 11377: 11375: 11372: 11371: 11370: 11367: 11363: 11360: 11358: 11355: 11353: 11350: 11348: 11345: 11344: 11343: 11340: 11336: 11333: 11331: 11328: 11326: 11323: 11321: 11318: 11317: 11316: 11313: 11309: 11306: 11304: 11301: 11299: 11296: 11294: 11291: 11290: 11289: 11286: 11285: 11283: 11279: 11273: 11270: 11268: 11265: 11263: 11260: 11259: 11256: 11252: 11245: 11240: 11238: 11233: 11231: 11226: 11225: 11222: 11208: 11205: 11203: 11200: 11198: 11195: 11194: 11193: 11185: 11181: 11178: 11176: 11173: 11171: 11168: 11167: 11164: 11160: 11159: 11156: 11150: 11147: 11145: 11142: 11140: 11137: 11133: 11130: 11128: 11125: 11124: 11123: 11120: 11118: 11115: 11113: 11110: 11108: 11105: 11103: 11100: 11098: 11095: 11093: 11090: 11088: 11085: 11083: 11080: 11078: 11075: 11073: 11070: 11069: 11067: 11065: 11061: 11055: 11052: 11048: 11045: 11043: 11040: 11038: 11035: 11033: 11030: 11028: 11025: 11024: 11022: 11018: 11015: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11003: 11000: 10998: 10995: 10994: 10992: 10988: 10985: 10984: 10983: 10982:Technoscience 10980: 10978: 10975: 10973: 10970: 10968: 10965: 10963: 10960: 10958: 10955: 10953: 10952:Media studies 10950: 10948: 10945: 10943: 10940: 10936: 10933: 10931: 10928: 10926: 10923: 10921: 10918: 10916: 10913: 10912: 10911: 10908: 10906: 10903: 10901: 10898: 10896: 10893: 10891: 10890:Early adopter 10888: 10886: 10883: 10881: 10878: 10876: 10873: 10871: 10868: 10866: 10863: 10861: 10860:Co-production 10858: 10857: 10855: 10853: 10847: 10839: 10836: 10835: 10834: 10831: 10829: 10826: 10822: 10819: 10818: 10817: 10814: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10804: 10802: 10799: 10795: 10792: 10790: 10787: 10785: 10782: 10780: 10777: 10775: 10772: 10770: 10767: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10755: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10746: 10744: 10740: 10737: 10735: 10732: 10730: 10727: 10725: 10722: 10720: 10717: 10715: 10712: 10710: 10709:communication 10707: 10705: 10702: 10701: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10691:Pseudoscience 10689: 10685: 10682: 10681: 10680: 10677: 10675: 10672: 10670: 10667: 10665: 10662: 10660: 10657: 10655: 10652: 10650: 10647: 10645: 10642: 10640: 10639:Boundary-work 10637: 10635: 10634:Bibliometrics 10632: 10630: 10627: 10626: 10624: 10622: 10616: 10610: 10607: 10605: 10602: 10600: 10597: 10595: 10592: 10588: 10585: 10584: 10583: 10580: 10576: 10573: 10571: 10568: 10567: 10565: 10563: 10560: 10559: 10557: 10555: 10551: 10545: 10544:Transhumanism 10542: 10540: 10537: 10535: 10532: 10530: 10527: 10525: 10522: 10520: 10517: 10515: 10512: 10510: 10507: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10497: 10495: 10492: 10490: 10487: 10485: 10482: 10480: 10477: 10475: 10472: 10471: 10469: 10467: 10463: 10457: 10454: 10450: 10447: 10446: 10445: 10442: 10440: 10437: 10436: 10434: 10432: 10428: 10422: 10419: 10417: 10414: 10413: 10411: 10409: 10405: 10401: 10394: 10389: 10387: 10382: 10380: 10375: 10374: 10371: 10359: 10358: 10349: 10347: 10346: 10335: 10334: 10331: 10313: 10310: 10308: 10305: 10303: 10300: 10298: 10295: 10293: 10290: 10289: 10287: 10285:Miscellaneous 10283: 10277: 10274: 10272: 10269: 10267: 10264: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10254: 10252: 10249: 10247: 10244: 10242: 10239: 10237: 10234: 10232: 10229: 10227: 10224: 10222: 10219: 10217: 10214: 10210: 10207: 10206: 10205: 10202: 10200: 10197: 10195: 10192: 10191: 10189: 10187: 10183: 10177: 10174: 10172: 10169: 10167: 10164: 10162: 10159: 10157: 10154: 10153: 10151: 10149: 10145: 10139: 10136: 10134: 10131: 10129: 10126: 10124: 10121: 10119: 10116: 10114: 10111: 10109: 10106: 10104: 10101: 10100: 10098: 10096: 10092: 10086: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10073: 10071: 10068: 10067: 10065: 10063: 10059: 10056: 10054: 10050: 10046: 10038: 10037: 10033: 10029: 10011: 10010: 10006: 10004: 10001: 9999: 9996: 9994: 9991: 9989: 9986: 9985: 9983: 9981:Miscellaneous 9979: 9973: 9970: 9968: 9967:Structuralism 9965: 9963: 9960: 9958: 9955: 9953: 9952:Postmodernism 9950: 9948: 9945: 9943: 9942:Phenomenology 9940: 9938: 9935: 9933: 9930: 9928: 9925: 9923: 9920: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9899: 9897: 9895: 9891: 9885: 9882: 9880: 9879:Vienna Circle 9877: 9875: 9872: 9870: 9867: 9865: 9862: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9840: 9837: 9835: 9832: 9830: 9827: 9825: 9822: 9820: 9817: 9815: 9812: 9810: 9809:Moral realism 9807: 9805: 9802: 9800: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9790: 9787: 9785: 9781: 9778: 9776: 9773: 9771: 9768: 9766: 9763: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9738: 9737: 9735: 9733: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9720: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9702: 9700: 9697: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9673: 9670: 9669: 9668: 9665: 9663: 9660: 9659: 9657: 9653: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9637: 9634: 9632: 9629: 9627: 9624: 9622: 9619: 9617: 9614: 9612: 9611:Phenomenology 9609: 9607: 9604: 9602: 9599: 9597: 9594: 9592: 9589: 9587: 9584: 9582: 9579: 9577: 9574: 9572: 9569: 9567: 9564: 9562: 9559: 9557: 9554: 9552: 9551:Individualism 9549: 9545: 9542: 9540: 9537: 9535: 9532: 9530: 9527: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9516: 9515: 9512: 9508: 9505: 9504: 9503: 9500: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9439: 9436: 9433: 9431: 9427: 9417: 9416:Judeo-Islamic 9414: 9413: 9411: 9409: 9405: 9399: 9396: 9394: 9393: 9392:ʿIlm al-Kalām 9389: 9387: 9384: 9382: 9379: 9377: 9374: 9372: 9369: 9368: 9366: 9364: 9360: 9354: 9351: 9347: 9344: 9342: 9341:Shuddhadvaita 9339: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9313: 9312: 9309: 9308: 9306: 9302: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9275:Scholasticism 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9262: 9260: 9258: 9254: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9240: 9238: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9228: 9225: 9223: 9220: 9218: 9215: 9214: 9212: 9208: 9205: 9203: 9199: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9170: 9168: 9166: 9162: 9154: 9151: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9141: 9139: 9136: 9134: 9131: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9110: 9109: 9106: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9093: 9092: 9089: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9046: 9045: 9042: 9041: 9039: 9037: 9033: 9027: 9024: 9022: 9019: 9017: 9014: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9002: 8999: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8976: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8914: 8913: 8910: 8909: 8907: 8905: 8902: 8898: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8853: 8851: 8849: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8836: 8828: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8804: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8794: 8792: 8790: 8786: 8782: 8775: 8771: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8726:Conceptualism 8724: 8722: 8719: 8718: 8716: 8714: 8710: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8690: 8688: 8686: 8682: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8655:Particularism 8653: 8651: 8648: 8647: 8645: 8643: 8639: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8622:Functionalism 8620: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8608: 8607:Eliminativism 8605: 8603: 8600: 8599: 8597: 8595: 8591: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8556: 8554: 8552: 8548: 8542: 8539: 8535: 8532: 8531: 8530: 8527: 8523: 8520: 8519: 8518: 8515: 8513: 8512:Compatibilism 8510: 8509: 8507: 8505: 8501: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8481: 8479: 8477: 8473: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8452: 8451:Particularism 8449: 8447: 8444: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8433: 8431: 8429: 8425: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8406: 8405: 8403: 8401: 8397: 8391: 8388: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8332: 8330: 8328: 8324: 8320: 8313: 8309: 8305: 8298: 8293: 8291: 8286: 8284: 8279: 8278: 8275: 8269: 8262: 8251: 8246: 8241: 8239: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8221: 8215: 8212: 8210: 8207: 8205: 8202: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8180: 8177: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8169:Rudolf Carnap 8167: 8165: 8162: 8160: 8157: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8125: 8122: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8104:Auguste Comte 8102: 8101: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8076:Francis Bacon 8074: 8072: 8069: 8068: 8066: 8062: 8059: 8057: 8053: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8024: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8005: 8004:Pseudoscience 8002: 8001: 8000: 7997: 7995: 7992: 7990: 7987: 7985: 7982: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7972: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7961: 7959: 7955: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7929: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7919: 7918: 7917: 7914: 7910: 7907: 7906: 7905: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7895: 7892: 7891: 7889: 7885: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7863:Structuralism 7861: 7859: 7856: 7854: 7851: 7849: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7826: 7825:Received view 7823: 7821: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7733:Contextualism 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7705: 7703: 7699: 7693: 7690: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7677: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7645: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7634: 7631: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7612: 7609: 7608: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7572: 7569: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7561: 7557: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7544: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7511: 7508: 7507: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7484: 7481: 7480: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7457: 7454: 7453: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7446: 7442: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7428: 7427: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7410: 7405: 7403: 7398: 7396: 7391: 7390: 7387: 7379: 7378: 7373: 7369: 7367: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7354: 7351: 7350: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7335: 7330: 7325: 7311: 7307: 7303: 7297: 7293: 7289: 7285: 7282: 7281:0-415-04318-2 7278: 7274: 7272: 7267: 7263: 7257: 7253: 7248: 7245: 7241: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7224: 7220: 7219: 7214: 7210: 7207: 7203: 7200: 7196: 7193: 7192: 7187: 7186: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7160: 7156: 7155: 7149: 7146:. p. 11. 7142: 7137: 7133: 7128: 7124: 7119: 7115: 7109: 7105: 7100: 7097: 7093: 7087: 7083: 7078: 7077: 7070: 7066: 7061: 7057: 7053: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7033: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7015: 7011: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6989: 6988: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6962: 6955: 6949: 6941: 6935: 6932:. Heinemann. 6931: 6924: 6909: 6905: 6899: 6891: 6885: 6882:. Cambridge. 6881: 6877: 6871: 6857:on 2017-05-17 6853: 6849: 6842: 6835: 6833: 6825: 6824: 6819: 6815: 6812: 6806: 6788: 6784: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6755: 6748: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6713: 6698: 6694: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6653: 6646: 6640: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6597: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6562: 6555: 6549: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6515: 6511: 6504: 6496: 6492: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6461: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6426: 6419: 6415: 6409: 6400: 6391: 6374: 6370: 6366: 6359: 6344: 6340: 6334: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6304: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6274: 6260: 6256: 6249: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6219: 6211: 6205: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6175: 6173: 6164: 6158: 6154: 6153: 6145: 6130: 6128:9780198033356 6124: 6120: 6119: 6114: 6108: 6093: 6087: 6083: 6082: 6074: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6044: 6028: 6024: 6022:9781134473809 6018: 6014: 6010: 6009: 6004: 5998: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5968: 5961: 5955: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5908: 5899: 5890: 5883: 5871: 5865: 5861: 5860: 5852: 5844: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5819: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5785: 5778: 5762: 5758: 5751: 5736: 5732: 5726: 5719: 5717: 5711: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5691: 5683: 5682: 5677: 5673: 5666: 5658: 5652: 5648: 5641: 5626: 5622: 5616: 5612: 5611: 5603: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5573: 5566: 5555:on 2018-01-02 5554: 5550: 5544: 5538:, p. 38. 5537: 5536:Hooykaas 1963 5532: 5526:, p. 11. 5525: 5520: 5513: 5508: 5501: 5496: 5489: 5484: 5477: 5472: 5466:, p. 11. 5465: 5464:Sobottka 2005 5460: 5458: 5450: 5438: 5431: 5416: 5409: 5402: 5397: 5395: 5393: 5385: 5380: 5378: 5376: 5374: 5372: 5370: 5368: 5360: 5359:Heilbron 2003 5355: 5353: 5351: 5349: 5341: 5337: 5331: 5320: 5313: 5306: 5301: 5293: 5289: 5282: 5276: 5275:0-226-45804-0 5272: 5268: 5262: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5238:"Thomas Kuhn" 5232: 5225: 5221: 5218: 5214: 5208: 5201: 5188: 5184: 5178: 5171: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5107: 5103: 5098: 5097: 5088: 5081: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5056: 5052: 5047: 5046: 5037: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5019: 5013: 5006: 5002: 4999: 4995: 4989: 4974: 4970: 4964: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4933: 4931: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4913: 4912:Novum Organum 4909: 4904: 4896: 4890: 4886: 4879: 4871: 4865: 4861: 4860: 4852: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4828: 4819: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4789: 4781: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4732: 4726: 4720: 4711: 4702: 4693: 4684: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4614: 4606: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4586: 4584: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4540:Laudan, Larry 4535: 4527: 4521: 4517: 4510: 4500: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4448: 4447: 4440: 4436: 4430: 4422: 4416: 4412: 4411: 4406: 4402: 4401: 4397: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4367: 4365: 4356: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4331: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4301: 4299: 4291: 4287: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4273: 4269: 4264: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4234: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4204: 4202: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4168: 4166: 4157: 4155:9780822974116 4151: 4146: 4145: 4136: 4128: 4122: 4118: 4111: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4086: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4063: 4049:on 2013-12-01 4045: 4038: 4034: 4028: 4021: 4020: 4013: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3990: 3984: 3980: 3974: 3970: 3964: 3957: 3954:Gauch HG Jr. 3951: 3943: 3941:0-8053-8738-2 3937: 3933: 3926: 3918: 3916:0-321-05173-4 3912: 3908: 3901: 3894: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3873: 3869: 3862: 3854: 3850: 3843: 3835: 3829: 3821: 3815: 3811: 3810: 3805: 3799: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3769: 3761: 3755: 3751: 3750: 3742: 3734: 3728: 3724: 3717: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3695: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3671:"Karl Popper" 3665: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3643: 3639: 3634: 3633: 3627: 3621: 3619: 3617: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3600: 3595: 3589: 3585: 3575: 3572: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3550: 3547: 3545: 3542: 3540: 3537: 3536: 3531: 3525: 3520: 3517: 3506: 3499: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3483: 3473: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3458:neopragmatism 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3438: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3403: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3384: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3338:Auguste Comte 3334: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3306: 3296: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3242: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3220: 3219:Wilhelm Wundt 3216: 3211: 3201: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3181: 3171: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3130: 3126: 3121: 3116: 3106: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3023:Lakatos Award 3019: 3014: 3004: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2984: 2981: 2976: 2972: 2962: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2934: 2924: 2922: 2918: 2917:physical laws 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2869:philosophical 2864: 2854: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2802: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2752: 2742: 2734: 2733: 2725: 2716: 2713: 2709: 2703: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2684: 2679: 2675: 2661: 2659: 2655: 2652:(1971)), and 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2600: 2599:(1889–1976). 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2585:Merleau-Ponty 2582: 2578: 2577:phenomenology 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2557: 2555: 2551: 2550: 2545: 2535: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2512:Harry Collins 2509: 2504: 2502: 2496: 2494: 2487: 2484: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2444: 2439: 2435: 2433: 2426: 2416: 2414: 2413:authoritarian 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2393: 2391: 2390:anything goes 2387: 2383: 2377: 2373: 2364: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2349: 2347: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2284: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2258: 2255: 2251: 2246: 2241: 2238: 2233: 2230: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2213: 2210: 2209: 2208: 2205: 2203: 2198: 2194: 2185: 2181: 2175: 2171: 2156: 2154: 2148: 2146: 2140: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2117: 2110: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2080: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2043:Rudolf Carnap 2040: 2036: 2031: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1983: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1964:phenomenalism 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1942:Interpreting 1940: 1938: 1937:Vienna Circle 1934: 1933:Berlin Circle 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1886: 1884: 1880: 1879:Auguste Comte 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1851: 1850: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1836: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1814: 1809: 1808: 1807:Novum Organum 1803: 1799: 1795: 1794:Francis Bacon 1787: 1780: 1775: 1766: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1691: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1672: 1663: 1658: 1654: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1626:real patterns 1620:Real patterns 1617: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1601: 1598: 1594: 1593:unobservables 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1577:cannot answer 1572: 1568: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1519: 1515: 1510: 1501: 1498: 1493: 1489: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1471: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1444: 1439: 1429: 1426: 1425:Wesley Salmon 1422: 1418: 1413: 1411: 1406: 1400: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1371:pseudoscience 1367: 1365: 1361: 1356: 1354: 1350: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1320: 1312: 1307: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1261:public policy 1258: 1254: 1250: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1179: 1175:'s 1962 book 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1039: 1034: 1032: 1027: 1025: 1020: 1019: 1017: 1016: 1013: 1002: 998: 993: 988: 987: 980: 977: 975: 972: 970: 967: 965: 962: 960: 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10811:Team science 10801:Scientocracy 10724:Neo-colonial 10498: 10474:Anthropocene 10350: 10336: 10007: 9998:Postcritique 9988:Kyoto School 9947:Posthumanism 9927:Hermeneutics 9782: / 9723:Contemporary 9699:Newtonianism 9662:Cartesianism 9621:Reductionism 9457:Conservatism 9452:Collectivism 9390: 9118:Sarvāstivadā 9096:Anekantavada 9021:Neoplatonism 8989:Epicureanism 8922:Pythagoreans 8861:Confucianism 8827:Contemporary 8817:Early modern 8721:Anti-realism 8675:Universalism 8632:Subjectivism 8428:Epistemology 8369: 8214:Larry Laudan 8194:Imre Lakatos 8149:Otto Neurath 8124:Karl Pearson 8114:Pierre Duhem 8086:Isaac Newton 8016:Protoscience 7974:Epistemology 7848:Anti-realism 7846: / 7827: / 7818: / 7804: / 7802:Reductionism 7800: / 7773:Inductionism 7753:Evolutionism 7558: 7445:a posteriori 7444: 7440: 7415: 7375: 7328: 7309: 7291: 7269: 7251: 7243: 7236: 7217: 7205: 7198: 7189: 7153: 7131: 7122: 7103: 7095: 7075: 7064: 7039: 7035: 7018: 7000: 6996: 6966: 6961: 6953: 6948: 6929: 6923: 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Physicist 1379:junk science 1368: 1357: 1325: 1295:Introduction 1285:human nature 1246: 1238:Barry Barnes 1230:sociological 1222:supernatural 1191: 1176: 1154: 1123: 1103:meta-studies 1075:metaphysical 1050: 1049: 1047: 1000: 833:Liberal arts 733:Sociological 679:Mathematical 632: 486:Philosophers 471: 394:Epistemology 215:South Africa 170:Contemporary 119:Philosophies 31: 26: 11903:Wikiversity 11794:Social work 11682:Linguistics 11607:Criminology 11524:criminology 11507:personality 11465:comparative 11443:Linguistics 11436:private law 11293:archaeology 11042:theories of 11027:and society 11023:Technology 11017:transitions 11007:determinism 11002:convergence 10977:Technocracy 10759:controversy 10745:Scientific 10729:post-normal 10674:Metascience 10644:Consilience 10629:Antiscience 10494:Neo-Luddism 10489:Fuzzy logic 9993:Objectivism 9932:Neo-Marxism 9894:Continental 9804:Meta-ethics 9784:Coherentism 9689:Hegelianism 9626:Rationalism 9586:Natural law 9566:Materialism 9492:Historicism 9462:Determinism 9353:Navya-Nyāya 9128:Sautrāntika 9123:Pudgalavada 9059:Vaisheshika 8912:Presocratic 8812:Renaissance 8751:Physicalism 8736:Materialism 8642:Normativity 8627:Objectivism 8612:Emergentism 8602:Behaviorism 8551:Metaphysics 8517:Determinism 8456:Rationalism 8204:Ian Hacking 8189:Thomas Kuhn 8174:Karl Popper 8154:C. D. Broad 8071:Roger Bacon 7999:Non-science 7941:Linguistics 7921:Archaeology 7816:Rationalism 7806:Determinism 7793:Physicalism 7758:Fallibilism 7708:Coherentism 7638:Testability 7591:Observation 7586:Objectivity 7547:alternative 7478:Correlation 7468:Consilience 7213:Kuhn, T. S. 6647:338, b1568. 5442:22 December 5420:22 December 5265:T.S. Kuhn, 5156:neo-Thomism 4550:: 218–249. 3559:Metascience 3450:Thomas Kuhn 3431:technocrats 3392:theological 3327:ontological 3152:metaphysics 3091:biochemical 2997:hydrosphere 2939:methodology 2921:metaphysics 2913:determinism 2807:mathematics 2785:overfitting 2520:Ian Hacking 2508:David Bloor 2466:, and even 2357:Karl Popper 2283:Coherentism 2277:Coherentism 2170:transcluded 2121:Thomas Kuhn 2103:Thomas Kuhn 2076:Anglosphere 2063:Carl Hempel 2039:physicalism 1921:linguistics 1798:Roger Bacon 1763:Roger Bacon 1344:Karl Popper 1328:non-science 1234:David Bloor 1198:W. V. 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