406:
then completely submerged in the furnish, then pulled, shaken and drained, forming a uniform coating on the screen. Excess water is then removed, the wet mat of fibre laid on top of a damp cloth or felt in a process called "couching". The process is repeated for the required number of sheets. This stack of wet mats is then pressed in a hydraulic press. The fairly damp fibre is then dried using a variety of methods, such as vacuum drying or simply air drying. Sometimes, the individual sheet is rolled to flatten, harden, and refine the surface. Finally, the paper is then cut to the desired shape or the standard shape (A4, letter, legal, etc.) and packed.
20:
88:
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351:
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417:", one of the indications that the paper was made by hand. Deckle-edged paper is occasionally mechanically imitated today to create the impression of old-fashioned luxury. The impressions in paper caused by the wires in the screen that run sideways are called "laid lines" and the impressions made, usually from top to bottom, by the wires holding the sideways wires together are called "chain lines".
28:
530:
practitioners with their other artistic pursuits, while in academia the term may be applied to those conducting research, education, or conservation of books and paper artifacts. In the industrial field it tends to overlap with science, technology and engineering, and often with management of the pulp and paper business itself.
73:
developed in China and other regions of Asia, or those further modified in Europe. Handmade paper is still appreciated for its distinctive uniqueness and the skilled craft involved in making each sheet, in contrast with the higher degree of uniformity and perfection at lower prices achieved among industrial products.
72:
Before the invention and current widespread adoption of automated machinery, all paper was made by hand, formed or laid one sheet at a time by specialized laborers. Even today those who make paper by hand use tools and technologies quite similar to those existing hundreds of years ago, as originally
68:
In papermaking, a dilute suspension consisting mostly of separate cellulose fibres in water is drained through a sieve-like screen, so that a mat of randomly interwoven fibres is laid down. Water is further removed from this sheet by pressing, sometimes aided by suction or vacuum, or heating. Once
405:
Screening the fibre involves using a mesh made from non-corroding and inert material, such as brass, stainless steel or a synthetic fibre, which is stretched in a paper mould, a wooden frame similar to that of a window. The size of the paper is governed by the open area of the frame. The mould is
529:
While papermaking was considered a lifework, exclusive profession for most of its history, the term "notable papermakers" is often not strictly limited to those who actually make paper. Especially in the hand papermaking field there is currently an overlap of certain celebrated paper art
495:
that rotates while partially immersed in a vat of dilute pulp. The pulp is picked up by the wire mesh and covers the mould as it rises out of the vat. A couch roller is pressed against the mould to smooth out the pulp, and picks the wet sheet off the mould.
572:
and discovered that art paper was in short supply. During the 1940s and 1950s, Howell started reading Hunter's books on paper making, as well as he learned about hand paper making history, conducted paper making research, and learned about printed books.
242:
In other
Southeast Asian countries, elephants are fed with large amount of starch food, so that their feces can be used to make paper as well. This can be found in elephant preservation camps in Myanmar, where the paper is sold to fund the organization's
482:
A modern paper mill is divided into several sections, roughly corresponding to the processes involved in making handmade paper. Pulp is refined and mixed in water with other additives to make a pulp slurry. The head-box of the paper machine called
215:
uses the inner bark fibers of plants. This fiber is soaked, cooked, rinsed and traditionally hand-beaten to form the paper pulp. The long fibers are layered to form strong, translucent sheets of paper. In
Eastern Asia, three traditional fibers are
487:
distributes the slurry onto a moving continuous screen, water drains from the slurry by gravity or under vacuum, the wet paper sheet goes through presses and dries, and finally rolls into large rolls. The outcome often weighs several tons.
533:
Some well-known and recognized papermakers have found fame in other fields, to the point that their papermaking background is almost forgotten. One of the most notable examples might be that of the first humans that achieved flight, the
287:. This machine produces a continuous roll of paper rather than individual sheets. These machines are large. Some produce paper 150 meters in length and 10 meters wide. They can produce paper at a rate of 100 km/h. In 1844, Canadian
538:, where many accounts barely mention the paper mill their family owned, although paper used in their balloons did play a relevant role in their success, as probably did their familiarity with this light and strong material.
267:
rags were the main source of pulp, cotton eventually taking over after
Southern plantations made that product in large quantities. Papermaking was originally not popular in Europe due to not having many advantages over
295:
had invented the machine and associated process to make use of wood pulp in papermaking. This innovation ended the nearly 2,000-year use of pulped rags and start a new era for the production of
276:. It was not until the 15th century with the invention of the movable type of printing and its demand for paper that many paper mills entered production, and papermaking became an industry.
1236:
24. Longwood L.C. "Science and practice of hand made paper": (2004). 25. Westerlund L.C. "Fibre options for the sustainable development of the
Australian Paper and Pulp Industry": (2004)
564:
had reestablished the craft of fine hand paper making but by the 1930s the craft had lapsed in interest again. When artist
Douglass Howell returned to New York City after serving in
385:
The method of manual papermaking changed very little over time, despite advances in technologies. The process of manufacturing handmade paper can be generalized into five steps:
382:
in water, called "furnish", and forcing this suspension to drain through a screen, to produce a mat of interwoven fibres. Water is removed from this mat of fibres using a press.
1255:
427:
Handmade paper is also prepared in laboratories to study papermaking and in paper mills to check the quality of the production process. The "handsheets" made according to
102:
for wrapping and padding since the eighth century BCE. Paper with legible
Chinese writings on it has been dated to 8 BCE. The traditional inventor attribution is of
180:. Muslims invented a method to make a thicker sheet of paper. This innovation helped transform papermaking from an art into a major industry. The earliest use of
431:
Standard T 205 are circular sheets 15.9 cm (6.25 in) in diameter and are tested for paper characteristics such as brightness, strength and degree of
1003:
248:
212:
252:
2008:
424:
The
International Association of Hand Papermakers and Paper Artists (IAPMA) is the world-leading association for handmade paper artists.
201:
421:
are created by weaving a design into the wires in the mould. Handmade paper generally folds and tears more evenly along the laid lines.
1256:
The Center for Book and Paper Arts at
Columbia College Chicago hosted an exhibition on the contemporary art of hand papermaking in 2014
23:
A sheet of fibres which were just collected from the liquid suspension with the screen. The next steps are to press it and to dry it.
1017:
503:, due to its use of harsh chemicals, its need for large amounts of water, and the resulting contamination risks, as well as the
1224:
1131:
956:
912:
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Adjusting the colour, mechanical, chemical, biological, and other properties of the paper by adding special chemical premixes
924:
707:
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By the mid-19th century, making paper by hand was extinct in the United States. By 1912, fine book printer and publisher,
785:
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1993:
1988:
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859:
843:
768:
2003:
1998:
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57:, which are used widely for printing, writing, and packaging, among many other purposes. Today almost all paper is
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1471:
435:. Paper made from other fibers, cotton being the most common, tends to be valued higher than wood-based paper.
1922:
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145:, where the process was refined, and machinery was designed for bulk manufacturing. Production began in
122:
waste. Paper used as a writing medium had become widespread by the 3rd century and, by the 6th century,
1869:
1790:
997:
542:
236:
plant. This paper is used for calligraphy, printing, book arts, and three-dimensional work, including
925:
791:. Early Paper: Techniques and Transmission – A workshop at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study
816:
389:
Separating the useful fibre from the rest of raw materials. (e.g. cellulose from wood, cotton, etc.)
1401:
292:
1536:
1983:
1917:
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has paper specimens, personal papers and research material relating to the history of papermaking
454:
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Papermaking, regardless of the scale on which it is done, involves making a dilute suspension of
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Another type of paper machine, invented by John
Dickinson in 1809, makes use of a cylinder
745:
Loveday, Helen. Islamic paper: a study of the ancient craft. Archetype
Publications, 2001.
8:
2020:
1846:
1300:
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1202:. University of Delaware Library. Hugh M. Morris Library, University of Delaware Library.
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413:". The deckle leaves the edges of the paper slightly irregular and wavy, called "
288:
87:
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1396:
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1199:
East-West, Hand Papermaking Traditions and Innovations: An Exhibition Catalogue
724:
364:
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depicting the five seminal steps in ancient Chinese papermaking. From the 1637
19:
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The International Association of Hand Papermakers and Paper Artists (IAPMA)
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107:
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1055:"Papermaking by Hand at Hayle Mill, England in 1976" Film by Anglia TV.
703:
Paper Before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World
61:, while handmade paper survives as a specialized craft and a medium for
2015:
1942:
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dry, a generally flat, uniform and strong sheet of paper is achieved.
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138:(960–1279 CE) was the first government to issue paper-printed money.
62:
54:
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111:
110:(202 BCE – 220 CE), said to have invented paper about 105 CE using
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269:
237:
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662:. Retrieved April 9, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
221:
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caused by clearcutting the trees used as the primary source of
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410:
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27:
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and eventually almost all paper was made out of pulped wood.
264:
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50:
32:
260:
119:
95:
1276:
How to make a Carton: history of paper making in Australia
836:
Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft
757:
Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology
643:"World Archaeological Congress eNewsletter 11 August 2006"
255:
using metallic wire were developed, and features like the
1285:
106:, an official attached to the Imperial court during the
1124:
Paper Machine Clothing: Key to the Paper Making Process
38:, the oldest dated printed book in the world, found at
945:
Heavenly Creations: Gems of Ancient Chinese Inventions
624:
622:
279:
Modern papermaking began in the early 19th century in
188:
for preparing the pulp for papermaking, dates back to
1260:
696:
694:
126:
was starting to be used in China as well. During the
200:, where they were first noted in the 9th century by
1126:Sabit Adanur, Asten, CRC Press, 1997, pp. 120–136,
980:Rudolf Patt; et al. (2005). "Paper and Pulp".
938:
Tian gong kai wu: Zhongguo gu dai ke ji wen wu zhan
889:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1
686:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1
678:
673:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1
630:
Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1
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130:(618–907 CE) paper was folded and sewn into square
1096:
691:
1002:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
783:
665:
2124:
134:to preserve the flavour of tea, while the later
1069:"Forming Handsheets for Physical Tests of Pulp"
192:in the 8th century. The earliest references to
173:, papermaking was under the supervision of the
91:Early Xi'An hemp paper, dated to at least 87 BC
1216:The Language of Paper: A History of 2000 Years
1024:. Archived from the original on April 24, 2015
982:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
141:In the 8th century, papermaking spread to the
1301:
688:. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 123.
632:. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 122.
184:in paper production, specifically the use of
1173:"Douglas Morse Howell, Papermaking Champion"
1219:. Marshall Cavendish Editions. p. 65.
1057:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xs3PfwOItto
979:
947:] (in Chinese and English). Hong Kong:
891:. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 4.
786:"Paper in the Medieval Mediterranean World"
675:. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 1.
401:Pressing and drying to get the actual paper
1363:
1308:
1294:
501:concern from an environmental perspective
1195:
1094:
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259:were well established by 1300 CE, while
86:
26:
18:
1927:
905:Charles Fenerty and his Paper Invention
828:
826:
784:Jonathan M. Bloom (February 12, 2010).
700:
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568:, he established himself as a fine art
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990:10.1002/1435369762/quest7.a18_545.pub4
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708:Journal of Interdisciplinary History
1099:Handbook of Pulping and Papermaking
118:along with fishnets, old rags, and
13:
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14:
2154:
1239:
1095:Biermann, Christopher J. (1993).
2106:
2097:
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1271:University of Maryland Libraries
838:. New York: Dover Publications.
701:Mahdavi, Farid (2003). "Review:
398:Screening the resulting solution
392:Beating down the fibre into pulp
349:
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1246:The Harrison Elliott Collection
1206:
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1177:North American Hand Papermakers
1136:
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907:. Toronto: Peter Burger, 2007.
894:
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499:Papermaking continues to be of
59:made using industrial machinery
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739:
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635:
585:, paper made of bark, used in
409:The wooden frame is called a "
1:
1923:Environmental impact of paper
1267:Arnold Yates Paper collection
1103:. San Diego: Academic Press.
860:"The Atlas of Early Printing"
438:
283:with the development of the
7:
1196:Schreyer, Alice D. (1988).
576:
10:
2159:
1870:Surface chemistry of paper
1373:(Zuo Bo/Tso Po/Tso Tzǔ-yi)
725:10.1162/002219503322645899
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1144:"Cylinder machine device"
1041:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
658:Papermaking. (2007). In:
302:
31:The Diamond Sutra of the
1402:Friedrich Gottlob Keller
940:
933:
887:Needham, Joseph (1986).
763:. pp. 65 & 84.
684:Needham, Joseph (1986).
671:Needham, Joseph (1986).
628:Needham, Joseph (1986).
293:Friedrich Gottlob Keller
1918:Elemental chlorine free
1875:Units of paper quantity
1213:Weber, Therese (2009).
1148:Encyclopedia Britannica
984:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
936:[Papermaking].
705:by Jonathan M. Bloom".
660:Encyclopædia Britannica
455:Pulp and paper industry
98:paper had been used in
1898:Bleaching of wood pulp
1018:"Making Paper By Hand"
992:(inactive 2024-09-12).
834:Hunter, Dard (1978) .
811:Cite journal requires
608:Stickies (papermaking)
541:Key inventors include
479:
198:medieval Islamic world
92:
49:is the manufacture of
43:
24:
1817:Corrugated fiberboard
1574:Electrical insulation
1427:Thomas Francis Carter
599:Williams Paper Museum
465:Tervakoski Paper Mill
462:
90:
30:
22:
755:Lucas, Adam (2006).
614:Notes and references
536:Montgolfier brothers
525:Category:Papermakers
505:carbon sequestration
228:. In the Himalayas,
1250:Library of Congress
864:atlas.lib.uiowa.edu
519:Notable papermakers
485:Fourdrinier machine
285:Fourdrinier machine
213:papermaking in Asia
196:also come from the
182:water-powered mills
63:artistic expression
2138:Chinese inventions
1280:John Oxley Library
480:
253:papermaking moulds
202:Arabic geographers
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1437:Tsien Tsuen-hsuin
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1328:Paper engineering
1226:978-981-261-628-9
1132:978-1-56676-544-2
998:cite encyclopedia
958:978-962-7039-37-2
932:(1998). "Zàozhǐ"
913:978-0-9783318-1-8
555:Carl Daniel Ekman
547:Henry Fourdrinier
232:is made from the
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2074:Watercolor paper
1933:Hollander beater
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551:Heinrich Voelter
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83:History of paper
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