Paraceratherium - Knowledge

2186: 118: 2459: 1825: 1915: 1676: 2382: 1312: 1816: 1156: 930: 740: 1147: 1009: 4543: 2086: 147: 2007: 1807: 2267: 2246:. Some Russian authors suggested that the tusks were probably used for breaking twigs, stripping bark and bending high branches and that, because species from the early Oligocene had larger tusks than later ones, they probably had a more bark than leaf based diet. Since the species involved are now known to have been contemporaneous, and the differences in tusks are now thought to be sexually dimorphic, the latter idea is not accepted today. Herds of 1737: 731: 2072:—similar to the running rhinoceroses from which they descended. Some foot bones were almost 50 centimetres (20 in) long. The thigh bones typically measured 1.5 m (4.9 ft), a size only exceeded by those of some elephants and dinosaurs. The thigh bones were pillar-like and much thicker and more robust than those of other rhinoceroses, and the three 1118:, based on remains too fragmentary to identify properly. By analysing alleged differences between named genera and species, Lucas and Sobus found that these most likely represented variation within populations, and that most features were indistinguishable between specimens, as had been pointed out in the 1930s. The fact that the single skull assigned to 702:, and Chinese scientists worked in isolation from each other for much of the 20th century and published research mainly in their respective languages. Scientists from different parts of the world tried to compare their finds to get a more complete picture of these animals, but were hindered by politics and wars. The opposing taxonomic tendencies of " 2486:. Prothero and the zoologist Pavel V. Putshkov have considered these causes unlikely since these animals managed to survive regardless of these issues for millions of years under the harsh conditions of their environment, and were not much larger than the biggest proboscideans, extinct as well as extant, which faced similar challenges. 1755:

because this species is known from the most complete remains. Estimates have been based on skull, teeth, and limb bone measurements, but the known bone elements are represented by individuals of different sizes, so all skeletal reconstructions are composite extrapolations, resulting in several weight

2335:

of Mongolia represents an arid desert basin, and the environment is thought to have had few tall trees and limited brush cover, as the fauna consisted mainly of animals that fed from tree tops or close to the ground. A study of fossil pollen showed that much of China was woody shrubland, with plants

2241:

Granger and Gregory argued that the large incisors were used for defence or for loosening shrubs by moving the neck downwards, thereby acting as picks and levers. Tapirs use their proboscis to wrap around branches while stripping off bark with the front teeth; this ability would have been helpful to

1969:

differed from the other species in that the nasal notch was deeper, with the bottom placed above the middle of molar M2, a proportionally higher occipital condyle compared to the occipital surface's height, short muzzle bones and diastema in front of the cheek teeth, and a high zygomatic arch with a

2505:, which would have been their most likely competitors. While cautioning that the true cause of their extinction will never be known for certain, Prothero found it to be more than a coincidence that paraceratheres disappeared just as large predators and other large herbivores entered Asia during the 2120:

would not have been able to run and move quickly, but they would have been able to cross large distances, which would be necessary in an environment with a scarcity of food. They may therefore have had large home ranges and have been migratory. Prothero suggests that animals as big as indricotheres

1644:

as separate genera. In 2016, the Chinese researchers Haibing Wang and colleagues used the name Paraceratheriidae for the family and Paraceratheriine for the subfamily, and placed them outside of Hyracodontidae. Deng and colleagues confirmed previous studies with their 2021 analysis, suggesting that

2445:

had been able to migrate back north to Central Asia during this time when that area had become tropical (it was arid during the early Oligocene). This implies the Tibetan region was not yet a high-elevation plateau that could act as a barrier, and large animals may therefore have been able to move

1759:

There are no indications of the colour and skin texture of the animal because no skin impressions or mummies are known. Most life restorations show the creature's skin as thick, folded, grey, and hairless, based on modern rhinoceroses. Because hair retains body heat, modern large mammals such as

995:

from the Jiaozigou Formation of the Linxia Basin (to which the name refers) of northwestern China. A multitude of other species and genus names—mostly based on differences in size, snout shape, and front tooth arrangement—have been coined for various indricothere remains. Fossils attributable to

1788:

specimens known by then, using the proportions of a modern rhinoceros as a guide. The result was too squat and compact, and Osborn had a more slender version drawn later the same year. Some later life restorations have made the animal too slender, with little regard to the underlying skeleton.

2295:

finds implies that they inhabited a continuous landmass with a similar environment across it, but this is contradicted by palaeogeographic maps that show this area had various marine barriers, so the genus was successful in being widely distributed despite this. The fauna which coexisted with

2039:

were long and formed a long "hump" along the back, where neck muscles and nuchal ligaments for holding up the skull were attached. The ribs were similar to those of modern rhinoceroses, but the ribcage would have looked smaller in proportion to the long legs and large bodies, because modern

2121:

would need very large home ranges or territories of at least 1,000 square kilometres (250,000 acres) and that, because of a scarcity of resources, there would have been little room in Asia for many populations or a multitude of nearly identical species and genera. This principle is called

591:. The shoulder height was about 4.8 metres (15.7 feet), and the length about 7.4 metres (24.3 feet). Its weight is estimated to have been about 15 to 20 tonnes (33,000 to 44,000 lb). The long neck supported a skull that was about 1.3 metres (4.3 ft) long. It had large, tusk-like 1998:. The premolars only partially formed the pi pattern. Each molar was the size of a human fist; among mammals they were only exceeded in size by proboscideans, though they were small relative to the size of the skull. The lower cheek teeth were L-shaped, which is typical of rhinoceroses. 1279:. A 2004 paper by Deng and colleagues also recognised three distinct genera. Some western writers have similarly used names otherwise considered invalid since the 1989 revision, but without providing detailed analysis and justification. Deng and colleagues recognised six 2501:, and as their numbers dwindled, they would have become more vulnerable to other threats. Prothero has pointed out that gomphotheres are not known to have generally coexisted with paraceratheres, and there are no known co-occurrences between paraceratheres and the large 1750:

Early estimates of 30 tonnes (66,000 lb) are now considered exaggerated; it may have been in the range of 15 to 20 tonnes (33,000 to 44,000 lb) at maximum, and as low as 11 tonnes (24,000 lb) on average. Calculations have mainly been based on fossils of

2115:

may be large mammals such as elephants, rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses. To aid in thermoregulation, these animals cool down during the day by resting in the shade or by wallowing in water and mud. They also forage and move mainly at night. Because of its large size,

1699:

that have ever existed, but its precise size is unclear because of the lack of complete specimens. Its total body length was estimated as 8.7 m (28.5 ft) from front to back by Granger and Gregory in 1936, and 7.4 m (24.3 ft) by the palaeontologist

1977:

were reduced to a single pair of incisors in either jaw, which were large and conical, and have been described as tusks. The upper incisors pointed downwards; the lower ones were shorter and pointed forwards. Among known rhinoceroses, this arrangement is unique to

2140:. Adult individuals would be too large for any land predators to attack, but the young would have been vulnerable. Bite marks on bones from the Bugti beds indicate that even adults may have been preyed on by 10-to-11-metre (33 to 36 ft)-long crocodiles, 2063:

with those of elephants and sauropod dinosaurs with their likewise graviportal (heavy and slow moving) builds. Unlike such animals, which tend to lengthen the upper limb bones while shortening, fusing and compressing the lower limb, hand, and foot bones,

1854:

had a long forehead, which was smooth and lacked the roughened area that serves as attachment point for the horns of other rhinoceroses. The bones above the nasal region are long and the nasal incision goes far into the skull. This indicates that

2185: 2076:

on the sides were much reduced, as this robustness diminished their importance. The limbs were held in a column-like posture instead of bent, as in smaller animals, which reduced the need for large limb muscles. The front limbs had three toes.

117: 1248:, the subfamily name Indricotheriinae is still in use because genus name synonymy does not affect the names of higher level taxa that are derived from these. Members of the subfamily are therefore still commonly referred to as indricotheres. 623:, eating mainly leaves, soft plants, and shrubs. It lived in habitats ranging from arid deserts with a few scattered trees to subtropical forests. The reasons for the animal's extinction are unknown, but various factors have been proposed. 1368:

forms. Most species did not have horns. Rhinoceros fossils are identified as such mainly by characteristics of their teeth, which is the part of the animals most likely to be preserved. The upper molars of most rhinoceroses have a

4123:

Sander, P. M.; Christian, A.; Clauss, M.; Fechner, R.; Gee, C. T.; Griebeler, E. M.; Gunga, H. C.; Hummel, J. R.; Mallison, H.; Perry, S. F.; Preuschoft, H.; Rauhut, O. W. M.; Remes, K.; Tütken, T.; Wings, O.; Witzel, U. (2011).

1898:

appears to have had large, strong neck muscles, which allowed it to sweep its head strongly downwards while foraging from branches. The upper profile of the skull was arched, a distinguishing feature of the genus. One skull of

2473:

and its relatives became extinct after surviving for about 11 million years are unknown, but it is unlikely that there was a single cause. Theories include that their large size was related to the now outdated concept of

2158:

may have lived in small herds, perhaps consisting of females and their calves, which they protected from predators. It has been proposed that 20 tonnes (44,000 lb) may be the maximum weight possible for land mammals, and

2030:

vertebrae of the neck were wider than in most modern rhinoceroses, with space for strong ligaments and muscles that would be needed to hold up the large head. The rest of the vertebrae were also very wide, and had large

1994:(gap). This feature is found in mammals where the incisors and cheek teeth have different specialisations. The upper molars, except for the third upper molar that was V-shaped, had a pi-shaped (π) pattern and a reduced 1783:

fossils, the skeleton of the animal has been reconstructed in several different ways since its discovery. In 1923, Matthew supervised an artist to draw a reconstruction of the skeleton based on the even less complete

2201:

was a browser with a diet consisting of relatively soft leaves and shrubs. Later rhinoceroses were grazers, with high-crowned teeth because their diets contained grit that quickly wore down their teeth. Studies of

1945:, mastoid-paroccipital processes that were relatively thin and placed back on the skull, a lambdoid crest, which extended less back, and an occipital condyle with a horizontal orientation, which it shared with 1890:, which are otherwise found in horned and tusked animals that need strong muscles to push and fight. It also had a deep pit for the attachment of nuchal ligaments, which hold up the skull automatically. The 2282:

have been found in early to late Oligocene (34–23 million years ago) formations across Eurasia, in modern-day China, Mongolia, India, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria, and the

1724:

might have been taller than any proboscidean. Its shoulder height was estimated as 5.25 m (17.2 ft) at the shoulders by Granger and Gregory, but 4.8 m (15.7 ft) by the palaeontologist

1444:

period, 23 to 34 million years ago. The genus is distinguished from other indricotheres by its large size, nasal incision that would have supported a muscular snout, and its down-turned

2250:

may have migrated while continuously foraging from tall trees, which smaller mammals could not reach. Osborn suggested that its mode of foraging would have been similar to that of the high-browsing

1768:. The ears of elephants enlarge the body's surface area and are filled with blood vessels, making the dissipation of excess heat easier. According to Prothero, this would have been true for 1667:

in the Oligocene. These researchers did not find Hyracodontidae to form a natural group, and found Paraceratheriidae to be closer to Rhinocerotidae, unlike previous studies.

4173:

Antoine, P. O.; Ibrahim Shah, S. M.; Cheema, I. U.; Crochet, J. Y.; Franceschi, D. D.; Marivaux, L.; Métais, G. G.; Welcomme, J. L. (2004). "New remains of the baluchithere

1228:

from the late Oligocene of Kazakhstan may be too incomplete for its position to be resolved in relation to the other species; the same applies to proposed species such as

4358:

Wang, Y.; Deng, T. (2005). "A 25 m.y. Isotopic record of paleodiet and environmental change from fossil mammals and paleosols from the NE margin of the Tibetan Plateau".

4225: 1031:

based on a palate and other fragments from Dera Bugti, thought to belong to a giant member of that genus. These fossils are now thought to have belonged to an aberrant

4323:

Martin, C.; Bentaleb, I.; Antoine, P. -O. (2011). "Pakistan mammal tooth stable isotopes show paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental changes since the early Oligocene".

3187:"New data on Amynodontidae (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from Eastern Europe: Phylogenetic and palaeobiogeographic implications around the Eocene-Oligocene transition" 2493:

proboscideans from Africa in the late Oligocene (between 28 and 23 million years ago) may have considerably changed the habitats they entered, like

4044: 1846:

are around 1.3 metres (4.3 ft) long, 33 to 38 centimetres (13 to 15 in) at the back of the skull, and 61 centimetres (24 in) wide across by the

1373:-shaped (π) pattern on the crown, and each lower molar has paired L-shapes. Various skull features are also used for identification of fossil rhinoceroses. 2163:

was close to this limit. The reasons mammals cannot reach the much larger size of sauropod dinosaurs are unknown. The reason may be ecological instead of

3494: 3468: 3390: 1400:(natural) grouping. Radinsky's scheme is the prevalent hypothesis today. The hyracodont family contains long-legged members adapted to running, such as 2550: 642:, have been named, but no complete specimens exist, making comparison and classification difficult. Most modern scientists consider these genera to be 839:. His rationale for this reclassification was the species' distinctly down-turned lower tusks. In 1913, Forster-Cooper named a new genus and species, 776:(in modern-day Pakistan) in 1846 by a soldier named Vickary, but these fragments were unidentifiable at the time. The first fossils now recognised as 3062: 4295: 2834: 2787: 1063:

and Forster-Cooper himself had expressed similar doubts few years earlier. Although it had already been declared a junior synonym, the genus name

1000:

continue to be discovered across Eurasia, but the political situation in Pakistan had become too unstable for further excavations to occur there.

4664: 2877: 1485: 3997: 3016: 2421:

dispersed westward to Kazakhstan during the early Oligocene from the ancestral area of Mongolia, where the most primitive member of the genus,

4249:"The maximum attainable body size of herbivorous mammals: Morphophysiological constraints on foregut, and adaptations of hindgut fermenters" 3826: 784:

in Balochistan in 1907–1908. His material consisted of an upper jaw, lower teeth, and the back of a jaw. The fossils were collected in the

2234:; it would extract relatively little nutrition from its food and would have to eat large volumes to survive. Like other large herbivores, 4763: 2370: 1995: 1406:, and were distinguished by incisor characteristics. Indricotheres are distinguished from other hyracodonts by their larger size and the 2458: 1078:

and Jay C. Sobus published a revision of indricothere taxa, which was subsequently followed by western scientists. They concluded that

792:, where Pilgrim had previously been exploring. In 1908, he used the fossils as basis for a new species of the extinct rhinoceros genus 2409:

was the only species of the genus represented in the Oligocene of western Pakistan, while the genus was highly diversified across the

4753: 1384:

in 1966. Previously, they had been regarded as a subfamily within Rhinocerotidea, or even a full family, Indricotheriidae. In a 1999

555:

epoch (34–23 million years ago). The first fossils were discovered in what is now Pakistan, and remains have been found across

4651: 975:, was named by the Chinese palaeontologist Yong-Xiang Li and colleagues based on jaw elements from the Hanjiajing Formation in the 1957:, thick mastoid-paroccipital processes, a lambdoid crest that extended back, and occipital condyles with a vertical orientation. 1923: 4758: 3043:"New fossils of paraceratheres (Perissodactyla, Mammalia) from the Early Oligocene of the Lanzhou Basin, Gansu Province, China" 1911:

shows it was only 8 percent of the skull length, while the brain of the Indian rhinoceros is 17.7 percent of its skull length.

1356:. The diversity within the rhinocerotoid group was much larger in prehistoric times; they ranged from dog-sized to the size of 3685:"Earliest known unequivocal rhinocerotoid sheds new light on the origin of Giant Rhinos and phylogeny of early rhinocerotoids" 714:

that are now known to be contemporaneous were of different ages. Many genera were named on the basis of subtle differences in

4743: 4738: 4566: 4504: 4213: 3351: 2450:, and through lowlands in the area, some of which were possibly under 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in elevation at the time. 1251:

In contrast to the revision by Lucas and Sobus, a 2003 paper by Chinese palaeontologist Jie Ye and colleagues suggested that

2378:

trees, while Siberia and Kazakhstan also had walnut trees. Dera Bugti in Pakistan had dry, temperate to subtropical forest.

1696: 926:

in 1922. Also in 1923, Borissiak created the subfamily Indricotheriinae to include the various related forms known by then.

810:; it included several unrelated species of hornless rhinoceros, many of which have since been moved to other genera. Fossil 4773: 4748: 2815:, a new genus of perissodactyles from the Upper Oligocene deposits of the Bugti hills of Baluchistan. —Preliminary notice" 630:

of the genus and the species within has a long and complicated history. Other genera of Oligocene indricotheres, such as

2056:-like openings (hollow parts of the bone) in their pre-sacral vertebrae, which probably helped to lighten the skeleton. 4768: 3185:

Tissier, J.; Becker, D.; Codrea, V.; Costeur, L.; Fărcaș, C.; Solomon, A.; Venczel, M.; Maridet, O.; Smith, T. (2018).

2463: 953: 134: 4247:

Clauss, M.; Frey, R.; Kiefer, B.; Lechner-Doll, M.; Loehlein, W.; Polster, C.; Rössner, G. E.; Streich, W. J. (2003).

4020: 2479: 902:

in Kazakhstan; it was the most complete indricothere skeleton known, but it lacked the skull. It is mounted in the

2356:), all adapted to arid environments. Trees were rare, and concentrated near groundwater. The parts of China where 1990:

otherwise found behind the incisors were lost. The incisors were separated from the row of cheek teeth by a large

1082:, as the oldest name, was the only valid indricothere genus from the Oligocene, and contained four valid species, 4733: 4397:

and other vertebrates from Oligocene and middle Miocene deposits of the Kağızman-Tuzluca Basin, Eastern Turkey".

1824: 960:, including the legs of a specimen standing in an upright position, indicating that it had died while trapped in 823:

In 1910, more partial fossils were discovered in Dera Bugti during an expedition by the British palaeontologist

3656:, a Middle to Late Eocene hyracodontid (Perissodactyla: Rhinocerotoidea) from Asia and Western North America". 2331:

appears to have varied across its range, based on the types of geological formations it has been found in. The

3855: 3509: 3449: 3375: 847:, based on larger fossils from the same excavations (some of which he had earlier suggested to belong to male 3417:"A giant rhinocerotoid (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) from the Late Oligocene of north-central Anatolia (Turkey)" 903: 130: 1772:, as indicated by the robust bones around the ear openings. The palaeontologists Pierre-Olivier Antoine and 146: 2059:

The limbs were large and robust to support the animal's large weight, and were in some ways similar to and

1914: 1459:

below follows the 1989 analysis of Indricotheriinae by Lucas and Sobus, and shows the closest relatives of

772:

were made through various colonial links to Asia. The first known indricothere fossils were collected from

3042: 2810: 2763: 1760:

elephants and rhinoceroses are largely hairless. Prothero has proposed that, contrary to most depictions,

2226:, which are mainly leaves. Like its perissodactyl relatives, the horses, tapirs, and other rhinoceroses, 1903:

has a domed forehead, whereas others have flat foreheads, possibly because of sexual dimorphism. A brain

891: 4248: 4728: 2168: 4448:

Meng, J.; McKenna, M. C. (1998). "Faunal turnovers of Palaeogene mammals from the Mongolian Plateau".

2857: 2035:

with much room for muscles, tendons, ligaments, and nerves, to support the head, neck, and spine. The

4619: 3969: 3000: 1729:

in 1997. The neck was estimated at 2 to 2.5 m (6.6 to 8.2 ft) long by the palaeontologists

1675: 1836:

skull AMNH 18650 (left), and front views of a cast of same, showing the incisors (center and right).

1380:

belongs, was first classified as part of the family Hyracodontidae by the American palaeontologist

3795: 2971:

Borissiak, A. A. (1924). "Über die Unterfamilie Indricotheriinae Boriss. = Baluchitheriinae Osb".

2040:

rhinoceroses are comparatively short-limbed. The last vertebra of the lower back was fused to the

1410:

structure of their snouts, incisors and canines. The earliest known indricothere is the dog-sized

3343: 1055:, because these specimens were collected at the same locality and were possibly part of the same 2381: 2167:, and perhaps related to reproduction strategies. Movement, sound, and other behaviours seen in 1392:, the American palaeontologist Luke Holbrook found indricotheres to be outside the hyracodontid 4695: 4581: 4491:

Leopold, E. B.; Liu, G.; Clay-Poole, S. (1992), "Low-biomass vegetation in the Oligocene?", in

1060: 876: 4669: 1879:. A distinguishing feature was that the nasal incision was retracted to the P2-P3 premolars. 4705: 4690: 4682: 2122: 703: 20: 4371: 1311: 4638: 4457: 4406: 4367: 4332: 4263: 4186: 3696: 3293: 3198: 2731: 2475: 2332: 2060: 1056: 824: 785: 711: 620: 231: 133:; this is the most completely known skeleton, but the skull is a cast of a specimen at the 3550:

Radinsky, L. B. (1966). "The families of the Rhinocerotoidea (Mammalia, Perissodactyla)".

1815: 1155: 8: 4548: 2689: 2173: 2104: 1381: 945: 781: 260: 4522:

Putshkov, P. V. (2001). ""Proboscidean agent" of some Tertiary megafaunal extinctions".

4461: 4410: 4336: 4267: 4190: 3700: 3297: 3202: 2768:, a new genus of Rhinocerotidae from the Bugti Hills of Baluchistan.—Preliminary notice" 2735: 4492: 4473: 4430: 4393:

Sen, S.; Antoine, P. O.; Varol, B.; Ayyildiz, T.; Sözeri, K. (2011). "Giant rhinoceros

4287: 4150: 4125: 3989: 3950: 3908: 3881: 3818: 3780: 3717: 3684: 3665: 3567: 3495:"Indricotheres (Perissodactyla, Mammalia) from Oligocene in Linxia Basin, Gansu, China" 3249:

Granger, W.; Gregory, W. K. (1936). "Further notes on the gigantic extinct rhinoceros,

3221: 3186: 3127: 3098: 2930: 2589: 2398: 1448:. It had also lost the second and third lower incisors, lower canines, and lower first 1040: 929: 691: 627: 344: 141: 3845:"Dinosaur models: The good, the bad, and using them to estimate the mass of dinosaurs" 4677: 4562: 4500: 4477: 4422: 4291: 4279: 4155: 4141: 3993: 3913: 3722: 3608: 3433: 3416: 3357: 3347: 3226: 3132: 3058: 2593: 2581: 2494: 2483: 2410: 2231: 1891: 1868: 1730: 1127: 1036: 868: 807: 739: 707: 679: 544: 540: 211: 4434: 3954: 2692:(1910). "Notices of new mammalian genera and species from the Tertiaries of India". 1632:

Lucas and colleagues had reached similar conclusions in a previous 1981 analysis of

1008: 906:. In 1916, based on these remains, Aleksei Alekseeivich Borissiak erected the genus 4465: 4414: 4375: 4340: 4271: 4194: 4145: 4137: 4105: 4075: 3981: 3940: 3903: 3893: 3822: 3810: 3776: 3712: 3704: 3598: 3559: 3428: 3301: 3262: 3216: 3206: 3167: 3122: 3114: 3054: 2920: 2869: 2826: 2779: 2739: 2573: 2489:

Putshkov and Andrzej H. Kulczicki instead suggested in 1995 and 2001 that invading

2288: 2258:, rather than to modern rhinoceroses, whose heads are carried close to the ground. 2215: 2147: 2126: 2068:

had short upper limb bones and long hand and foot bones—except for the disc-shaped

1864: 1847: 1765: 1740: 1498: 1146: 1110: 1075: 856: 698:

is complex due to the fragmentary nature of the known fossils and because Western,

616: 1683:(olive green) compared with that of humans, other large mammals, and the dinosaur 4344: 3335: 3211: 2720:: a genus of aberrant rhinoceroses from the Lower Miocene deposits of Dera Bugti" 2414: 2085: 1726: 1513: 1412: 1331: 1213: 867:

were so fragmentary that Foster-Cooper was only able to identify it as a kind of

536: 1965:

only in the anatomy of the rear portion of the jaw, as well as its larger size.

1789:

Gromova published a more complete skeletal reconstruction in 1959, based on the

1067:

remained popular in various media because of the publicity surrounding Osborn's

718:

tooth characteristics—features that vary within populations of other rhinoceros

4379: 4198: 3118: 2438: 2027: 1887: 1793:

skeleton from the Aral Formation, but this also lacked several neck vertebrae.

1713: 1471: 1353: 1349: 1328: 1114:). They considered most other names to be junior synonyms of those taxa, or as 1048: 976: 895: 722:—and are therefore not accepted by most scientists for distinguishing species. 643: 198: 4418: 4275: 4066:

Granger, W.; Gregory, W. K. (1935). "A revised restoration of the skeleton of

3767:

Fortelius, M.; Kappelman, J. (1993). "The largest land mammal ever imagined".

3171: 2873: 2830: 2783: 2577: 2559:: Imperial and International Networks in Early-Twentieth Century Paleontology" 1704:

in 1959, but the former estimate is now considered exaggerated. The weight of

4722: 4604: 3040: 2506: 2142: 2036: 1954: 1563: 1428: 1345: 1192:

from the late Oligocene of Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and northern China included

1115: 980: 919: 769: 715: 299: 75: 3361: 3097:

Deng, T.; Lu, X.; Wang, S.; Flynn, L. J.; Sun, D.; He, W.; Chen, S. (2021).

2006: 1283:

species in 2021, including some that had previously been declared synonyms,

670:, so most reconstructions of the genus are based on it. Differences between 4426: 4283: 4177:

from the Late/latest Oligocene of the Bugti hills, Balochistan, Pakistan".

4159: 3917: 3814: 3726: 3612: 3603: 3587:"The phylogeny and classification of tapiromorph perissodactyls (Mammalia)" 3586: 3306: 3281: 3230: 3136: 2925: 2900: 2744: 2715: 2585: 2305: 2301: 2164: 2032: 1987: 1773: 1701: 1407: 1397: 1389: 1365: 1335: 1174: 1100: 911: 816: 794: 754: 699: 574: 569: 252: 240: 4630: 3945: 3932: 3156:, sp. n., from the Dera Bugti deposits of Baluchistan.—preliminary notice" 1035:

specimen that lacked the M3 molar. In 1936, the American palaeontologists

4613: 2502: 2490: 2313: 2132:

Most terrestrial predators in their habitat were no bigger than a modern

2073: 1942: 1709: 1685: 1445: 1370: 1026: 957: 956:. Various indricothere remains were found in formations of the Mongolian 884: 773: 50: 3985: 4656: 3669: 3571: 2447: 2365: 2349: 2341: 2266: 2053: 1860: 1806: 1655: 992: 860: 789: 596: 95: 60: 3708: 3376:"A new genus of giant rhinoceros from oligocene of Dzungaria, Sinkang" 3286:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2724:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2111:

due to its size. According to Prothero, the best living analogues for

2107:

suggested in 1988 that overheating may have been a serious problem in

964:, as well as a very complete skull. These remains became the basis of 4524:

Terra Degli Elefanti Congresso Internazionale: The World of Elephants

4109: 4079: 3898: 3652:

Lucas, S. G.; Schoch, R. M.; Manning, E. (1981). "The systematics of

3041:

Yong-Xiang, L.; Yun-Xiang, Z.; Ji, L.; Zhi-Chao, L.; Kun, X. (2017).

2954:

Bulletin de la Société des Naturalistes de Moscou, Section Géologique

2934: 2390: 2375: 2368:, and the most common plant fossils are leaves of the desert-adapted 2361: 2317: 2309: 2223: 2211: 2095: 2069: 2045: 2026:

has yet been found and the tail is completely unknown. The atlas and

2019: 1872: 1456: 1441: 1402: 1385: 1361: 1340: 1180:

from the late Oligocene of Pakistan included junior synonyms such as

961: 612: 600: 552: 158: 100: 44: 37: 4575: 3563: 3266: 3151: 611:

and extant rhinoceroses. Because of its size, it would have had few

4598: 3844: 2437:

in Linxia during the late Oligocene, and it is possible that these

2374:. Trees in Mongolia and China included birch, elm, oaks, and other 2337: 2203: 2154:

may have been lengthy and individuals may have had long lifespans.

1991: 1938: 1904: 1883: 1736: 1449: 1320: 984: 949: 899: 608: 178: 90: 85: 70: 65: 55: 4469: 1973:

Unlike those of most primitive rhinocerotoids, the front teeth of

730: 607:

may have been similar to that of modern large mammals such as the

3882:"Why sauropods had long necks; and why giraffes have short necks" 2284: 2251: 2129:(a grazer) exploit different niches in the same areas of Africa. 2125:; it is used to explain how the black rhinoceros (a browser) and 811: 759: 592: 560: 556: 105: 80: 4643: 4172: 2291:

development of the Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt. The range of

1334:, which includes modern rhinoceroses, can be traced back to the 4126:"Biology of the sauropod dinosaurs: The evolution of gigantism" 3415:

Antoine, P. O.; Karadenizli, L.; Saraç, G. E.; Sen, S. (2008).

2321: 2041: 1417: 1338:—about 50 million years ago—with early precursors such as 1204:

from the middle and late Oligocene of northwest China included

1126:

was domed, while others were flat at the top was attributed to

588: 548: 188: 168: 3970:"There were giants upon the earth in those days (Book Review)" 1953:

had robust maxillae and premaxillae, upturned zygomata, domed

1426:

is known from the middle Eocene; by the late Eocene the genus

603:(trunk). The legs were long and pillar-like. The lifestyle of 2425:, lived, and descendants may have continued to South Asia as 2255: 1876: 1659:

40 million years ago, with the resulting stock evolving into

1538: 1422: 1393: 532: 4246: 4122: 2405:

based on their phylogenetic analys in 2021. They found that

1882:

The back of the skull was low and narrow, without the large

1712:, with the largest complete skeleton known belonging to the 991:, based on a complete skull with an associated mandible and 814:

that Pilgrim had previously assigned to the unrelated genus

4499:, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 399–420, 2133: 719: 3414: 3184: 1220:

may be distinct enough to warrant its original genus name

4214:"All-time giants: the largest animals and their problems" 2913:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

3638: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3624: 3622: 3244: 3242: 3240: 2973:

Zentralblatt für Mineralogie, Geologie und Paläontologie

752:, which was the basis for its separation from the genus 4392: 3796:"Shoulder height, body mass and shape of proboscideans" 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2210:

teeth confirm the creatures had a diet of soft leaves;

1267:. They also recognised the validity of species such as 551:

that has ever existed and lived from the early to late

3536: 3534: 3532: 3530: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2509:(between 23 and 16 million years ago). 1933:

are mainly discernible through skull characteristics.

650:, and it is thought to contain the following species; 4559:

Rhinoceros Giants: The Palaeobiology of Indricotheres

4322: 3933:"Estimating body mass from the astragalus in mammals" 3619: 3237: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 871:, but he mentioned the possibility of confusion with 835:, meaning "near the hornless beast", in reference to 16:

Extinct genus of hornless rhinocerotoids from Eurasia

4538: 4490: 3873: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3317: 2757: 2755: 1970:

prominent hind end, and a smaller upper incisor I1.

323: 306: 289: 276: 247: 3527: 2624: 748:1911 illustrations of the down-turned lower jaw of 706:" have also contributed to the problem. Inaccurate 19:"Baluchitherium" redirects here. For the song, see 3766: 3651: 3255:Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 2983: 2668: 2600: 2519: 2413:, northwestern China, and Kazakhstan north to the 1986:. The incisors may have been larger in males. The 4325:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3314: 3099:"An Oligocene giant rhino provides insights into 2752: 2389:species during the early (yellow) and late (red) 2044:, a feature found in advanced rhinoceroses. Like 1420:of western North America and Asia. The cow-sized 1224:, though its exact position requires evaluation. 567:means "near the hornless beast", in reference to 4720: 4318: 4316: 2497:do today. This would have made food scarcer for 2287:. Their distribution may be correlated with the 587:is unknown because of the incompleteness of the 4070:, gigantic fossil rhinoceros of Central Asia". 3682: 3096: 1059:variable species. The American palaeontologist 820:were later shown to belong to the new species. 4497:Eocene-Oligocene Climatic and Biotic Evolution 4100:, a giant hornless rhinoceros from Mongolia". 4091: 4089: 4065: 3745:Trudy Paleontology Institut Akademii Nauk SSSR 3743:Gromova, V. L. (1959). "Gigantskie nosorogi". 3738: 3736: 3683:Wang, H.; Bai, B.; Meng, J.; Wang, Y. (2016). 3486: 3279: 3248: 3149: 3036: 3034: 2898: 2855: 2808: 2761: 2709: 2707: 1764:had large elephant-like ears that it used for 948:led a well-documented expedition to China and 918:, until 1923, but the Russian palaeontologist 827:. Based on these remains, Foster-Cooper moved 4313: 4205: 4041:blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology 4035:Sea Monsters on Medieval and Renaissance Maps 3645: 3441: 3178: 1776:have expressed scepticism towards this idea. 1024:In 1922 Forster-Cooper named the new species 710:previously led scientists to believe various 3762: 3760: 3758: 3408: 3342:, New York, New York & Oxford, England: 3338:, in Prothero, D. R.; Schoch, R. M. (eds.), 2197:The simple, low-crowned teeth indicate that 855:later that year because the former name was 595:and a nasal incision that suggests it had a 4517: 4515: 4447: 4086: 3879: 3787: 3733: 3492: 3031: 2704: 2261: 1344:. Rhinocerotoidea contains three families; 3793: 3676: 3493:Qui, Z.-X.; Wang, B.-Y.; Deng, T. (2004). 3454:in the northern Junggar Basin of Xinjiang" 3373: 3333: 2952:n. sp. provenant du district de Tourgay". 1020:), in rhinoceros-like and slender versions 682:, which would make them the same species. 116: 4211: 4149: 4018: 3944: 3930: 3907: 3897: 3769:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 3755: 3716: 3602: 3432: 3421:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 3305: 3282:"The extinct rhinoceroses of Baluchistan" 3220: 3210: 3126: 3092: 3090: 3088: 3086: 3084: 3082: 3080: 2970: 2924: 2743: 2694:Records of the Geological Survey of India 2429:, dispersing through the Tibetan region. 2397:Deng and colleagues speculated about the 1376:The subfamily Indricotheriinae, to which 1138:represents the male of the same species. 937:skull (AMNH 18650), formerly assigned to 780:were discovered by the British geologist 4556: 4521: 4512: 4357: 3836: 3584: 3549: 2544: 2542: 2540: 2457: 2393:, according to Deng and colleagues, 2021 2380: 2265: 2238:would have had a large digestive tract. 2184: 2084: 2005: 1937:had features such as relatively slender 1913: 1735: 1720:). Despite its roughly equivalent mass, 1674: 1310: 1212:. In 2013, the American palaeontologist 1051:(an invalid name for the same taxon) of 1007: 987:and colleague described the new species 979:of China; the name refers to the nearby 928: 883:was named, suggested it may have been a 3967: 3742: 2947: 2688: 2433:existed in Xinjiang and Kazakhstan and 2001: 1779:Due to the fragmentary nature of known 1432:of Asia had almost reached the size of 1074:In 1989, the American palaeontologists 1003: 983:. In 2021, the Chinese palaeontologist 910:named for a mythological monster, the " 666:. The most completely-known species is 4721: 4228:from the original on 27 September 2016 4095: 3447: 3160:Annals and Magazine of Natural History 3077: 2998: 2862:Annals and Magazine of Natural History 2819:Annals and Magazine of Natural History 2772:Annals and Magazine of Natural History 2713: 2548: 2446:freely along the eastern coast of the 1164:Skull (left) and vertebrae (right) of 894:expedition later found fossils in the 4580: 4579: 4561:. Indiana: Indiana University Press. 4000:from the original on 12 November 2014 2790:from the original on 20 November 2015 2537: 1364:forms adapted for running and squat, 914:". He did not assign a species name, 3880:Taylor, M. P.; Wedel, M. J. (2013). 3842: 3832:from the original on 24 August 2016. 3448:Ye, Y.; J., Meng; Yu, W. W. (2003). 3396:from the original on 22 October 2014 3065:from the original on 12 October 2017 1708:was similar to that of some extinct 1134:fossils represent the female, while 859:, as it had already been used for a 4360:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4047:from the original on 6 October 2014 3334:Lucas, S. G.; Sobus, J. C. (1989), 3253:, from the Oligocene of Mongolia". 2880:from the original on 12 August 2018 2837:from the original on 7 October 2015 2180: 1649:evolved from a clade consisting of 1440:itself lived in Eurasia during the 1396:, and wrote that they may not be a 13: 4764:Taxa named by Clive Forster-Cooper 3852:Dinofest International Proceedings 3781:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1993.tb02560.x 3336:"The systematics of indricotheres" 2464:Pakistan Museum of Natural History 2274:, by Elizabeth Rungius Fulda, 1923 2214:studies have yet to be conducted. 1173:According to Lucas and Sobus, the 954:American Museum of Natural History 424:Forster-Cooper, 1913 (preoccupied) 135:American Museum of Natural History 14: 4785: 3861:from the original on 4 March 2016 3474:from the original on 3 March 2016 3019:from the original on 9 March 2016 2566:Journal of the History of Biology 1924:Musée d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris 1863:upper lip similar to that of the 1012:1923 skeletal reconstructions of 4754:Rupelian genus first appearances 4541: 4301:from the original on 8 June 2019 4142:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00137.x 4021:"Tet Zoo Bookshelf: van Grouw's 3642:Prothero, 2013. pp. 107–121 3434:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2007.00366.x 3059:10.19615/j.cnki.1000-3118.170922 2080: 1886:crests at the top and along the 1823: 1814: 1805: 1319:with other rhinos, according to 1154: 1145: 933:Preparator Otto Falkenbach with 738: 729: 145: 48: 4534: 4484: 4441: 4386: 4351: 4240: 4179:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 4166: 4116: 4059: 4012: 3961: 3924: 3578: 3543: 3385:. 11 (in Chinese and English). 3367: 3340:The Evolution of Perissodactyls 3273: 3143: 2992: 2964: 2941: 2892: 2849: 2716:"On the skull and dentition of 2665:Prothero, 2013. pp. 87–106 2482:, vegetational change, and low 2300:included other rhinocerotoids, 1043:proposed that Forster-Cooper's 944:In 1922, the American explorer 875:. The American palaeontologist 3540:Prothero, 2013. pp. 53–66 3001:"The extinct giant rhinoceros 2802: 2682: 2679:Prothero, 2013. pp. 35–52 2621:Prothero, 2013. pp. 67–86 2534:Prothero, 2013. pp. 17–34 1670: 1636:, wherein they still retained 1315:Phylogenetic relationships of 762:and part of a mandible (right) 501:Pristinotherium brevicervicale 1: 4759:Fossil taxa described in 1911 3937:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 3803:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 2989:Prothero, 2013. pp. 1–16 2950:Indricotherium transouralicum 2512: 2453: 1733:and Mathew J. Wedel in 2013. 904:Moscow Paleontological Museum 461:Indricotherium transouralicum 131:Moscow Paleontological Museum 4744:Prehistoric placental genera 4739:Aquitanian genus extinctions 4345:10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.07.010 3508:(3): 177–192. Archived from 3212:10.1371/journal.pone.0193774 3005:of Western and Central Asia" 2858:"Correction of generic name" 1306: 1259:were valid genera, and that 851:), but he renamed the genus 446:Paraceratherium zhajremensis 7: 4774:Oligocene mammals of Europe 4749:Extinct animals of Pakistan 3280:Forster-Cooper, C. (1934). 3150:Forster-Cooper, C. (1922). 2899:Forster-Cooper, C. (1923). 2856:Forster-Cooper, C. (1913). 2809:Forster-Cooper, C. (1913). 2762:Forster-Cooper, C. (1911). 1352:("true rhinoceroses"), and 1244:is now a junior synonym of 968:, named by Osborn in 1923. 892:Russian Academy of Sciences 685: 10: 4790: 4380:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.05.006 4199:10.1016/j.jaes.2003.09.005 4019:Naish, D. (29 June 2013). 3504:(in Chinese and English). 3463:(in Chinese and English). 3119:10.1038/s42003-021-02170-6 2385:Map showing localities of 2177:are entirely conjectural. 1697:largest known land mammals 1360:. There were long-legged, 1303:as synonyms of the genus. 514:Benaratherium callistratum 18: 4769:Oligocene mammals of Asia 4588: 4495:; Berggren, W.A. (eds.), 4419:10.1007/s00114-011-0786-z 4276:10.1007/s00442-003-1254-z 4212:Alexander, R. M. (1998). 4175:Paraceratherium bugtiense 4102:American Museum Novitates 4072:American Museum Novitates 3172:10.1080/00222932208632717 2874:10.1080/00222931308693431 2831:10.1080/00222931308693412 2784:10.1080/00222931108693085 2766:Paraceratherium bugtiense 2718:Paraceratherium bugtiense 2578:10.1007/s10739-014-9395-y 2462:Life sized model outside 2417:. They hypothesised that 2136:and were not a threat to 1941:and premaxillae, shallow 1577: 1559: 1552: 1534: 1527: 1509: 1502: 1482: 1475: 1416:from the middle and late 1053:Paraceratherium bugtiense 1033:Paraceratherium bugtiense 573:, the genus in which the 350: 343: 273: 268: 246: 239: 142:Scientific classification 140: 124: 115: 30: 4258:(Submitted manuscript). 2907:Indricotherium turgaicum 2813:Thaumastotherium osborni 2568:(Submitted manuscript). 2262:Distribution and habitat 1796: 1240:. Though the genus name 971:In 2017, a new species, 539:belonging to the family 477:Indricotherium asiaticum 422:Thaumastotherium osborni 4372:2005E&PSL.236..322W 4098:Baluchitherium grangeri 4096:Osborn, H. F. (1923). " 3968:Antoine, P. O. (2014). 3794:Larramendi, A. (2016). 3658:Journal of Paleontology 3374:Zhan-Xiang, Q. (1973). 3344:Oxford University Press 2189:Skull and lower jaw of 2146:. As in elephants, the 1663:in the late Eocene and 1236:, as well as the genus 966:Baluchitherium grangeri 863:insect. The fossils of 580:was originally placed. 493:Indricotherium grangeri 469:Baluchitherium grangeri 4734:Oligocene rhinoceroses 3931:Tsubamoto, T. (2012). 3815:10.4202/app.00136.2014 3604:10.1006/clad.1999.0107 3502:Vertebrata PalAsiatica 3461:Vertebrata PalAsiatica 3383:Vertebrata PalAsiatica 3307:10.1098/rstb.1934.0013 3154:Metamynodon bugtiensis 3107:Communications Biology 3047:Vertebrata PalAsiatica 2999:Osborn, H. F. (1923). 2926:10.1098/rstb.1924.0002 2903:Baluchitherium osborni 2745:10.1098/rstb.1924.0009 2714:Cooper, C. F. (1924). 2466: 2394: 2278:Remains assignable to 2275: 2194: 2171:documentaries such as 2100: 2015: 1926: 1842:The largest skulls of 1747: 1718:Mammuthus trogontherii 1689: 1324: 1130:; it is possible that 1061:William Diller Matthew 1045:Baluchitherium osborni 1021: 941: 877:Henry Fairfield Osborn 559:between China and the 438:Metamynodon bugtiensis 432:(Forster-Cooper, 1913) 430:Baluchitherium osborni 414:Aceratherium bugtiense 4691:Paleobiology Database 4557:Prothero, D. (2013). 3946:10.4202/app.2011.0067 3585:Holbrook, L. (1999). 2948:Pavlova, M. (1922). " 2461: 2384: 2269: 2188: 2123:competitive exclusion 2088: 2009: 1917: 1739: 1678: 1314: 1011: 932: 922:had already named it 768:Early discoveries of 712:geological formations 704:lumping and splitting 21:Baluchitherium (song) 3843:Paul, G. S. (1997). 3552:Journal of Mammalogy 3346:, pp. 358–378, 3292:(494–508): 569–616. 2730:(391–401): 369–394. 2476:inadaptive evolution 2333:Hsanda Gol Formation 2002:Postcranial skeleton 1323:and colleagues, 2021 1004:Species and synonyms 843:("wonderful beast") 825:Clive Forster-Cooper 786:Chitarwata Formation 485:Indricotherium minus 440:Forster-Cooper, 1922 365:Forster-Cooper, 1913 4549:Paleontology portal 4462:1998Natur.394..364M 4411:2011NW.....98..407S 4399:Naturwissenschaften 4337:2011PPP...311...19M 4268:2003Oecol.136...14C 4191:2004JAESc..24...71A 3986:10.18563/pv.38.1.e4 3701:2016NatSR...639607W 3298:1934RSPTB.223..569F 3203:2018PLoSO..1393774T 2736:1924RSPTB.212..369F 2549:Manias, C. (2014). 2174:Walking With Beasts 2105:Robert M. Alexander 2018:No complete set of 1382:Leonard B. Radinsky 946:Roy Chapman Andrews 782:Guy Ellcock Pilgrim 543:. It is one of the 4130:Biological Reviews 4027:Eternity of Eagles 3689:Scientific Reports 3515:on 22 October 2014 2919:(391–401): 35–66. 2467: 2399:palaeobiogeography 2395: 2276: 2230:would have been a 2195: 2101: 2046:sauropod dinosaurs 2016: 1927: 1894:was very wide and 1748: 1690: 1679:Estimated size of 1325: 1263:did not belong in 1200:. By this scheme, 1041:William K. Gregory 1022: 942: 583:The exact size of 454:P. transouralicum: 4729:Paraceratheriidae 4716: 4715: 4678:Open Tree of Life 4582:Taxon identifiers 4568:978-0-253-00819-0 4506:978-0-691-02542-1 4456:(6691): 364–367. 3709:10.1038/srep39607 3353:978-0-19-506039-3 2495:African elephants 2484:reproduction rate 2411:Mongolian Plateau 2272:P. transouralicum 2270:Foraging herd of 2232:hindgut fermenter 2191:P. transouralicum 2091:P. transouralicum 2089:Restoration of a 2012:P. transouralicum 1951:P. transouralicum 1920:P. transouralicum 1909:P. transouralicum 1901:P. transouralicum 1892:occipital condyle 1869:Indian rhinoceros 1834:P. transouralicum 1791:P. transouralicum 1786:P. transouralicum 1753:P. transouralicum 1745:P. transouralicum 1731:Michael P. Taylor 1681:P. transouralicum 1629: 1628: 1620: 1619: 1611: 1610: 1602: 1601: 1593: 1592: 1190:P. transouralicum 1136:P. transouralicum 1128:sexual dimorphism 1120:P. transouralicum 1088:P. transouralicum 1018:P. transouralicum 952:sponsored by the 935:P. transouralicum 924:I. transouralicum 869:odd-toed ungulate 831:to the new genus 808:wastebasket taxon 708:geological dating 680:sexual dimorphism 676:P. transouralicum 668:P. transouralicum 656:P. transouralicum 541:Paraceratheriidae 524: 523: 517: 504: 496: 488: 480: 472: 464: 449: 441: 433: 425: 417: 400: 391: 382: 374: 366: 356: 337: 320: 303: 294:P. transouralicum 286: 235: 212:Paraceratheriidae 127:P. transouralicum 4781: 4709: 4708: 4699: 4698: 4686: 4685: 4673: 4672: 4660: 4659: 4647: 4646: 4634: 4633: 4624: 4623: 4622: 4609: 4608: 4607: 4577: 4576: 4572: 4551: 4546: 4545: 4544: 4528: 4527: 4519: 4510: 4509: 4488: 4482: 4481: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4390: 4384: 4383: 4366:(1–2): 322–338. 4355: 4349: 4348: 4320: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4300: 4253: 4244: 4238: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4224:(6): 1231–1245. 4209: 4203: 4202: 4170: 4164: 4163: 4153: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4093: 4084: 4083: 4063: 4057: 4056: 4054: 4052: 4023:Unfeathered Bird 4016: 4010: 4009: 4007: 4005: 3974:Palaeovertebrata 3965: 3959: 3958: 3948: 3928: 3922: 3921: 3911: 3901: 3899:10.7717/peerj.36 3877: 3871: 3870: 3868: 3866: 3860: 3849: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3831: 3800: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3764: 3753: 3752: 3740: 3731: 3730: 3720: 3680: 3674: 3673: 3649: 3643: 3640: 3617: 3616: 3606: 3582: 3576: 3575: 3547: 3541: 3538: 3525: 3524: 3522: 3520: 3514: 3499: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3473: 3458: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3436: 3412: 3406: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3395: 3380: 3371: 3365: 3364: 3331: 3312: 3311: 3309: 3277: 3271: 3270: 3246: 3235: 3234: 3224: 3214: 3182: 3176: 3175: 3147: 3141: 3140: 3130: 3094: 3075: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3038: 3029: 3028: 3026: 3024: 2996: 2990: 2987: 2981: 2980: 2968: 2962: 2961: 2945: 2939: 2938: 2928: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2853: 2847: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2806: 2800: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2759: 2750: 2749: 2747: 2711: 2702: 2701: 2686: 2680: 2677: 2666: 2663: 2622: 2619: 2598: 2597: 2563: 2546: 2535: 2532: 2289:palaeogeographic 2216:Isotope analysis 2181:Diet and feeding 2148:gestation period 2127:white rhinoceros 1982:and the related 1947:Dzungariotherium 1918:Upper molars of 1865:black rhinoceros 1848:zygomatic arches 1827: 1818: 1809: 1766:thermoregulation 1741:Life restoration 1555: 1554: 1530: 1529: 1505: 1504: 1499:Indricotheriinae 1478: 1477: 1467: 1466: 1295:, while keeping 1273:P. tienshanensis 1257:Dzungariotherium 1234:P. tienshanensis 1222:Dzungariotherium 1158: 1149: 1111:Dzungariotherium 1076:Spencer G. Lucas 841:Thaumastotherium 742: 733: 617:gestation period 512: 499: 491: 483: 475: 467: 459: 448:Bayshashov, 1988 444: 436: 428: 420: 412: 399:Species synonymy 398: 389: 380: 372: 364: 354: 331: 325: 314: 308: 297: 291: 284: 278: 249: 230: 223: 210: 150: 149: 120: 110: 47: 36:Temporal range: 28: 27: 4789: 4788: 4784: 4783: 4782: 4780: 4779: 4778: 4719: 4718: 4717: 4712: 4704: 4702: 4694: 4689: 4681: 4676: 4668: 4663: 4655: 4650: 4642: 4637: 4629: 4627: 4620:Paraceratherium 4618: 4617: 4612: 4603: 4602: 4597: 4590:Paraceratherium 4584: 4569: 4547: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4532: 4531: 4520: 4513: 4507: 4493:Prothero, D. R. 4489: 4485: 4446: 4442: 4395:Paraceratherium 4391: 4387: 4356: 4352: 4321: 4314: 4304: 4302: 4298: 4251: 4245: 4241: 4231: 4229: 4210: 4206: 4171: 4167: 4121: 4117: 4094: 4087: 4064: 4060: 4050: 4048: 4017: 4013: 4003: 4001: 3966: 3962: 3929: 3925: 3878: 3874: 3864: 3862: 3858: 3847: 3841: 3837: 3829: 3798: 3792: 3788: 3765: 3756: 3741: 3734: 3681: 3677: 3654:Forstercooperia 3650: 3646: 3641: 3620: 3583: 3579: 3564:10.2307/1377893 3548: 3544: 3539: 3528: 3518: 3516: 3512: 3497: 3491: 3487: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3456: 3452:Paraceratherium 3446: 3442: 3413: 3409: 3399: 3397: 3393: 3378: 3372: 3368: 3354: 3332: 3315: 3278: 3274: 3247: 3238: 3197:(4): e0193774. 3183: 3179: 3166:(53): 617–620. 3148: 3144: 3101:Paraceratherium 3095: 3078: 3068: 3066: 3039: 3032: 3022: 3020: 3009:Natural History 2997: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2969: 2965: 2946: 2942: 2897: 2893: 2883: 2881: 2854: 2850: 2840: 2838: 2825:(70): 376–381. 2807: 2803: 2793: 2791: 2778:(48): 711–716. 2760: 2753: 2712: 2705: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2669: 2664: 2625: 2620: 2601: 2561: 2547: 2538: 2533: 2520: 2515: 2499:Paraceratherium 2471:Paraceratherium 2456: 2415:Tibetan Plateau 2403:Paraceratherium 2387:Paraceratherium 2358:Paraceratherium 2329:Paraceratherium 2327:The habitat of 2298:Paraceratherium 2293:Paraceratherium 2280:Paraceratherium 2264: 2248:Paraceratherium 2244:Paraceratherium 2236:Paraceratherium 2228:Paraceratherium 2222:fed chiefly on 2220:Paraceratherium 2208:Paraceratherium 2199:Paraceratherium 2183: 2161:Paraceratherium 2156:Paraceratherium 2152:Paraceratherium 2138:Paraceratherium 2118:Paraceratherium 2113:Paraceratherium 2109:Paraceratherium 2093:pair, with two 2083: 2066:Paraceratherium 2050:Paraceratherium 2024:Paraceratherium 2004: 1980:Paraceratherium 1975:Paraceratherium 1931:Paraceratherium 1929:The species of 1896:Paraceratherium 1857:Paraceratherium 1852:Paraceratherium 1844:Paraceratherium 1840: 1839: 1838: 1837: 1830: 1829: 1828: 1820: 1819: 1811: 1810: 1799: 1781:Paraceratherium 1770:Paraceratherium 1762:Paraceratherium 1727:Gregory S. Paul 1722:Paraceratherium 1706:Paraceratherium 1693:Paraceratherium 1673: 1665:Paraceratherium 1651:Forstercooperia 1638:Paraceratherium 1634:Forstercooperia 1630: 1621: 1612: 1603: 1594: 1582:Paraceratherium 1514:Forstercooperia 1461:Paraceratherium 1438:Paraceratherium 1434:Paraceratherium 1413:Forstercooperia 1378:Paraceratherium 1358:Paraceratherium 1332:Rhinocerotoidea 1317:Paraceratherium 1309: 1281:Paraceratherium 1265:Paraceratherium 1246:Paraceratherium 1216:suggested that 1214:Donald Prothero 1186:P. zhajremensis 1171: 1170: 1169: 1168: 1161: 1160: 1159: 1151: 1150: 1108:(originally in 1098:(originally in 1090:(originally in 1080:Paraceratherium 1057:morphologically 1006: 998:Paraceratherium 873:Paraceratherium 833:Paraceratherium 778:Paraceratherium 766: 765: 764: 763: 758:(left), and an 745: 744: 743: 735: 734: 696:Paraceratherium 688: 648:Paraceratherium 644:junior synonyms 640:Pristinotherium 605:Paraceratherium 585:Paraceratherium 565:Paraceratherium 528:Paraceratherium 520: 487:Borissiak, 1923 479:Borissiak, 1923 402: 401: 394: 381:Birkjukov, 1953 378:Pristinotherium 373:Borissiak, 1916 358: 357: 285:(Pilgrim, 1908) 264: 258: 229: 226:Paraceratherium 221: 208: 144: 111: 109: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 53: 42: 41: 34: 32:Paraceratherium 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4787: 4777: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4714: 4713: 4711: 4710: 4700: 4687: 4674: 4661: 4648: 4635: 4625: 4610: 4594: 4592: 4586: 4585: 4574: 4573: 4567: 4553: 4552: 4536: 4533: 4530: 4529: 4511: 4505: 4483: 4440: 4405:(5): 407–423. 4385: 4350: 4331:(1–2): 19–29. 4312: 4239: 4204: 4165: 4136:(1): 117–155. 4115: 4085: 4068:Baluchitherium 4058: 4033:, Van Duzer's 4011: 3960: 3923: 3872: 3835: 3786: 3754: 3747:(in Russian). 3732: 3675: 3664:(4): 826–841. 3644: 3618: 3597:(3): 331–350. 3577: 3558:(4): 631–639. 3542: 3526: 3485: 3450:"Discovery of 3440: 3427:(3): 581–592. 3407: 3366: 3352: 3313: 3272: 3251:Baluchitherium 3236: 3177: 3142: 3076: 3053:(4): 367–381. 3030: 3003:Baluchitherium 2991: 2982: 2963: 2940: 2909:, Borrissyak)" 2891: 2848: 2801: 2751: 2703: 2690:Pilgrim, G. E. 2681: 2667: 2623: 2599: 2557:Indricotherium 2553:Baluchitherium 2536: 2517: 2516: 2514: 2511: 2480:climate change 2455: 2452: 2439:sister species 2263: 2260: 2182: 2179: 2103:The zoologist 2082: 2079: 2003: 2000: 1961:differed from 1959:P. huangheense 1888:sagittal crest 1875:(trunk) as in 1832: 1831: 1822: 1821: 1813: 1812: 1804: 1803: 1802: 1801: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1714:steppe mammoth 1695:is one of the 1672: 1669: 1642:Indricotherium 1627: 1626: 1623: 1622: 1618: 1617: 1614: 1613: 1609: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1600: 1599: 1596: 1595: 1591: 1590: 1587: 1586: 1576: 1573: 1572: 1569: 1568: 1558: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1544: 1543: 1533: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1522: 1519: 1518: 1508: 1503: 1501: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1481: 1476: 1474: 1472:Hyracodontidae 1465: 1354:Hyracodontidae 1350:Rhinocerotidae 1308: 1305: 1301:Baluchitherium 1297:Indricotherium 1253:Indricotherium 1242:Indricotherium 1230:I. intermedium 1206:D. turfanensis 1163: 1162: 1153: 1152: 1144: 1143: 1142: 1141: 1140: 1124:Indricotherium 1092:Indricotherium 1065:Baluchitherium 1049:junior synonym 1037:Walter Granger 1005: 1002: 977:Gansu Province 973:P. huangheense 908:Indricotherium 896:Aral Formation 879:, after which 865:Baluchitherium 853:Baluchitherium 806:was by then a 747: 746: 737: 736: 728: 727: 726: 725: 724: 687: 684: 678:may be due to 660:P. huangheense 636:Indricotherium 632:Baluchitherium 537:rhinocerotoids 531:is an extinct 522: 521: 519: 518: 510: 508:Dubious names: 505: 503:Birjukov, 1953 497: 495:(Osborn, 1923) 489: 481: 473: 465: 457: 450: 442: 434: 426: 418: 410: 397: 396: 395: 393: 392: 383: 375: 370:Indricotherium 367: 362:Baluchitherium 355:Genus synonymy 353: 352: 351: 348: 347: 341: 340: 339: 338: 321: 311:P. huangheense 304: 287: 271: 270: 266: 265: 259: 244: 243: 237: 236: 232:Forster-Cooper 219: 215: 214: 206: 202: 201: 199:Perissodactyla 196: 192: 191: 186: 182: 181: 176: 172: 171: 166: 162: 161: 156: 152: 151: 138: 137: 122: 121: 113: 112: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 35: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4786: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4707: 4701: 4697: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4626: 4621: 4615: 4611: 4606: 4600: 4596: 4595: 4593: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4578: 4570: 4564: 4560: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4539: 4525: 4518: 4516: 4508: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4487: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4470:10.1038/28603 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4444: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4389: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4354: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4319: 4317: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4250: 4243: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4218:Palaeontology 4215: 4208: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4169: 4161: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4119: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4092: 4090: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4062: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4015: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3964: 3956: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3927: 3919: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3876: 3857: 3853: 3846: 3839: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3797: 3790: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3763: 3761: 3759: 3750: 3746: 3739: 3737: 3728: 3724: 3719: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3679: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3648: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3623: 3614: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3581: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3546: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3531: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3496: 3489: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3455: 3453: 3444: 3435: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3411: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3377: 3370: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3308: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3276: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3245: 3243: 3241: 3232: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3213: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3181: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3155: 3146: 3138: 3134: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3102: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3081: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3037: 3035: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3004: 2995: 2986: 2978: 2975:(in German). 2974: 2967: 2959: 2956:(in French). 2955: 2951: 2944: 2936: 2932: 2927: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2908: 2904: 2895: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2852: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2814: 2805: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2767: 2758: 2756: 2746: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2719: 2710: 2708: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2685: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2618: 2616: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2608: 2606: 2604: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2572:(2): 237–78. 2571: 2567: 2560: 2558: 2554: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2518: 2510: 2508: 2507:early Miocene 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2472: 2465: 2460: 2451: 2449: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2435:P. linxiaense 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2379: 2377: 2373: 2372: 2367: 2364:and abundant 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2334: 2330: 2325: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2273: 2268: 2259: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2239: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2192: 2187: 2178: 2176: 2175: 2170: 2166: 2165:biomechanical 2162: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2144: 2143:Astorgosuchus 2139: 2135: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2098: 2097: 2092: 2087: 2081:Palaeobiology 2078: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2057: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2038: 2037:neural spines 2034: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2013: 2010:Hind foot of 2008: 1999: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1984:Urtinotherium 1981: 1976: 1971: 1968: 1967:P. linxiaense 1964: 1960: 1956: 1955:frontal bones 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1912: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1880: 1878: 1874: 1871:, or a short 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1835: 1826: 1817: 1808: 1794: 1792: 1787: 1782: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1757: 1754: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1710:proboscideans 1707: 1703: 1698: 1694: 1688: 1687: 1682: 1677: 1668: 1666: 1662: 1661:Urtinotherium 1658: 1657: 1652: 1648: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1625: 1624: 1616: 1615: 1607: 1606: 1598: 1597: 1589: 1588: 1585: 1584: 1583: 1575: 1574: 1571: 1570: 1567: 1566: 1565: 1564:Urtinotherium 1557: 1556: 1550: 1549: 1546: 1545: 1542: 1541: 1540: 1532: 1531: 1525: 1524: 1521: 1520: 1517: 1516: 1515: 1507: 1506: 1500: 1496: 1495: 1492: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1486:Triplopodinae 1480: 1479: 1473: 1469: 1468: 1464: 1462: 1458: 1453: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1430: 1429:Urtinotherium 1425: 1424: 1419: 1415: 1414: 1409: 1405: 1404: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1372: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1346:Amynodontidae 1343: 1342: 1337: 1333: 1330: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1238:Benaratherium 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1218:P. orgosensis 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1202:P. orgosensis 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1176: 1167: 1166:P. linxiaense 1157: 1148: 1139: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1116:dubious names 1113: 1112: 1107: 1106:P. orgosensis 1103: 1102: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1047:was likely a 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1028: 1019: 1015: 1010: 1001: 999: 994: 990: 989:P. linxiaense 986: 982: 981:Huanghe River 978: 974: 969: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 940: 936: 931: 927: 925: 921: 920:Maria Pavlova 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 888: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 821: 819: 818: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 796: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 770:indricotheres 761: 757: 756: 751: 741: 732: 723: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 683: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 664:P. linxiaense 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 629: 624: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 599:upper lip or 598: 594: 590: 586: 581: 579: 576: 572: 571: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 529: 516:Gabunia, 1955 515: 511: 509: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 463:Pavlova, 1922 462: 458: 456: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 416:Pilgrim, 1908 415: 411: 409: 408: 407:P. bugtiense: 404: 403: 390:Gabunia, 1955 388: 387:Benaratherium 384: 379: 376: 371: 368: 363: 360: 359: 349: 346: 342: 335: 330: 329: 328:P. linxiaense 322: 318: 313: 312: 305: 301: 296: 295: 288: 283: 282: 275: 274: 272: 267: 262: 257: 256: 254: 245: 242: 238: 233: 228: 227: 220: 217: 216: 213: 207: 204: 203: 200: 197: 194: 193: 190: 187: 184: 183: 180: 177: 174: 173: 170: 167: 164: 163: 160: 157: 154: 153: 148: 143: 139: 136: 132: 128: 123: 119: 114: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 57: 52: 46: 39: 33: 29: 26: 22: 4589: 4558: 4535:Bibliography 4523: 4496: 4486: 4453: 4449: 4443: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4388: 4363: 4359: 4353: 4328: 4324: 4303:. Retrieved 4262:(1): 14–27. 4259: 4255: 4242: 4230:. Retrieved 4221: 4217: 4207: 4185:(1): 71–77. 4182: 4178: 4174: 4168: 4133: 4129: 4118: 4104:(78): 1–15. 4101: 4097: 4074:(787): 1–3. 4071: 4067: 4061: 4049:. Retrieved 4040: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4014: 4002:. Retrieved 3977: 3973: 3963: 3936: 3926: 3889: 3885: 3875: 3863:. Retrieved 3851: 3838: 3806: 3802: 3789: 3772: 3768: 3748: 3744: 3695:(1): 39607. 3692: 3688: 3678: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3647: 3594: 3590: 3580: 3555: 3551: 3545: 3517:. Retrieved 3510:the original 3505: 3501: 3488: 3476:. Retrieved 3464: 3460: 3451: 3443: 3424: 3420: 3410: 3398:. Retrieved 3386: 3382: 3369: 3339: 3289: 3285: 3275: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3194: 3190: 3180: 3163: 3159: 3153: 3145: 3110: 3106: 3100: 3067:. Retrieved 3050: 3046: 3021:. Retrieved 3012: 3008: 3002: 2994: 2985: 2976: 2972: 2966: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2943: 2916: 2912: 2906: 2902: 2894: 2882:. Retrieved 2865: 2864:. Series 8. 2861: 2851: 2839:. Retrieved 2822: 2821:. Series 8. 2818: 2812: 2804: 2792:. Retrieved 2775: 2774:. Series 8. 2771: 2765: 2727: 2723: 2717: 2697: 2693: 2684: 2569: 2565: 2556: 2552: 2498: 2488: 2470: 2469:The reasons 2468: 2443:P. bugtiense 2442: 2434: 2430: 2427:P. bugtiense 2426: 2422: 2419:P, asiaticum 2418: 2407:P. bugtiense 2406: 2402: 2396: 2386: 2369: 2357: 2353: 2345: 2328: 2326: 2306:amphicyonids 2302:artiodactyls 2297: 2292: 2279: 2277: 2271: 2247: 2243: 2240: 2235: 2227: 2219: 2207: 2198: 2196: 2190: 2172: 2160: 2155: 2151: 2141: 2137: 2131: 2117: 2112: 2108: 2102: 2094: 2090: 2065: 2058: 2049: 2033:zygapophyses 2023: 2022:and ribs of 2017: 2011: 1988:canine teeth 1983: 1979: 1974: 1972: 1966: 1963:P. bugtiense 1962: 1958: 1950: 1946: 1935:P. bugtiense 1934: 1930: 1928: 1919: 1908: 1900: 1895: 1881: 1856: 1851: 1843: 1841: 1833: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1778: 1774:Darren Naish 1769: 1761: 1758: 1752: 1749: 1744: 1721: 1717: 1705: 1702:Vera Gromova 1692: 1691: 1684: 1680: 1664: 1660: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1631: 1581: 1580: 1578: 1562: 1560: 1537: 1535: 1512: 1510: 1483: 1460: 1454: 1437: 1433: 1427: 1421: 1411: 1401: 1398:monophyletic 1390:tapiromorphs 1377: 1375: 1366:semi aquatic 1357: 1339: 1336:early Eocene 1326: 1316: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1289:P. asiaticum 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1261:P. prohorovi 1260: 1256: 1252: 1250: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1226:P. prohorovi 1225: 1221: 1217: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1178:P. bugtiense 1177: 1175:type species 1172: 1165: 1135: 1132:P. bugtiense 1131: 1123: 1119: 1109: 1105: 1101:Aralotherium 1099: 1096:P. prohorovi 1095: 1091: 1087: 1084:P. bugtiense 1083: 1079: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1052: 1044: 1032: 1025: 1023: 1017: 1013: 997: 988: 972: 970: 965: 943: 939:B. grangeri. 938: 934: 923: 916:I. asiaticum 915: 912:Indrik beast 907: 889: 880: 872: 864: 852: 849:P. bugtiense 848: 844: 840: 837:Aceratherium 836: 832: 829:A. bugtiense 828: 822: 817:Bugtitherium 815: 804:Aceratherium 803: 800:A. bugtiense 799: 795:Aceratherium 793: 777: 767: 755:Aceratherium 753: 750:P. bugtiense 749: 695: 689: 675: 672:P. bugtiense 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 652:P. bugtiense 651: 647: 639: 635: 631: 625: 604: 584: 582: 578:P. bugtiense 577: 575:type species 570:Aceratherium 568: 564: 547:terrestrial 535:of hornless 527: 526: 525: 513: 507: 500: 492: 484: 476: 471:Osborn, 1923 468: 460: 453: 452: 445: 437: 429: 421: 413: 406: 405: 386: 377: 369: 361: 333: 327: 326: 316: 310: 309: 293: 292: 281:P. bugtiense 280: 279: 253:Aceratherium 251: 250: 241:Type species 225: 224: 126: 31: 25: 4614:Wikispecies 4029:, Witton's 3939:: 259–265. 3854:: 129–142. 3467:: 220–229. 3389:: 182–191. 3023:8 September 3015:: 208–228. 2868:(71): 504. 2700:(1): 63–71. 2503:deinotheres 2491:gomphothere 2423:P. grangeri 2314:hyaenodonts 2304:, rodents, 2218:shows that 2074:trochanters 1943:skull roofs 1686:Patagotitan 1671:Description 1446:premaxillae 1329:superfamily 1285:P. grangeri 1194:B. grangeri 1069:B. grangeri 1027:Metamynodon 1014:B. grangeri 958:Gobi Desert 885:titanothere 857:preoccupied 774:Balochistan 694:history of 619:. It was a 615:and a long 43:34–23 4723:Categories 4526:: 133–136. 4031:Pterosaurs 4025:, Bodio's 4004:20 October 3775:: 85–101. 3751:: 154–156. 3591:Cladistics 3519:22 October 3478:22 October 3400:22 October 3113:(1): 639. 3103:evolution" 3069:11 October 2979:: 571–575. 2884:13 January 2764:"LXXVIII.— 2551:"Building 2513:References 2454:Extinction 2448:Tethys sea 2431:P. lepidum 2366:sand dunes 2360:lived had 2350:nitre bush 2342:mormon tea 2061:convergent 2054:pleurocoel 1861:prehensile 1656:Pappaceras 1293:P. lepidum 1269:P. lipidus 1210:P. lipidus 1182:B. osborni 1029:bugtiensis 993:atlas bone 881:B. osborni 861:hemipteran 790:Dera Bugti 597:prehensile 129:skeleton, 4478:204998953 4292:206989975 4256:Oecologia 4110:2246/3262 4080:2246/2123 4051:5 October 3994:203264606 3865:3 January 2960:: 95–116. 2841:28 August 2794:28 August 2594:207150574 2391:Oligocene 2376:deciduous 2371:Palibinia 2362:dry lakes 2318:nimravids 2310:mustelids 2224:C3 plants 2212:microwear 2096:Hyaenodon 2070:phalanges 2020:vertebrae 1996:metastyle 1873:proboscis 1457:cladogram 1450:premolars 1442:Oligocene 1403:Hyracodon 1388:study of 1386:cladistic 1362:cursorial 1341:Hyrachyus 1307:Evolution 962:quicksand 898:near the 692:taxonomic 613:predators 609:elephants 601:proboscis 553:Oligocene 255:bugtiense 165:Kingdom: 159:Eukaryota 38:Oligocene 4628:BioLib: 4599:Wikidata 4435:19968371 4427:21465174 4305:6 August 4296:Archived 4284:12712314 4226:Archived 4160:21251189 4045:Archived 3998:Archived 3955:54686160 3918:23638372 3856:Archived 3827:Archived 3727:28000789 3613:34902952 3469:Archived 3391:Archived 3362:19268080 3267:2246/363 3261:: 1–73. 3231:29668673 3191:PLOS ONE 3152:"LXXIV.— 3137:34140631 3063:Archived 3017:Archived 2905:(? syn. 2878:Archived 2835:Archived 2811:"XLIV.— 2788:Archived 2586:25537636 2354:Nitraria 2338:saltbush 2336:such as 2204:mesowear 2193:, Moscow 1992:diastema 1939:maxillae 1905:endocast 1884:lambdoid 1867:and the 1756:ranges. 1321:Tao Deng 1198:I. minus 985:Tao Deng 950:Mongolia 900:Aral Sea 812:incisors 686:Taxonomy 628:taxonomy 593:incisors 345:Synonyms 269:Species 205:Family: 189:Mammalia 179:Chordata 175:Phylum: 169:Animalia 155:Domain: 125:Mounted 4706:4635272 4683:4942792 4670:1030336 4657:4830663 4644:4528284 4605:Q311212 4458:Bibcode 4407:Bibcode 4368:Bibcode 4333:Bibcode 4264:Bibcode 4232:1 March 4187:Bibcode 4151:3045712 3980:: 1–3. 3909:3628838 3892:: e36. 3823:2092950 3718:5175171 3697:Bibcode 3670:1304430 3572:1377893 3294:Bibcode 3222:5905962 3199:Bibcode 3128:8211792 2732:Bibcode 2348:), and 2346:Ephedra 2285:Balkans 2252:giraffe 1408:derived 1104:), and 845:osborni 760:incisor 621:browser 589:fossils 561:Balkans 557:Eurasia 549:mammals 545:largest 302:, 1922) 300:Pavlova 261:Pilgrim 218:Genus: 195:Order: 185:Class: 4703:uBio: 4631:416754 4565: 4503: 4476: 4450:Nature 4433: 4425: 4290: 4282: 4158: 4148: 3992: 3953: 3916: 3906: 3821: 3725: 3715: 3668: 3611: 3570: 3360: 3350: 3229: 3219: 3135: 3125: 2933: 2592: 2584: 2322:felids 2042:sacrum 2014:, AMNH 1877:tapirs 1859:had a 1579: 1561: 1536: 1511: 1497: 1484: 1470: 1418:Eocene 1291:, and 1277:P. sui 1275:, and 700:Soviet 662:, and 638:, and 336:, 2021 334:et al. 319:, 2017 317:et al. 263:, 1908 234:, 1911 4696:43161 4665:IRMNG 4474:S2CID 4431:S2CID 4299:(PDF) 4288:S2CID 4252:(PDF) 3990:S2CID 3951:S2CID 3886:PeerJ 3859:(PDF) 3848:(PDF) 3830:(PDF) 3819:S2CID 3799:(PDF) 3666:JSTOR 3568:JSTOR 3513:(PDF) 3498:(PDF) 3472:(PDF) 3457:(PDF) 3394:(PDF) 3379:(PDF) 3011:. 3. 2935:92060 2931:JSTOR 2590:S2CID 2562:(PDF) 2256:okapi 2099:below 1797:Skull 1647:Juxia 1539:Juxia 1423:Juxia 1394:clade 1016:(now 716:molar 533:genus 332:Deng 4652:GBIF 4563:ISBN 4501:ISBN 4423:PMID 4307:2018 4280:PMID 4234:2016 4156:PMID 4053:2014 4006:2014 3914:PMID 3867:2015 3723:PMID 3609:PMID 3521:2014 3480:2014 3402:2014 3358:OCLC 3348:ISBN 3227:PMID 3133:PMID 3071:2017 3025:2014 2886:2018 2843:2015 2796:2015 2582:PMID 2555:and 2320:and 2254:and 2134:wolf 2052:had 2028:axis 1653:and 1640:and 1455:The 1327:The 1299:and 1255:and 1232:and 1208:and 1196:and 1184:and 1039:and 720:taxa 690:The 674:and 626:The 51:PreꞒ 4639:EoL 4466:doi 4454:394 4415:doi 4376:doi 4364:236 4341:doi 4329:311 4272:doi 4260:136 4195:doi 4146:PMC 4138:doi 4106:hdl 4076:hdl 3982:doi 3941:doi 3904:PMC 3894:doi 3811:doi 3777:doi 3773:108 3713:PMC 3705:doi 3599:doi 3560:doi 3429:doi 3425:152 3302:doi 3290:223 3263:hdl 3217:PMC 3207:doi 3168:doi 3123:PMC 3115:doi 3055:doi 2921:doi 2917:212 2870:doi 2827:doi 2780:doi 2740:doi 2728:212 2574:doi 2441:of 2401:of 2206:on 2169:CGI 2150:of 1907:of 1743:of 1122:or 1094:), 788:of 646:of 315:Li 4725:: 4693:: 4680:: 4667:: 4654:: 4641:: 4616:: 4601:: 4514:^ 4472:. 4464:. 4452:. 4429:. 4421:. 4413:. 4403:98 4401:. 4374:. 4362:. 4339:. 4327:. 4315:^ 4294:. 4286:. 4278:. 4270:. 4254:. 4222:41 4220:. 4216:. 4193:. 4183:24 4181:. 4154:. 4144:. 4134:86 4132:. 4128:. 4088:^ 4043:. 4039:. 4037:!" 3996:. 3988:. 3978:38 3976:. 3972:. 3949:. 3935:. 3912:. 3902:. 3888:. 3884:. 3850:. 3825:. 3817:. 3809:. 3807:61 3805:. 3801:. 3771:. 3757:^ 3749:71 3735:^ 3721:. 3711:. 3703:. 3691:. 3687:. 3662:55 3660:. 3621:^ 3607:. 3595:15 3593:. 3589:. 3566:. 3556:47 3554:. 3529:^ 3506:42 3500:. 3465:41 3459:. 3423:. 3419:. 3381:. 3356:, 3316:^ 3300:. 3288:. 3284:. 3259:72 3257:. 3239:^ 3225:. 3215:. 3205:. 3195:13 3193:. 3189:. 3162:. 3158:. 3131:. 3121:. 3109:. 3105:. 3079:^ 3061:. 3051:55 3049:. 3045:. 3033:^ 3013:23 3007:. 2977:18 2958:31 2929:. 2915:. 2911:. 2876:. 2866:12 2860:. 2833:. 2823:12 2817:. 2786:. 2770:. 2754:^ 2738:. 2726:. 2722:. 2706:^ 2698:40 2696:. 2670:^ 2626:^ 2602:^ 2588:. 2580:. 2570:48 2564:. 2539:^ 2521:^ 2478:, 2340:, 2324:. 2316:, 2312:, 2308:, 2048:, 1949:. 1922:, 1850:. 1463:: 1452:. 1436:. 1371:pi 1348:, 1287:, 1271:, 1188:. 1086:, 1071:. 890:A 887:. 802:. 798:; 658:, 654:, 634:, 563:. 101:Pg 45:Ma 40:, 4571:. 4480:. 4468:: 4460:: 4437:. 4417:: 4409:: 4382:. 4378:: 4370:: 4347:. 4343:: 4335:: 4309:. 4274:: 4266:: 4236:. 4201:. 4197:: 4189:: 4162:. 4140:: 4112:. 4108:: 4082:. 4078:: 4055:. 4008:. 3984:: 3957:. 3943:: 3920:. 3896:: 3890:1 3869:. 3813:: 3783:. 3779:: 3729:. 3707:: 3699:: 3693:6 3672:. 3615:. 3601:: 3574:. 3562:: 3523:. 3482:. 3437:. 3431:: 3404:. 3387:2 3310:. 3304:: 3296:: 3269:. 3265:: 3233:. 3209:: 3201:: 3174:. 3170:: 3164:9 3139:. 3117:: 3111:4 3073:. 3057:: 3027:. 2937:. 2923:: 2901:" 2888:. 2872:: 2845:. 2829:: 2798:. 2782:: 2776:8 2748:. 2742:: 2734:: 2596:. 2576:: 2352:( 2344:( 1716:( 385:? 324:† 307:† 298:( 290:† 277:† 248:† 222:† 209:† 106:N 96:K 91:J 86:T 81:P 76:C 71:D 66:S 61:O 56:Ꞓ 23:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index