341:(stroboscope discs or optical magic discs). Stampfer had thought of placing the sequence of images on either a disc, a cylinder (like the later zoetrope) or, for a greater number of images, on a long, looped strip of paper or canvas stretched around two parallel rollers (much like film reels). He also suggests covering up most of the disc or the mirror with a cut-out sheet of cardboard so that one sees only one of the moving figures and painting theatrical coulisses and backdrops around the cut-out part (somewhat similar to the later Praxinoscope-Theatre). Stampfer also mentioned a version which has a disc with pictures on one end and a slotted disc on the other side of an axis, but he found spinning the disc in front of a mirror more simple. By February 1833 he had prepared six double-sided discs, which were later published by Trentsensky & Vieweg. Matthias Trentsensky and Stampfer were granted an Austrian patent (Kaiserlichen königlichen Privilegium) for the discs on 7 May 1833.
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together with
Stampfer, which was granted on 7 May 1833. A first edition of four double-sided discs was soon published, but it sold out within four weeks and left them unable to ship orders. These discs probably had round holes as illustrated in an 1868 article and a 1922 reconstruction by William Day, but no original copies are known to still exist. Trentsensky & Vieweg published an improved and expanded set of eight double-sided discs with vertical slits in July 1833. English editions were published not much later with James Black and Joseph Myers & Co. A total of 28 different disc designs have been credited to Professor Stampfer.
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paper. Some of
Faraday's experiments were new to Plateau and especially the one with a fixed image produced by a turning wheel in front of the mirror inspired Plateau with the idea for new illusions. In July 1832 Plateau sent a letter to Faraday and added an experimental disc with some "anamorphoses" that produced a "completely immobile image of a little perfectly regular horse" when rotated in front of a mirror. After several attempts and many difficulties he constructed a working model of the phénakisticope in November or December 1832. Plateau published his invention in a 20 January 1833 letter to
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they can present the work of the animators in an optimized fashion. Some miscalculated modern re-animations also have the slits rotating (which would appear motionless when viewed through an actual phénakisticope) and the figures moving across the discs where they were supposed to stand still (or standing still when they were supposed to move around).
675:. This modified magic lantern had a wheel that could hold 16 photographic slides and a shutter. The wheel was rotated in front of the light source by an intermittent mechanism to project the slides successively (probably with a speed of 3 fps). The program contained three subjects: All Right (a popular Japanese acrobat),
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new combinations. An entertaining example is the sequence of a man somersaulting over a bull chased by a dog. For only one disc he chose a photographic representation; the sequence of a running horse skeleton, which was probably too detailed to be painted on glass. This disc was most likely the very first time a
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built a phenakisticope projector for which he had his photographs rendered as contours on glass discs. The results were not always very scientific; he often edited his photographic sequences for aesthetic reasons and for the glass discs he sometimes even reworked images from multiple photographs into
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sometime between 1844 and 1849, resulting in a back-lit transparent disc with a sequence of figures that are animated when it is rotated behind a counter-rotating black disc with four illuminated slits, spinning four times as fast. Unlike the phénakisticope several persons could view the animation at
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The phénakisticope was invented through scientific research into optical illusions and published as such, but soon the device was marketed very successfully as an entertaining novelty toy. After the novelty wore off, it was mostly seen as a toy for children. Nonetheless, some scientists still regard
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in Dick Balzer's collection shows several discs with designs that are very similar to those of
Stampfer and about half of them are also very similar to those of Giroux's first set. It is unclear where these early designs (other than Stampfer's) originated, but many of them would be repeated on many
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The distortion and the flicker caused by the rotating slits are not seen in most phénakisticope animations now found online (for instance the GIF animation on this page). These are usually animations created with software. These do not replicate the actual viewing experience of a phénakisticope, but
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The pictures of the phénakisticope became distorted when spun fast enough to produce the illusion of movement; they appeared a bit slimmer and were slightly curved. Sometimes animators drew an opposite distortion in their pictures to compensate for this. However, most animations were not intended to
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The phénakistiscope usually comes in the form of a spinning cardboard disc attached vertically to a handle. Arrayed radially around the disc's center is a series of pictures showing sequential phases of the animation. Small rectangular apertures are spaced evenly around the rim of the disc. The user
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Many versions of the phénakisticope used smaller illustrated uncut cardboard discs that had to be placed on a larger slotted disc. A common variant had the illustrated disc on one end of a brass axis and the slotted disc on the other end; this was slightly more unwieldy but needed no mirror and was
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claimed to have received a working model to present to
Faraday as early as November 1832. Plateau mentioned in 1836 that he thought it difficult to state the exact time when he got the idea, but he believed he was first able to successfully assemble his invention in December. He stated to trust the
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In the meantime some other publishers had apparently been inspired by the first edition of
Professor Stampfer's Stroboscopische Scheiben: Alphonse Giroux et Compagnie applied for a French import license on 28 May 1833 for 'Le Phénakisticope' and were granted one on 5 August 1833. They had a first
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According to
Mathias Trentsensky, of art dealer and publishing company Trentsensky & Vieweg, Stampfer had prepared six double-sided discs as early as February 1833 and had repeatedly demonstrated these to many friends. In April 1833 Trentsensky applied for an Austrian patent (k.k. Privilegium)
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about the optical illusions that could be found in rotating wheels. He referred to Roget's paper and described his associated new findings. Much was similar to what
Plateau had published and Faraday not only acknowledged this publicly but also corresponded with Plateau personally and sent him his
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When there is the same number of images as slots, the images will animate in a fixed position, but will not drift across the disc. Fewer images than slots and the images will drift in the opposite direction to that of the spinning disc. More images than slots and the images will drift in the same
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possibly read about Naylor's idea in German or
Austrian technical journals and started to develop his own version around 1851. Instrument maker Wenzel Prokesch made a first model for him which could only project images of a few inches in diameter. A more successful second model by Prokesch had a
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and a waltzing couple. Brother
Jonathan addressed the audience with a voice actor behind the screen and professed that "this art will rapidly develop into one of the greatest merit for instruction and enjoyment." The pictures of the waltzing couple survived and consist of four shots of costumed
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The spelling 'phenakistiscope' was possibly introduced by lithographers
Forrester & Nichol in collaboration with optician John Dunn; they used the title "The Phenakistiscope, or, Magic Disc" for their box sets, as advertised in September 1833. The corrupted part 'scope' was understood to be
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would spin the disc and look through the moving slits at the images reflected in a mirror. The scanning of the slits across the reflected images keeps them from simply blurring together so that the user can see a rapid succession of images that appear to be a single moving picture.
619:. In 1852 Duboscq patented such a "Stéréoscope-fantascope, stéréofantscope ou Bïoscope". Of three planned variations only one was actually produced but without much success. Only one extant disc is known, which is in the Plateau collection of Ghent University.
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From around 1853 until the 1890s J. Duboscq in Paris marketed different models of a projection phénakisticope. It had a glass disc with a diameter of 34 centimeters for the pictures and a separate disc with four lenses. The discs rotated at different speeds.
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Peter Mark Roget claimed in 1834 to have constructed several phénakisticopes and showed them to many friends as early as in the spring of 1831, but as a consequence of more serious occupations he did not get around to publishing any account of his invention.
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stationary disc with transparent pictures with a separate lens for each picture focused on the same spot on a screen. A limelight revolved rapidly behind the disc to project the sequential images one by one in succession. This model was demonstrated to the
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did not give a name for the device when he first published about it in January 1833. Later in 1833 he used 'phénakisticope' in an article to refer to the published versions that he was not involved with. By then, he had an authorized set published first as
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Several vinyl music releases have phénakistiscope-like animations on the labels or on the vinyl itself. In 1956 Red Raven Movie Records started a series of 78 RPM 8" singles with animations to be viewed with a device with small mirrors similar to a
631:. His letter was illustrated with a detailed side view of the device. Naylor suggested tracing the pictures of available phenakisticopes onto glass with transparent paint and painting the rest black. Nothing else is known of Naylor or his machine.
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As a university student Plateau noticed in some early experiments that when looking from a small distance at two concentric cogwheels that turned fast in opposite directions, it produced the optical illusion of a motionless wheel. He later read
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310:, a disc that turns an anamorphic picture into a normal picture when it is spun fast and seen through the four radial slits of a counter-rotating black disc. This invention was later marketed, for instance by Newton & Co in London.
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dancers (Heyl and a female dancing partner) that were repeated four times in the wheel. The pictures were posed. Capturing movement with "instantaneous photography" would first be established by Eadward Muybridge in 1878.
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technique was successfully applied. Muybridge first called his apparatus Zoogyroscope, but soon settled on the name Zoöpraxiscope. He used it in countless lectures on human and animal locomotion between 1880 and 1895.
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et Compagnie in their application for an import license (29 May 1833) and this name was used on their box sets. Fellow Parisian publisher Junin also used the term 'phenakisticope' (both with and without the accent).
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became common (with alternative spellings). The phenakistiscope is regarded as one of the first forms of moving media entertainment that paved the way for the future motion picture and film industry. Similar to a
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A Dictionary of Science, Literature, & Art: Comprising the History, Description, and Scientific Principles of Every Branch of Human Knowledge; with the Derivation and Definition of All the Terms in General
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A few discs had a shaped edge on the cardboard to allow for the illusion of figures crawling over the edge. Ackermann & Co published three of those discs in 1833, including one by inventor Joseph Plateau.
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Joseph Plateau and Simon Stampfer both complained around July 1833 that the designs of the discs they had seen around (besides their own) were poorly executed and they did not want to be associated with them.
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the same time. This system has not been commercialised; the only known two handmade discs are in the Joseph Plateau Collection of the Ghent University. Belgian painter
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An "Optical Instrument" was patented in the U.S. in 1869 by O.B. Brown, using a phenakistiscope-like disc with a technique very close to the later cinematograph; with
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to be placed on the center of the disc. Since 2010 audio-visual duo Sculpture has released several picture discs with very elaborate animations to be viewed under a
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in 1853. Prokesch marketed the machine and sold one to magician Ludwig Döbler who used it in his shows that also included other magic lantern techniques, like
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586:: a handle for two slotted discs with the pictures facing each other which allowed two viewers to look at the animations at the same time, without a mirror.
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in 1879 and lectured until 1894 with this projector for glass discs on which pictures in transparent paint were derived from his chronophotographic plates.
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Stampfer read about Faraday's findings in December 1832 and was inspired to do similar experiments, which soon led to his invention of what he called
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flashing exactly 25 times per second, or filmed with a video camera shooting progressively at a very high shutter speed with a frame rate of 25fps.
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in Frankfurt and soon marketed internationally. This version had uncut discs with pictures and a separate larger disc with round holes. The set of
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A family viewing animations in a mirror through the slits of stroboscopic discs (detail of an illustration by E. Schule on the box label for
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Periphanoscop – oder Optisches Zauber-theater / ou Le Spectacle Magique / or The Magical Spectacle (by R.S. Siebenmann, Arau, August 1833)
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330:. He believed that if the manner of producing the illusions could be somehow modified, they could be put to other uses, "for example, in
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published a set of 8 discs depicting several wave motions (waves of sound, air, water, etcetera) with J.V. Albert in Frankfurt in 1846.
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prints that were colored by hand, but also multi-color lithography and other printing techniques have been used by some manufacturers.
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Die stroboscopischen Scheiben; oder, Optischen Zauberscheiben: Deren Theorie und wissenschaftliche anwendung, erklärt von dem Erfinder
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The phénakisticope became very popular and soon there were very many other publishers releasing discs with numerous names, including:
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discs of many other publishers. It is unlikely that much of this copying was done with any licensing between companies or artists.
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used his version, called Phorolyt, in lectures since 1837. In 1861 one of the subjects he illustrated was the beating of a heart.
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set of 12 single sided discs available before the end of June 1833. Before the end of December 1833 they released two more sets.
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The first known plan for a phénakisticope projector with a transparent disc was made by Englishman T.W. Naylor in 1843 in the
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which addressed the same illusion. Plateau decided to investigate the phenomenon further and later published his findings in
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derived from Greek 'skopos', meaning "aim", "target", "object of attention" or "watcher", "one who watches" (or rather from
2233:[Application of stroboscopic disc for demonstration of the basic laws of wave theory; by J. Muller, in Freiburg].
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196:) and was quite common in the naming of optical devices (e.g. Telescope, Microscope, Kaleidoscope, Fantascope, Bioscope).
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570:(patented in 1867) soon became the more popular animation device and consequently fewer phénakisticopes were produced.
2231:"Anwendung der strboskopischen Scheibe zur Versinnlichung der Grundgesetze der Wellenlehre; von J.Muller, in Freiburg"
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and other successors, common versions of the phénakisticope could only practically be viewed by one person at a time.
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1396:"Le Figaro : journal littéraire : théâtre, critique, sciences, arts, moeurs, nouvelles, scandale, économie"
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Explanation of an optical deception in the appearance of the spokes of a wheel when seen through vertical apertures
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Bridgewater treatises on the power, wisdom, and goodness of God as manifested in the creation – Treatise V, Vol II
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17:
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The stroboscopic discs; or optical magic discs: Its theory and scientific application, explained by the inventor
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in 1828. In a letter to the same scientific periodical dated December 5, 1829 he presented his (still nameless)
89:('stroboscopic discs') by its inventors, it has been known under many other names until the French product name
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for a new edition and sets by other animators. In many writings and presentations Plateau used both the terms
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143:, meaning "eye" or "face", so it was probably intended loosely as 'optical deception' or 'optical illusion'.
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Optische Zauber-Scheiben / Disques Magique (unknown origin, one set executed by Frederic Voigtlaender)
1463:"Des Illusions d'optique sur lesquelles se fonde le petit appareil appelé récemment Phénakisticope"
30:
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Magic Wheel optical toy, 1864, in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collections Database
1442:[Phénakistiscope (box, sleeve and disk) AP-15-1265] (in French). La Cinémathèque Française
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Several phénakisticope projectors with glass discs were produced and marketed since the 1850s.
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give a realistic representation and the distortion isn't very obvious in cartoonish pictures.
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The Phenakistiscope or Magic Disc (by Forrester & Nichol & John Dunn, September 1833)
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A phenakistoscope (described in the display as a "Phantasmascope") with cards. On display in
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In 1849 Joseph Plateau discussed the possibilities of combining the phénakisticope with the
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Joseph Plateau never patented his invention, but he did design his own set of six discs for
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1465:[Optical illusions that underlie the small device recently called Phénakisticope].
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motion; a star-wheel and pin being used for intermittent motion, and a two-sector shutter.
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1498:(in French). Vol. III, no. 1. Brussels: l'Académie Royale. 1836. pp. 9–10.
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1967:
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Das Phorolyt oder die magische Doppelscheibe (by Purkyně & Pornatzki, Breslau, 1841)
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1420:[Phenakistiscope (disk box) AP-95-1693] (in French). La Cinémathèque Française
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Some versions added a wooden stand with a hand-cranked mechanism to spin the disc.
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created the first images on these discs and Plateau painted the successive parts.
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2211:[Phenakistiscope (disk) AP-94-374] (in French). La Cinémathèque Française
1907:[Phenakistiscope (disk) AP-94-345] (in French). La Cinémathèque Française
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Optische Belustigungen – Optical Amusements – Optic Amusements (unknown origin)
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and later ended up as a standard name through encyclopedias, for instance in
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1775:(in French). Vol. 7. Brussels: Garnier and Quetelet. 1832. p. 365.
1713:(in French). Vol. 6. Brussels: Garnier and Quetelet. 1830. p. 121.
1697:(in French). Vol. 4. Brussels: Garnier and Quetelet. 1828. p. 393.
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Kinesiskop (designed by Purkyně, published by Ferdinand Durst, Prague, 1861)
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in June 1833, the term 'phénakisticope' was explained to be from the root
2364:(Laura Hayes and John Howard Wileman Exhibit of Optical Toys in the NCSSM)
1286:"Through the Looking Glass: Philosophical Toys and Digital Visual Effects"
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1828:] (in German). Vienna and Leipzig: Trentsensky and Vieweg. p. 2.
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Sur de nouvelles applications curieuses de la persistance des impressions
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Bulletin de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Bruxelles
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First widespread animation device that created a fluid illusion of motion
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Thomas Ross developed a small transparent phénakisticope system, called
417:. In October 1833, Ackermann & Co changed the name of the series to
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McLean's Optical Illusions, or, Magic Panorama (London, November 1833)
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Fores's Moving Panorama, or Optical Illusions (London, September 1833)
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Prof. Zimmerman's Ludoscope (by Harbach & Co, Philadelphia, 1904)
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assertion of Stampfer to have invented his version at the same time.
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The Student and Intellectual Observer of Science, Literature and Art
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Joseph Plateau created a combination of his phénakisticope and his
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Fantasmascope. Tooneelen in den spiegel (K. Fuhri, The Hague, 1848)
244:
163:(by Ackermann in London), which some months later was changed into
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Soffe's Phantascopic Pantomime, or Magic Illusions (December 1834)
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The Phenakisticope, or Living Picture (by W. Soffe, December 1833)
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The misspelling 'phenakistoscope' can already be found in 1835 in
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228:
541:
Tableaux Animés – Nouveau Phénakisticope (by Wattilaux, France,
1794:. Vol. 2. London: The Institute of Electrical Engineers.
1749:. Vol. 2. London: The Institute of Electrical Engineers.
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and released two more sets of six discs each, one designed by
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The term phénakisticope was first used by the French company
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2160:. Vol. 1. University of California Press. p. 47.
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Iconographic Encyclopaedia of Science, Literature, and Art
1440:"Phénakistiscope (boîte, manche et disques de) AP-15-1265"
718:
The famous English pioneer of photographic motion studies
209:
Iconographic Encyclopaedia of Science, Literature, and Art
2310:"Optical: Phenakistoscopes, Zoetropes & Thaumatropes"
97:
2032:
Joseph Plateau 1801–1883: Living between Art and Science
2288:
Red Raven, Bonobo, Sculpture and other animated records
2190:
Uebersicht der Arbeiten und Veränderungen im Jahre 1841
459:
Toover-schijf (by A. van Emden, Amsterdam, August 1833)
339:
Stroboscopischen Scheiben oder optischen Zauberscheiben
77:
device that created a fluid illusion of motion. Dubbed
474:
Le Fantascope (by Dero-Becker, Belgium, December 1833)
468:
Motoscope, of wonderschijf (Amsterdam, September 1833)
274:
Joseph Plateau's illustration in Corresp. Math. (1833)
2047:"Phantasmagoria for the exhibition of moving figures"
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Naylor, T.W. (15 April 1843). J.C. Robertsone (ed.).
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animation, it can only show a short continuous loop.
2157:
The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907
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in London. The series was published in July 1833 as
2262:"Compleat Eadweard Muybridge – Zoopraxiscope Story"
1849:] (in German). Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth.
1418:"Phénakistiscope (boîte pour disque de) AP-95-1693"
1390:
1388:
2339:Collection of simulated phenakistiscopes in action
521:L'Ékonoscope (by Pellerin & Cie, France, 1868)
2197:] (in German). Breslau. 1842. pp. 62–63.
483:Wallis's Wheel of Wonders (London, December 1834)
286:and the Austrian professor of practical geometry
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1792:The Correspondence of Michael Faraday: 1832–1840
1747:The Correspondence of Michael Faraday: 1832–1840
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108:When it was introduced in the French newspaper
2195:Overview of works and changes in the year 1841
1955:(in German) (164). Frankfurt: 5. 16 June 1833.
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282:around December 1832 by the Belgian physicist
205:A Dictionary of Science, Literature, & Art
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2065:"Phénakistiscope de projection (AP-95-1631)"
1985:
1808:
1184:University of Edinburgh Heritage Collections
1169:University of Edinburgh Heritage Collections
1154:University of Edinburgh Heritage Collections
1139:University of Edinburgh Heritage Collections
1124:University of Edinburgh Heritage Collections
436:By 16 June 1833, Joh. Val. Albert published
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2241:. Leipzig: J. C. Poggendorff: 271–272. 1846
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179:as the better known name and holding on to
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2103:"Ross 'Wheel of Life' magic lantern slide"
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1527:
1502:
731:
518:The Magic Wheel (by J. Bradburn, US, 1864)
500:Le Phenakisticope (by Junin, Paris, 1839?)
136:), meaning "deceiving" or "cheating", and
1884:
1727:On a peculiar Class of Optical Deceptions
562:After its commercial introduction by the
344:Publisher and Plateau's doctoral adviser
323:On a Peculiar Class of Optical Deceptions
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1617:The American Journal of Science and Arts
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201:The American Journal of Science and Arts
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36:Prof. Stampfer's Stroboscopische Scheibe
29:
2209:"Phenakistiscope (disque de) AP-94-374"
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1905:"Phenakistiscope (disque de) AP-94-345"
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1772:Correspondance mathématique et physique
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1710:Correspondance mathématique et physique
1694:Correspondance mathématique et physique
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1398:(in French). No. 178. 27 June 1833
328:Correspondance Mathématique et Physique
304:Correspondance Mathématique et Physique
278:The phenakisticope was invented almost
14:
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2067:(in French). La Cinémathèque Française
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1965:
1638:. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
1630:
1283:
486:The Laughingatus, or Magic Circle (by
2389:
1951:[The animated wonder wheel].
1887:"On the Zoetrope and its antecedents"
1859:
258:Most commercially produced discs are
38:No. X (Trentsensky & Vieweg 1833)
2348:– Museum For The History Of Sciences
2127:Herbert, Stephen (27 January 2010).
2117:
2053:(1027). London: James Bounsall: 319.
1885:Carpenter, William (February 1868).
1648:
615:as suggested to him by its inventor
2259:
2000:
1665:
1535:
701:it as a useful demonstration tool.
579:claimed to produce clearer images.
24:
2358:An exhibit of similar optical toys
1724:Faraday, Michael (February 1831).
1561:
319:Royal Institution of Great Britain
25:
2620:
2584:Audiovisual introductions in 1832
2332:
2129:"Leland Stanford Jr, on his pony"
695:
629:Mechanical's Magazine – Volume 38
2377:– Example of the phenakistiscope
1790:. In James, Frank A.J.L. (ed.).
1786:Plateau, Joseph (8 March 1833).
1745:. In James, Frank A.J.L. (ed.).
1741:Plateau, Joseph (24 July 1832).
1467:Annales de chimie et de physique
1176:
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906:
888:
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834:
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762:
555:(by Eadward Muybridge, US, 1893)
240:direction as the spinning disc.
2302:
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2201:
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2147:
2095:
2079:
2057:
2038:
1959:
1953:Beilage zum Frankfurter Journal
1941:
1919:
1897:
1878:
1853:
1847:Annual of Physics and Chemistry
1839:Poggendorff, Johann C. (1834).
1832:
1779:
1763:
1734:
1717:
1701:
1685:
1659:
1642:
1631:Brande, William Thomas (1842).
1624:
1608:
1576:
1555:
667:Henry Renno Heyl presented his
2105:. London: Science Museum Group
2003:"Projection Phenakistoscope 1"
1454:
1432:
1410:
1361:
1319:
1277:
13:
1:
2352:The Richard Balzer Collection
2235:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
1937:. 25 October 1833. p. 1.
1842:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
1270:
673:Philadelphia Academy of Music
622:
573:
542:
532:
491:
214:
65:(also known by the spellings
51:
48:Magic Disk - Disques Magiques
1893:. Groombridge and Sons: 439.
1229:List of multiple discoveries
713:Johann Heinrich Jakob Müller
640:Austrian Academy of Sciences
531:Magic Circle (by G. Ingram,
265:
7:
1949:"Die belebte Wunderscheibe"
1649:Heck, Johann Georg (1852).
1569:Online Etymology Dictionary
1191:
73:) was the first widespread
10:
2625:
2030:Dorikens, Maurice (2001).
1860:Roget, Peter Mark (1834).
1592:
1584:
1538:"Phenakistoscope Part Two"
1369:
1335:
1327:
755:
671:on 5 February 1870 at the
381:Re-animation from a paper
189:
183:as the name he preferred.
122:
2423:
771:La Cinémathèque française
442:Die Belebte Wunderscheibe
438:Die belebte Wunderscheibe
317:presented a paper at the
2266:www.stephenherbert.co.uk
2154:Musser, Charles (1990).
2007:www.stephenherbert.co.uk
1927:"Elegant Christmas Gift"
1818:Stampfer, Simon (1833).
1672:www.stephenherbert.co.uk
1542:www.stephenherbert.co.uk
1514:Plateau, Joseph (1827).
1305:10.3167/proj.2010.040203
1299:(2). Berghahn Journals.
1284:Prince, Stephen (2010).
1111:Library of Congress 1834
86:Stroboscopische Scheiben
1351:A Greek–English Lexicon
732:20th and 21st centuries
704:The Czech physiologist
526:Journal des Demoiselles
2088:U.S. Patent No. 93,594
564:Milton Bradley Company
402:
386:
374:
275:
232:
175:, seemingly accepting
110:
104:Etymology and spelling
91:
85:
79:
58:
39:
1966:Balzer, Dick (2007).
1342:Liddell, Henry George
392:
380:
364:
357:Commercial production
273:
222:
45:
33:
2599:History of animation
2298:– via YouTube.
1620:. S. Converse. 1835.
1224:List of film formats
1214:History of animation
738:Joseph Plateau Award
313:On 10 December 1830
2589:Austrian inventions
2316:. US. February 2017
1788:"Letter to Faraday"
1743:"Letter to Faraday"
1095:Library of Congress
1077:Library of Congress
1059:Library of Congress
1041:Library of Congress
1023:Library of Congress
1005:Library of Congress
969:Library of Congress
951:Library of Congress
879:Library of Congress
861:Library of Congress
843:Library of Congress
825:Library of Congress
807:Library of Congress
789:Library of Congress
606:Jean Baptiste Madou
524:Pantinoscope (with
2594:Belgian inventions
2574:Precursors of film
2417:Precursors of film
2373:2014-07-14 at the
2354:(animated gallery)
2344:2016-01-21 at the
2260:Herbert, Stephen.
2051:Mechanics Magazine
2001:Herbert, Stephen.
1968:"Phenakistascopes"
1933:. No. 2,553.
1666:Herbert, Stephen.
1536:Herbert, Stephen.
1244:Precursors of film
1199:Eadweard Muybridge
720:Eadweard Muybridge
635:Franz von Uchatius
617:Charles Wheatstone
427:Thomas Mann Baynes
423:Thomas Talbot Bury
411:Ackermann & Co
403:
399:Thomas Mann Baynes
387:
375:
371:Eadweard Muybridge
276:
233:
211:(New York, 1852).
59:
40:
2604:Optical illusions
2561:
2560:
2458:Electrotachyscope
2448:Chronophotography
2091:. 10 August 1869.
1562:Harper, Douglas.
1204:Electrotachyscope
711:German physicist
684:Eadward Muybridge
582:Fores offered an
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677:Brother Jonathan
644:dissolving views
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346:Adolphe Quetelet
298:'s 1824 article
296:Peter Mark Roget
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129:(or rather from
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34:Animated GIF of
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2508:Phenakistiscope
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1219:History of film
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528:, France, 1868)
494:
393:Animation of a
359:
315:Michael Faraday
268:
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148:Alphonse Giroux
106:
71:phenakistoscope
63:phenakistiscope
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2468:Kaiserpanorama
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415:Phantasmascope
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332:phantasmagoria
288:Simon Stampfer
284:Joseph Plateau
280:simultaneously
267:
264:
225:Bedford Museum
216:
213:
207:(London, 1842)
177:phénakisticope
169:phénakisticope
161:Phantasmascope
156:Joseph Plateau
105:
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92:Phénakisticope
67:phénakisticope
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1866:. p. 524
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2428:Alethoscope
1293:Projections
1254:Thaumatrope
750:stroboscope
725:stop motion
706:Jan Purkyně
669:Phasmatrope
613:stereoscope
546: 1875
536: 1870
495: 1835
425:and one by
243:Unlike the
134:phenakizein
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2579:1830s toys
2568:Categories
2548:Zograscope
2518:Raree show
1492:"Lectures"
1336:φενακίζειν
1271:References
623:Projection
574:Variations
419:Fantascope
395:Fantascope
215:Technology
181:fantascope
173:fantascope
165:Fantascope
131:φενακίζειν
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2498:Peep show
2493:Mutoscope
2463:Flip book
2453:Cosmorama
1677:20 August
1597: in
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1209:Flip book
584:Exhibitor
266:Invention
154:Inventor
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2543:Zoetrope
2371:Archived
2362:zoetrope
2342:Archived
2320:22 April
2294:22 April
2133:Muy Blog
1259:Zoetrope
1192:See also
568:Zoetrope
397:disc by
369:disc by
365:A paper
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2245:20 July
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2012:19 July
1977:20 July
1870:19 July
1599:Liddell
1593:σκοπεῖν
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