Al-Andalus - Knowledge

8754:"The rate of conversion is slow until the tenth century (less than one-quarter of the eventual total number of converts had been converted); the explosive period coincides closely with the reign of 'Abd al-Rahmdn III (912–961); the process is completed (eighty per cent converted) by around 1100. The curve, moreover, makes possible a reasonable estimate of the religious distribution of the population. Assuming that there were seven million Hispano-Romans in the peninsula in 711 and that the numbers of this segment of the population remained level through the eleventh century (with population growth balancing out Christian migration to the north), then by 912 there would have been approximately 2.8 million indigenous Muslims (muwalladûn) plus Arabs and Berbers. At this point Christians still vastly outnumbered Muslims. By 1100, however, the number of indigenous Muslims would have risen to a majority of 5.6 million.", (Glick 1999, Chapter 1: At the crossroads of civilization) 1294: 1971: 3163: 1162:. Abd al-Rahman's army was exhausted after their conquest, meanwhile Governor Yūsuf al-Fihri had returned from quashing another rebellion with his army. The siege of Córdoba began, and noticing the starving state of Abd al-Rahman's army, al-Fihri began throwing lavish feasts every day as the siege went on, to tempt Abd al Rahman's supporters to defect to his side. However, Abd al-Rahman persisted, even rejecting a truce that would have allowed Abd al-Rahman to marry al-Fihri's daughter. After decisively defeating Yūsuf al-Fihri's army, Abd al-Rahman was able to conquer Córdoba, where he proclaimed himself emir in 756. The rest of Iberia was easily conquered, and Abd al-Rahman soon had control of all of Iberia. 2280: 3804: 1729: 1859: 1114: 3233: 1094:, hoping they might be allowed to continue their autonomous existence. But when the Abbasids rejected the offer and demanded submission, the Fihrids declared independence and, probably out of spite, invited the deposed remnants of the Umayyad clan to take refuge in their dominions. It was a fateful decision that they soon regretted, for the Umayyads, the sons and grandsons of caliphs, had a more legitimate claim to rule than the Fihrids themselves. Rebellious-minded local lords, disenchanted with the autocratic rule of the Fihrids, conspired with the arriving Umayyad exiles. 3095: 1204: 2438: 2789: 64: 3029: 1702: 634: 819: 5222: 4724: 3300:(1353–1391). It integrates buildings and gardens with the natural qualities of the site and is a testament to Andalusi culture and to the skills of the Muslim artisans, craftsmen, and builders of their era. Nasrid architecture continued the earlier traditions of Andalusi architecture while also synthesizing them into its own distinctive style, which had many similarities with contemporary Marinid architecture in North Africa. It is characterized by the use of the 2649: 5558: 3406: 5153: 3268: 2634:, which became an important component of Andalusi identity. By the end of the 9th century, Arabic was widely adopted even among Andalusi Christians. Romance vernaculars (Mozarabic) ceased to be spoken in the 13th century, on the one hand following a gradual decline initiated in the 10th century in Al-Andalus, and on the other hand because of the shrinking of the Muslim-ruled lands and the expansion of Romance varieties from further north. 1562: 1624: 49: 5746:"Para los autores árabes medievales, el término Al-Andalus designa la totalidad de las zonas conquistadas – siquiera temporalmente – por tropas arabo-musulmanas en territorios actualmente pertenecientes a Portugal, España y Francia" ("For medieval Arab authors, Al-Andalus designated all the conquered areas – even temporarily – by Arab-Muslim troops in territories now belonging to Spain, Portugal and France"), 3384: 2465: 4637: 1962:), when developments were spurred by exposure to older works translated from, Greek, Persian and other languages. Scientific studies continued to be pursued in the following centuries, though certain fields and subjects thrived more depending on the period. Scholars often worked in many different and overlapping subjects, so it is difficult to place those discussed here into a single scientific field each. 926:. The Arab governor of al-Andalus, joined by this force, crushed the Berber rebels in a series of ferocious battles in 742. However, a quarrel immediately erupted between the Syrian commanders and the Andalusi, the so-called "original Arabs" of the earlier contingents. The Syrians defeated them at the hard-fought Battle of Aqua Portora in August 742 but were too few to impose themselves on the province. 4651: 1392: 2892: 3182:, produced luxury goods for use at court or as gifts for guests, allies, and diplomats, which stimulated artistic production. Many objects produced in the caliph's workshops later made their way into the collections of museums and Christian cathedrals in Europe. Among the most famous objects of this period are ivory boxes which are carved with vegetal, 1263:, ignoring the claims of his four living children. Abdullah died in 912, and the throne passed to Abd al Rahman III. Through force of arms and diplomacy, he put down the rebellions that had disrupted his grandfather's reign, obliterating Ibn Hafsun and hunting down his sons. After this he led several sieges against the Christians, sacking the city of 919:(in Morocco). Heartened by the victories of their North African brethren, the Berbers of al-Andalus quickly raised their own revolt. Berber garrisons in the north of the Iberian Peninsula mutinied, deposed their Arab commanders, and organized a large rebel army to march against the strongholds of Toledo, Córdoba, and Algeciras. 6298:. The traditionally held view that the etymology of this name has to do with the Vandals is shown to have no serious foundation. The phonetic, morphosyntactic, and historical problems connected with this etymology are too numerous. Moreover, the existence of this name in various parts of central and northern Spain proves that 2002:)—a comprehensive medical encyclopedia with the goal of summarizing all existing medical knowledge and eliminating the need for students and practitioners to rely on multiple medical texts. The book is renowned for its chapter on surgery which included important illustrations of surgical instruments, as well as sections "on 1139:, the 'Immigrant') arrived on the coast of Spain. He had fled the Abbasids, who had overthrown the Umayyads in Damascus and were slaughtering members of that family, and then he spent four years in exile in North Africa, assessing the political situation in al-Andalus across the Straits of Gibraltar, before he landed at 1227:, the first great emir of Córdoba. He rose to power with no opposition and sought to reform the emirate. He quickly reorganized the bureaucracy to be more efficient and built many mosques across the emirate. During his reign science and art flourished, as many scholars fled the Abbasid caliphate due to the disastrous 3540:

as "a key symbolic issue throughout the Middle Ages in Iberia", stating that "in al-Andalus homosexual pleasures were much indulged in by the intellectual and political elite. Evidence includes the behaviour of rulers, such as Abd al-Rahmn III, Al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and Al Mu'tamid, who openly kept

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states that "Al-Andalus had many links to Hellenistic culture, and except for the Almoravid and Almohadic periods (1086–1212), it was hedonistic and tolerant of homosexuality, indeed one of the times in world history in which sensuality of all sorts has been most openly enjoyed. Important rulers such

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Modern scholarship has sometimes admitted originality in North African architecture, but according to Yasser Tabbaa, historian of Islamic art and architecture, the Iberocentric viewpoint is anachronistic when considering the political and cultural environment during the rule of the Almoravid dynasty.

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The Caliphate of Córdoba also had extensive trade with other parts of the Mediterranean, including Christian parts. Trade goods included luxury items (silk, ceramics, gold), essential foodstuffs (grain, olive oil, wine), and containers (such as ceramics for storing perishables). In the tenth century,

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Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de Al-Andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo: la Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica. ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus for all those lands that were

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and wounds, and on bone-setting." For hundreds of years after its publication it was one of the most widely used medical texts for students and medical practitioners and was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Castilian. This encyclopedia is also significant for its inclusion of al-Zahrawi's personal

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and love between adult males are found. Although homosexual practices were never officially condoned, prohibitions against them were rarely enforced, and usually there was not even a pretense of doing so." Male homosexual relations allowed nonprocreative sexual practices and were not seen as a form

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with a tenth as many soldiers as al-Ala ibn-Mugith. After a long siege, it appeared that Abd al Rahman would be defeated, but in a last stand Abd al Rahman with his outnumbered forces opened the gates of the fortress and charged at the resting Abbasid army, and decisively defeated them. After being

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silks in Córdoba. Later references to Amalfitan merchants were sometimes used to emphasize the previous golden age of Córdoba. Fatimid Egypt was a supplier of many luxury goods, including elephant tusks, and raw or carved crystals. The Fatimids were traditionally thought to be the only supplier of

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Whereas this Hispanocentric perspective might apply for Moroccan architecture of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries—when many Andalusian artisans are known to have resettled in Morocco—it seems anachronistic in dealing with periods when Andalusia itself was ruled by dynasties from Morocco, in

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spread in the south, and Mozarab Christians were linguistically assimilated by the Christian Kingdoms in the north, the Mozarabic dialects eventually disappeared. Because of that assimilation, however, Mozarabic became the main source and vehicle of transmission of Arabic loanwords to Spanish and

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He and his family had left their native town of Córdoba around 554/1159 to escape persecution by the Almohads, who had recently conquered al-Andalus and replaced the ruling Almoravid dynasty. After fleeing Córdoba, Maimonides settled in Fez but fled persecution again in 560/1165, moving first to

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Barely eight years after the initial crossing of the Straits of Gibraltar, the Muslims had come to dominate almost the entire Peninsula with the exception of a few northern mountainous regions along Cantabrian and Pyrenean ranges. In these areas, indigenous populations, including the Asturians,

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whose power barely reached outside of the city of Córdoba. As Ibn Hafsun ravaged the south, Abdullah did almost nothing, and slowly became more and more isolated, barely speaking to anyone. Abdullah purged his administration of his brothers, which lessened the bureaucracy's loyalty towards him.

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succeeded in conquering a dozen lesser kingdoms, becoming the most powerful and renowned of the taifas, such that it could have laid claim to be the true heir to the Caliphate of Córdoba. The taifas were vulnerable and divided but had immense wealth. During its prominence the Taifa of Seville

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As a result of the Reconquista and fall of many important Andalusi cities, substantial numbers of Andalusi migrated to the Maghreb where they found place at the courts of Maghrebi rulers. Many of the elite Andalusi immigrants were Arabs. For a variety of reasons, "Andalusi" came to be almost

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Slavery existed in Muslim al-Andalus as well as in the Christian kingdoms, and both sides of the religious border followed the custom of not enslaving people of their own religion. Consequently, Muslims were enslaved in Christian lands, while Christians and other non-Muslims were enslaved in

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colonists who followed settled in all parts of the country – north, east, south and west. Visigothic lords who agreed to recognize Muslim suzerainty were allowed to retain their fiefs (notably, in Murcia, Galicia, and the Ebro valley). Resistant Visigoths took refuge in the

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in which Muslims, Jews, and Christians became monolingual in the last surviving Muslim state in the Iberian Peninsula, the Emirate of Granada (1230–1492). Eventually, the Muladies, and later the Berber tribes, adopted an Arabic identity like the majority of subject people in

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Balāṭ al-S̲h̲uhadāʾ: an expression used by the Arab historians for the Battle of Poitiers, which was fought between Charles Martel, at the head of the Christian Frankish armies, and the governor of Muslim Spain ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Ghāfiḳī in Ramaḍān 114/October

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in 1085. The Almoravid empire intervened and repelled the Christian attacks on the region, then brought al-Andalus under direct Almoravid rule. For the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Muslim empires of the Almoravids and their successors, the

382:, Portugal, Spain, and Southern France. The name describes the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most of the peninsula and part of present-day southern France ( 1877:

By this time Muslims in Castile numbered half a million. After the fall, "100,000 had died or been enslaved, 200,000 emigrated, and 200,000 remained as the residual population. Many of the Muslim elite, including Muhammad XII, who had been given the area of the

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Borrás Gualís, Gonzalo M.; Lavado Paradinas, Pedro; Pleguezuelo Hernández, Alfonso; Pérez Higuera, María Teresa; Mogollón Cano-Cortés, María Pilar; Morales, Alfredo J.; López Guzman, Rafael; Sorroche Cuerva, Miguel Ángel; Stuyck Fernández Arche, Sandra (2018).

1725:, the longest reigning dynasty in the history of al-Andalus. Although surrounded by Castilian lands, the emirate was wealthy through being tightly integrated in Mediterranean trade networks and enjoyed a period of considerable cultural and economic prosperity. 2177:). This book included important "teachings on the lunar mansions, the signs of the zodiac, the division of the seasons." In these teachings, Ibn-Habib calculated the phases of the moon and dates of the annual solstices and equinoxes with relative accuracy. 1785:

in 1340. After this, they ceased to play a major role. The subsequent internal turmoil within Castile, however, helped Nasrid Granada to enjoy a period of relative external peace and internal prosperity until the end of the 14th century, under the reigns of

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were generally too weak to defend themselves against repeated raids and demands for tribute from the Christian states to the north and west, which were known to the Muslims as "the Galician nations", and which had spread from their initial strongholds in

1341:, had a major influence on the intellectual life of medieval Europe. Muslims and non-Muslims often came from abroad to study at the libraries and universities of al-Andalus, and after the reconquest of Toledo, several translation institutions such as the 2234:

and its gardens in Granada. Collective, peasant-built irrigation infrastructure also played an important role, especially in agriculture. Many of these irrigation techniques, especially those utilized by peasants, were brought to al-Andalus by migrating

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Other agronomic innovations in al-Andalus include the cultivation of the pomegranate from Syria, which has since become the namesake and ubiquitous symbol of the city of Granada, as well as the first attempt to create a botanical garden near Córdoba by

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or expelled from Christian-controlled territories, which grew the city and the emirate's population. The city even became one of the largest in Europe throughout the 15th century in terms of population. The most visible legacy of the Nasrids is the

3356:, the former Abbadid and Almohad palace redeveloped by Christian rulers such as Peter of Castile, who in 1364 started adding new Moorish-style sections with the help of Muslim craftsmen from Granada and Toledo. Some surviving 13th and 14th-century 1994:(Avenzoar; d. 1162). And of particular note is al-Zahrawi, who is considered by many to be "probably the greatest physician in the entire history of Western Islam." Around the year 1000 C.E, he wrote a book with a title that roughly translates to 3335:

Even after Muslim territories were conquered by the Christian kingdoms, Andalusi art and architecture continued to appear for many years as a prestigious style under new Christian patrons employing Muslim craftsmen, becoming what is known as the

2230:. These advances were in part facilitated by technological innovations in irrigation systems. State organized, large-scale irrigation projects provided water to city baths, mosques, gardens, residential homes, and governing palaces, such as the 3545:, last Zirid king of Granada, makes references to male prostitutes, who charged higher fees and had a higher class of clientele than did their female counterparts: the repeated criticisms of Christians; and especially the abundant poetry. Both 1008:"). This newly emptied frontier remained roughly in place for the next few centuries as the boundary between the Christian north and the Islamic south. Between this frontier and its heartland in the south, the al-Andalus state had three large 1882:

mountains as a principality, found life under Christian rule intolerable and passed over into North Africa." Under the conditions of the Capitulations of 1492, the Muslims in Granada were to be allowed to continue to practice their religion.

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The society of al-Andalus was made up of three main religious groups: Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Muslims, although united on the religious level, had several ethnic divisions, the main being the distinction between the Arabs and the

2461:. The treatment of non-Muslims in the Caliphate has been a subject of considerable debate among scholars and commentators, especially those interested in drawing parallels to the co-existence of Muslims and non-Muslims in the modern world. 11451: 1256:

Around this time several local Arab lords began to revolt, including one Kurayb ibn Khaldun, who was able to conquer Seville. Some loyalists tried to quell the rebellion, but without proper material support, their efforts were in vain.

3605:) were educated in accomplishments to please their master, and many became known and respected for their knowledge in a variety of subjects from music to medicine. Jawaris concubines who gave birth to a child attained the status of an 3589:

slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe. While male saqaliba could be given work in a number of tasks, such as offices in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case of

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practices occurred in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. The Morisco community including these final convicts kept their identity alive at least through the late eighteenth century.

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According to Isaak Moiseevich Filʹshtinskiĭ, "in the 10th century, a favourable influence on the development of Andalusi literature was exerted by the literary circles organised by rich and noble Cordovan patrons." According to

977:) in the east. The arrival of the Syrians substantially increased the Arab element in the Iberian peninsula and helped strengthen the Muslim hold on the south. However, at the same time, unwilling to be governed, the Syrian 3452:, was established by the Arabs between the 7th–10th centuries to facilitate fruit (including pomegranate and date crops) and vegetable growth underneath the cool shade of palm trees and irrigation channels, and is cited by 3661:(fathers of rationalism and surgery, respectively) heavily inspired the Renaissance, and their ideas are still world renowned to this day. Al Andalus has also left art and architecture and has some of the best preserved 2556:

Many ethnicities and religions co-existed in al-Andalus, each of which contributed to its intellectual prosperity. Literacy in Islamic Iberia was far more widespread than in many other nations in the West of the time.

6306:. It was the original name of the Punta Marroquí cape near Tarifa; very soon, it became generalized to designate the whole Peninsula. Undoubtedly, the name is of Pre-Indo-European origin. The parts of this compound ( 1194:

as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus). He planned to invade and destroy the Emirate of Córdoba, so in response Abd al Rahman fortified himself within the fortress of

802:(Arabic, موالي), that is, non-Arab Muslims, who were clients of the Arabs. The Berber soldiers accompanying Tariq were garrisoned in the centre and the north of the peninsula, as well as in the Pyrenees, while the 3291:

in Granada reflect the culture and art of the last centuries of Muslim rule of Al-Andalus. The complex was begun by Ibn al-Ahmar, the first Nasrid emir, and the last major additions were made during the reigns of

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as the largest and most prosperous city in Europe. Al-Andalus became a centre for the arts, medicine, science, music, literature and philosophy. The work of its most important philosophers and scientists, such as

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Beeston, A. F. L.; Ashtiany, Julia; Badawi, M. M.; Menocal, María Rosa; Scheindlin, Raymond P.; Sells ,Michael (2000). "The Languages of al-Andalus Between the Arrival of the Muslims and the Reconquista: Jews".

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made an attempt to fly, though accounts vary on his success. In 852 Abd al Rahman II died, leaving behind him a powerful and well-established state that had become one of the most powerful in the Mediterranean.

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Some authors mention bands penetrating as far north as Sankt Gallen, where they sacked the monastery in 939. Cf. Ekkehard, Casus S. Galli, IV, 15 (pp. 137f); Lévi-Provençal (1950:60); Reinaud (1964:149f).

1898:; after this uprising the capitulations were revoked. In 1502 the Catholic Monarchs decreed the forced conversion of all Muslims living under the rule of the Crown of Castile, although in the kingdoms of 1643:

kingdoms followed in al-Andalus, during which the Christian kingdoms expanded southward again. From 1146 onward, the Almohads intervened and took control of al-Andalus. One of Abd al-Mu'min's successors,

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The ibn Zuhr family played a very important role in the production of Andalusi medical knowledge, as they produced five generations of medical experts, particularly in the fields of dietary sciences and

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had risen up in force, ousted the Abbasid government in North Africa, and declared themselves a caliphate. Inspired by this action, Abd al Rahman joined the rebellion and declared himself caliph in 929.

1243:, who according to legend had to wear women's clothing to sneak into the imperial palace and be crowned, since he was not the heir apparent. His reign marked a decline in the emirate, which was ended by 1839:, and by 1479 they were rulers of a united Castile and Aragon. This development meant that Granada could no longer exploit divisions between the two kingdoms and the new royal couple, also known as the 2155:

Although Ibn Rushd originally trained and practiced as a jurist, he was exposed to astronomy—possibly through Ibn Tufail—and became a renowned scientist in the field. His most popular work was his

5465: 2950:. With Al-Mansur's death in 1002, interest in philosophy revived. Numerous scholars emerged, including Abu Uthman Ibn Fathun, whose masterwork was the philosophical treatise "Tree of Wisdom". 1748:

Despite internal conflicts, the Nasrids of Granada were able to survive in part by playing the Christian kingdoms of the north against each other, while at other times soliciting aid from the

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Arabic influence still lingers on in Spanish cuisine through these fruits, vegetables, spices and cooking and agricultural techniques. One of the largest palm groves in the world, called the

2524:, there may have been intermittent persecution of Jews, but sources are extremely scarce and do not give a clear picture though the situation appears to have deteriorated after 1160. Muslim 8449:

Forcada, Miquel (2007), "Ibn Rushd: Abū al-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Rushd al-Ḥafīd", in Hockey, Thomas; Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R.; Bracher, Katherine (eds.),

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experiences as a surgeon, which provided important case studies for aspiring surgeons. This distinguishes it from other strictly factual medical works of the time, most notably Ibn Sina's

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form to a higher literary level than it had previously enjoyed in his homeland," although "his work found greater acceptance in Baghdad than it did in the far West of the Islamic world."

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astronomical tables. He also accurately calculated the motion of the solar apogee to be 12.04 seconds per year, which is relatively close to today's calculation of 11.8 seconds per year.

9618: 2258:. This book contains 34 chapters about various aspects of agriculture and animal husbandry, including discussions of over 580 different types of plants and how to treat plant diseases. 7366:

Frontiers of Islamic Art and Architecture: Essays in Celebration of Oleg Grabar's Eightieth Birthday; the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture Thirtieth Anniversary Special Volume

2138:) built on Ibn Tufail's work, as well as that of Ibn Rushd, Ibn Bajja, and Maimonides. The book's goal was "to overcome the physical difficulties inherent in the geometrical models of 2966:

and added the compendium to this work, although it is quite possible that it was added later by another scholar with the name al-Majriti. Another book attributed to al-Majriti is the

1774:, their fortified palace complex, partly preserved today. The independent Nasrid kingdom was also a trade hub between the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and was frequented especially by 2579:

From the earliest days, the Umayyads wanted to be seen as intellectual rivals to the Abbasids and for Córdoba to have libraries and educational institutions to that of their rival,

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in fundamentalist outlook, and treated the non-Muslims harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Some, such as the family of

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Barceló, Carmen; Heidenreich, Anja (October 19, 2014). "Lusterware Made in the Abbadid Taifa of Seville (Eleventh Century) and Its Early Production in the Mediterranean Region".

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started translating the mountainous libraries of al-Andalus into Latin. These libraries contained translations of Ancient Greek texts, as well as new ones made by Muslims in the

1592:(or Battle of Zallaqa in Arabic), a Muslim army led by the Almoravids soundly defeated Alfonso VI. By 1090, however, Yusuf ibn Tashfin was disillusioned with the disunity of the 9015: 7045: 3256:. The minaret was later expanded after being converted into a bell tower for the current cathedral. Almohad architecture promoted new forms and decorative designs such as the 2954:(died 1008) was an outstanding scholar in astronomy and astrology; he was an intrepid traveller who journeyed all over the Islamic world and beyond and kept in touch with the 2148:

and to describe the cosmos in agreement with Aristotelian or Neoplatonic physics," which it succeeded in doing to an extent. Bitruji's book set a precedent of criticizing the

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to his fledgling kingdom. The Asturians evacuated the Christian populations from the towns and villages of the Galician-Leonese lowlands, creating an empty buffer zone in the

2583:. Although there was a clear rivalry between the two powers, there was freedom to travel between the two caliphates, which helped spread new ideas and innovations over time. 9187:"Cyrille; Mayte PENELAS y Philippe ROISSE (eds.) (Madrid, 2008), ¿Existe una identidad mozárabe? Historia, lengua y cultura de los cristianos de al-Andalus (siglos IX-XII)" 3425:

during Arab rule, via the commercial networks of the Islamic world. These include sugarcane, rice, cotton, alfalfa, oranges, lemons, apricots, spinach, eggplants, carrots,

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infrastructure, most of al-Andalus's irrigation systems were new projects built separate from old Roman aqueducts. However, there is some debate about this among scholars.

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For much of its history, al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms to the north. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into minor

9186: 3473:) – subterranean channels used to transport water from highland aquifers to lowland fields in arid environments –first originating in either the Arabian Peninsula or the 8379:

Samsó, Julio (2007). "Biṭrūjī: Nūr al-Dīn Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al-Biṭrūjī". In Hockey, Thomas; Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R.; Bracher, Katherine (eds.).

2455:" tax equal to one dinar per year with exemptions for the elderly and the disabled. Those who were neither Christians nor Jews, such as pagans, were given the status of 4182: 1906:(both now part of Spain) the open practice of Islam was allowed until 1526. Descendants of the Muslims were subject to expulsions from Spain between 1609 and 1614 (see 5830:"The Christian Frontier against al-Andalus (Muslim Spain): concept and politics during the reigns of King Fernando I of Castile and Leon and his successors until 1230" 3525: 11471: 1978:, who performed the first modern surgery, determined how to remove kidney stones, was known as the father of surgery, and developed many inventions and instruments. 1223:. The next few decades were relatively uneventful, with only occasional minor rebellions, and saw the rise of the emirate. In 822 Al Hakam died and was succeeded by 798:

The small army Tariq led in the initial conquest consisted mostly of Berbers, while Musa's largely Arab force of over 12,000 soldiers was accompanied by a group of

531:. In Spain, the Reconquista would continue until the late-15th century, leaving Granada as the last Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula. On January 2, 1492, Emir 10924:

Boloix-Gallardo, Bárbara (2021). "Granada, Capital of al-Andalus and Core of the Nasrid Kingdom (7th–9th/13th–15th Centuries)". In Boloix-Gallardo, Bárbara (ed.).

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in 785. It was expanded multiple times up until the 10th century, and after the Reconquista it was converted into a Catholic cathedral. Its key features include a

617: 4198: 988:, hitherto confined to enclaves in the Cantabrian highlands. After the rebellious Berber garrisons evacuated the northern frontier fortresses, the Christian king 3060:, but the area was even more important to the development of Jewish philosophy. A stream of Jewish philosophers, cross-fertilizing with Muslim philosophers (see 2032:)—a historical summary of Arabic medicine until the 9th century. Ibn Habib's work is significant because it is one of the oldest known writings in the field of 11632: 3840: 2667:: "Andalusian literature was still very much dominated by the Eastern tradition around the year 1000, and the Arabs of Spain probably felt somewhat isolated." 10223: 2702:(which denotes both lamentation and a literary genre in itself) by Andalusi poets who had taken inspiration from the fall of Andalusi cities and territories. 755:

Following the Muslim conquest of Spain, al-Andalus, then at its greatest extent, was divided into five administrative units, corresponding roughly to: modern

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Forcada, Miquel (2022). "al-Andalus, religious and rational sciences". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

4388: 2364:, and Jews. Each of these communities inhabited distinct neighborhoods in the cities. In the 10th century a massive conversion of Christians took place, and 2300: 9812: 2888:) went yet further, building a university and libraries in Córdoba. Córdoba became one of the world's leading centres of medicine and philosophical debate. 1174:, and helped urbanize the emirate while defending it from invaders, including the quashing of numerous rebellions, and decisively repelling the invasion by 933:, the new governor of al-Andalus, assigned the Syrians to regimental fiefs across al-Andalus – the Damascus jund was established in Elvira ( 9149:

García Sanjuán, Alejandro (2017). "al- Andalus, political history". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

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García Sanjuán, Alejandro (2017). "al- Andalus, political history". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

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The cultivation of sugarcane had reached the south of the Iberian Peninsula by the 16th century CE due to Arab conquest and administration of the region.

1219:, who secured power by exiling his brother who had tried to rebel against him. Hisham enjoyed a stable reign of eight years and was succeeded by his son 862:

in 732, the al-Andalus raiding army was defeated by Charles Martel and Al Ghafiqi was killed. In 734, the Andalusi launched raids to the east, capturing

4404: 3304:

as a central space and basic unit around which other halls and rooms were organized. Courtyards typically had water features at their centre, such as a

1756:. For much of its existence, Granada paid tribute to the Castilian kings. Along with this political status, its favorable geographic location, with the 460:, Europe, and the Islamic world. Achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus, including major advances in trigonometry ( 11567: 11501: 4848: 3519:. Homosexual prostitution was widespread, and its customers came from higher levels of society than those of heterosexual prostitutes." The verses of 5434: 3459:

The period of Arab rule also involved the extension of Roman irrigation channels as well as the introduction of novel irrigation techniques from the

1503:. During the eleventh century several centres of power existed among the taifas, and the political situation shifted rapidly. Before the rise of the 6048: 6556: 3010:

school of philosophy, and his works and commentaries influenced medieval thought in Western Europe. Another influential al-Andalus philosopher was

1247:. His reign was marked by multiple rebellions, which were dealt with poorly and weakened the emirate, most disastrously following the rebellion of 6282: 3529:

are known in part for their homoerotic and "abundant pederastic poetry". Such themes were also found in the Sephardic Jewish poetry of the time.

342: 2751:

Caliphate and arrived in Córdoba in 822, played a rule in Andalusi music as well as other aspects of Andalusi culture. Poetic forms such as the

11652: 5586: 3628: 2818: 1200:

sent the embalmed head of al-Ala ibn-Mugith, it is said Al Mansur exclaimed "Praise be to God who has put the sea between me and this devil!".

3159:(later converted to a church) in Toledo is a well-preserved example of a small neighbourhood mosque built at the end of the Caliphate period. 2603:

or Andalusi Romance. The few writings in those dialects that have been found use an Arabic script and seem to retain many archaic features of

2161:. Ibn Rushd published writings on philosophy, theology, and medicine throughout his life too, including commentaries on the works of Ibn Sina. 11456: 5181: 3283:

Artists and intellectuals took refuge at Granada after the Christian kingdoms expanded significantly in the 13th century. The palaces of the

10360: 9966: 6417:

Pérès, Henri (2007). "Balāṭ al-S̲h̲uhadāʾ". In Bearman, P.; Th. Bianquis, Th.; C.E. Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.).

3041: 11572: 11523: 11198:. Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia y Geografía. In Spanish and Arabic. Also available in the public domain online, see External Links. 2723:"the exact number of scholars which appears in the biographical sources has not been established yet, but it surely exceeds six thousand." 2201: 1891: 1421:, massacring its inhabitants, pillaging the city, and burning the palace complex to the ground. The largest of the taifas to emerge were 9796: 4140: 5747: 4925: 4745: 4683: 3756: 2715:"biographical dictionaries have recorded information about thousands of distinguished people in every period from al-Andalus, who were 2292: 7977:

The moriscos who remained. The permanence of Islamic origin population in Early Modern Spain: Kingdom of Granada, XVII–XVIII centuries

5528: 5056: 2725:

It has been estimated that in the 10th century between 70,000 and 80,000 manuscripts were copied on a yearly basis in Córdoba alone.

1275:

For nearly 100 years under the Córdoban Umayyad period, from the 9th century to the 10th, al-Andalus also extended its presence from

11485: – historical maps, photos, and music showing the Great Mosque of Córdoba and related movements of people and culture over time 9021: 7042: 3456:

as an example of the transfer of agricultural practices from one continent (North Africa) to another (Iberian Peninsula of Europe).

11637: 11340: 4444: 2564:(base 10) had reached Europe via Al-Andalus through Spanish Muslims, together with knowledge of astronomy and instruments like the 930: 6859:"The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. María Rosa Menocal" 5892:. Marcial Pons Historia. México Madrid: Universidad nacional autónoma de México, Instituto de inversigaciones históricas M. Pons. 5336: 1293: 3868: 3429:

and bananas. The Arabs also continued extensive cultivation and production of olive oil (the Spanish words for 'oil' and 'olive'—

2513:, which thus promoted the prosperity of the country. Southern Iberia became an asylum for the oppressed Jews of other countries. 737: 11497:, Scholarly essays and exhibition catalog from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF or on Google Books) 2356:

The ethnic structure of al-Andalus consisted of Arabs at the top of the social scale followed by, in descending order, Berbers,

1090:

in al-Andalus. The Fihrids welcomed the fall of the Umayyads in the east, in 750, and sought to reach an understanding with the

11587: 10768: 4551: 4475: 4259: 3213:

decoration. In other cities, a number of important palaces or fortresses were begun or expanded by local dynasties such as the

1970: 1887: 10330: 4538: 1847:

began in earnest in 1482. Year by year, the Christian advance captured new cities and fortresses until the last Nasrid ruler,

11617: 11482: 11372: 11016: 10935: 10883: 10854: 10708: 10678: 10615: 10588: 10500: 9582: 9536: 9499: 9464: 9119: 9054: 8953: 8607: 8466: 8425: 8400: 8355: 8286: 8220: 8187: 8151: 8029: 7925: 7898: 7871: 7697: 7577: 7373: 7217: 6749: 6695: 6638: 6611: 6584: 6503: 6401: 6372: 6268: 6192: 6106: 6073: 5897: 5868: 5841: 5812: 5781: 5494: 5455: 5266: 4314: 3711: 3061: 3023: 1531:

of Castile escalated attacks against them. In 1083, he led a punitive expedition against Seville that reached all the way to

3974: 3364: 5548: 4013: 3736: 3716: 1147: 1087: 5231: 3833: 2630:

probably emerged by the 9th or 10th century. Arabic spread progressively across the whole population through a process of

981:

carried on an existence of autonomous feudal anarchy, severely destabilizing the authority of the governor of al-Andalus.

10793: 9839: 6788: 5522: 4935: 4920: 4898: 4855: 4561: 4515: 2353:. The Arab elite regarded non-Arab Muslims as second-class citizens; and they were particularly scornful of the Berbers. 2210: 519:

in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule, and the Emirate of Granada became a tributary state of the

335: 10463: 10300: 10016:

Squatriti, Paolo (2014). "Of Seeds, Seasons, and Seas: Andrew Watson's Medieval Agrarian Revolution Forty Years Later".

6248: 5040: 4953: 3902: 1082:, seized power in the western provinces and ruled them almost as a private family empire of their own – 11627: 11622: 11195:

Ajbar Machmua (colección de tradiciones): crónica anónima del siglo XI, dada a luz por primera vez, traducida y anotada

11048: 10977: 10085: 5579: 5046: 3201:

During the Taifas period, art and culture continued to flourish despite the political fragmentation of Al-Andalus. The

2959: 2115:(Alpetragius; d. 1204). All lived around the same time and focused their astronomical works on critiquing and revising 2024:—an encyclopedia with descriptions of the medical uses of over 1400 plants and other types of medicine—and ibn Habib's 594:

Since the 1980s, several alternative etymologies have challenged this tradition. In 1986, Joaquín Vallvé proposed that

4362: 3666: 3111: 3099: 1208: 1171: 11400: 11366: 11335: 11321: 11291: 11277: 11249: 11235: 11210: 11187: 11173: 11148: 11126: 11076: 11062: 11040: 11026: 11009: 10995: 10952:, eds. David Restle & Dietmar Zaefferer. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 149–164. (In German) Also available 10914: 10897: 10651: 10552: 10525: 9900: 9874: 9849: 9822: 9724: 9655: 9628: 9365: 9252: 9158: 9093: 8893: 8809: 8727: 8700: 8673: 8640: 8572: 8539: 8322: 8253: 8118: 8082: 8002: 7949: 7844: 7664: 7183: 7057: 6532: 6133: 5504: 5460: 5174: 3633:

As Andalusi cities were conquered by Leon, Castile, and other Christian Spanish kingdoms, Christian monarchs such as

3162: 2840: 1862: 792: 561:

is first attested by inscriptions on coins minted in 716 by the new Muslim government of Iberia. These coins, called

11494: 11301: 9741: 5027: 2811: 2545:

The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusi territories by 1147, far surpassed the

1528: 1418: 496: 11647: 11642: 8905: 4875: 4045: 3572:

in the late 15th century. The slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain, as well as Eastern Europe (

2486:

constituted more than five per cent of the population. Al-Andalus was a key centre of Jewish life during the early

1083: 850:

led an expedition north across the western Pyrenees and defeated the Aquitanian duke, who in turn appealed to the

11612: 11419:"Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages: Comparative Perspectives on Social and Cultural Formation" 6820:"Shorter notices. Medieval Iberia. Readings from Christian, Muslim and Jewish sources. OR Constable [ed]" 5101: 4988: 4522: 4354: 3721: 1374:

such goods, and control over these trade routes would be a cause for conflict between the Umayyads and Fatimids.

1170:

Abd al Rahman's rule was stable in the years after his conquest – he built major public works, most famously the

1074:

in the east, the western provinces of the Maghreb and al-Andalus spun out of their control. From around 745, the

1060: 883: 5876:

Cantabrians, and Basques, who had been brought under Visigothic control, were able to escape Islamic domination.

1353:, who took these works to Italy. The transmission of ideas significantly affected the formation of the European 11382: 11108: 10751: 9751: 9683: 9645: 9337: 9310: 6766: 6722: 6337: 6065:

Entre civitas y madina: El mundo de las ciudades en la península ibérica y en el norte de África (siglos IV-IX)

6017: 5989: 5971: 5143: 5120: 4676: 2412: 2195: 1328:

of al-Andalus. Córdoba under the Caliphate, with a population of more than half a million, eventually overtook

1252: 328: 9916: 9270:"Why was Ibn Quzmān Not Awarded the Title of "Abū Nuwās of the West?" ('Zajal 96', the Poet, and His Critics)" 3345: 1345:

were established for translating books and texts from Arabic into Latin. The most noted figures in this being

488:). Al-Andalus became a conduit for cultural and scientific exchange between the Islamic and Christian worlds. 485: 11582: 10410: 10172: 5572: 5388: 5368: 5201: 5085: 5064: 4420: 4175: 4053: 3515:

as Abd al-Rahman III, al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and al-Mu-tamid openly chose boys as sexual partners, and kept

3510: 2951: 2703: 1660: 1191: 243: 9428: 7070: 6150: 5487: 5426: 5406: 4975: 2407:. Muladies, together with other Muslims, comprised eighty per cent of the population of al-Andalus by 1100. 11592: 5273: 5167: 5105: 5089: 5002: 4830: 4800: 4703: 4595: 4108: 4092: 3948: 3418: 3392: 2942:, so much so that many books on these subjects, which had been preserved and collected at great expense by 2483: 1687:, survived as vassal kingdoms of Castile until the 1260s. Only the region of Granada remained unconquered. 1342: 477: 95: 17: 6479:, with consultation of the 1874 German version and the 1877 Spanish version) Chatto & Windus, London, 1781:

The Marinids intervened in the south of the Iberian Peninsula multiple times up until their defeat at the

1659:

In 1212, a coalition of Christian kings under the leadership of Alfonso VIII defeated the Almohads at the

11597: 11577: 11242:

Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain

11083: 6209: 5537: 4970: 4825: 4793: 4622: 4234: 2040:

to create Islamic-based medicinal guidelines. His book is also significant because it uses principles of

1313: 760: 10953: 10104: 7092:"Forgotten Connections? Medieval Material Culture and Exchange in the Central and Western Mediterranean" 3803: 3372: 3344:

or Muslims under Christian rule). Numerous examples are found in the early churches of Toledo (e.g. the

2696:

is considered the most significant of a series of poems that were written in the classical tradition of

992:

set about immediately seizing the empty forts for himself, quickly adding the northwestern provinces of

139: 11602: 11037:

The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise: Muslims, Christians, and Jews under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain

9135: 9070: 8945: 6662: 5378: 5323: 4905: 4750: 4569: 4543: 3997: 3611:, which meant that they could no longer be sold and were to be set free after the death of her master. 3313: 3156: 1840: 1113: 201: 6935:

Versteegh, Kees (January 1, 1990). "The Arab Presence in France and Switzerland in the 10th Century".

5221: 3990: 3485:

in the Middle East). These structures are still found in Andalusia province, particularly in Granada.

3417:

cities with an agricultural economic sector that was the most advanced in Europe by far, sparking the

3413:

Crops produced using irrigation, along with food imported from the Middle East, provided areas around

3148: 1990:(Albucasis; d. 1013), Muhammad al-Shafrah (d. 1360), Abu Marwan 'Abd al-Malik ibn Habib (d. 853), and 1672: 516: 9114:. Edited by the Institute of Islamic Studies of the University of Zaragoza. Brill. 2013. pp. x. 7863:

The Orient in Spain: Converted Muslims, the Forged Lead Books of Granada, and the Rise of Orientalism

5343: 5308: 5298: 5243: 5109: 5051: 4960: 4940: 4669: 4605: 4590: 4483: 4428: 3783: 2801: 2596: 1907: 10385: 9401:

Maria Luisa Avila, "Women in Andalusi Biographical Sources" in Randi Deguilhem/Manuela Marin (ed.),

3205:

of Zaragoza is the most significant palace preserved from this period, featuring complex ornamental

1728: 115: 7569: 5393: 5353: 5348: 5318: 5313: 5303: 5293: 5097: 4755: 4338: 4330: 4267: 3941: 3884: 2859: 2805: 2797: 2643: 2279: 1852: 1671:

kingdoms emerged, which were progressively conquered by Portugal, Castile, and Aragon. Córdoba was

839: 628: 120: 9712: 5858: 2664: 1240: 1070:

Caliphate over the western provinces. With the Umayyad Caliphs distracted by the challenge of the

11607: 9941: 9201: 5499: 5363: 5014: 4381: 3308:

or a fountain. Decoration was focused on the inside of buildings and was executed primarily with

2988: 2931: 1866: 1858: 1848: 1649: 1334: 985: 902: 847: 532: 515:

Ultimately, the northern Christian kingdoms overpowered the Muslim states to the south. With the

164: 9352: 3579: 2692: 2502: 1782: 1400: 1288: 495:

states and principalities. Attacks from the Christians intensified, led by the Castilians under

427: 69: 10197: 10077: 9991: 9889: 9553: 7175: 7169: 5008: 4915: 4865: 4556: 4283: 4084: 3746: 3646: 3582:

where white slaves constituted most of the administrative personnel in the courts and palaces.

2822: 1832: 1536: 1215:

Abd al Rahman I died in 788 after a lengthy and prosperous reign. He was succeeded by his son,

528: 11194: 10641: 10576: 10542: 9572: 9269: 7361: 6712: 6480: 6389: 6327: 6090: 6063: 4251: 3813: 3324:

were the main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, "stalactite"-like sculpting, known as

3218: 1216: 10844: 10698: 10668: 10605: 10045: 9790: 8941: 8597: 8019: 7971: 7888: 7861: 7834: 6739: 6685: 6628: 6601: 6574: 6520: 6493: 6362: 6123: 5829: 5802: 5127: 5093: 4965: 4610: 4600: 4530: 4322: 3559: 3542: 3396: 3297: 3276: 3206: 2654: 2622:

became the language of administration and of literature, while in everyday life a vernacular

2561: 2529: 2490:, produced important scholars and was one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities. 2112: 2013: 1982:

There were many notable surgeons, physicians, and medical scholars from al-Andalus including

1824: 1798: 1757: 1718: 989: 536: 9524: 7954: 7915: 7561: 6040: 5857:

García Fitz, Francisco (2010). Rogers, Clifford J.; Caferro, William; Reid, Shelley (eds.).

4116: 3353: 3214: 2214:

five centuries later. Along with other astronomers, he undertook extensive work to edit the

1713:

From the mid 13th to the late 15th century, the only remaining domain of al-Andalus was the

1103: 416: 10138: 10065: 8074: 7917:

The Eve of Spain: Myths of Origins in the History of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Conflict

5981: 5767: 5373: 5210: 5034: 4885: 4835: 4770: 4306: 4061: 3909: 3634: 3624: 3441:, meaning 'olive juice'), and pomegranates (the heraldic symbol of Granada) from classical 3329: 3085: 2980:. Its use of incantations led the book to be widely dismissed in later years, although the 2863: 2411:

were Christians who had long lived under Muslim and Arab rule, adopting many Arab customs,

1645: 1600:, except for Zaragoza, were annexed by 1094. Valencia, which had come under the control of 1211:, the former Great Mosque built by Abd ar-Rahman I in 785, later expanded by his successors 1150:, he was not pleased. During this time, Abd al-Rahman and his supporters quickly conquered 808: 788: 285: 7393:

Messier, Ronald (January 1, 2001). "Re-thinking the Almoravids, re-thinking Ibn Khaldun".

5834:

Walls, Ramparts, and Lines of Demarcation: Selected Studies from Antiquity to Modern Times

3368: 3240:

of Seville, originally built by the Almohads, is a prime example of Andalusi architecture.

2437: 1996:

The Arrangement of Medical Knowledge for One Who is Not Able to Compile a Book for Himself

1527:

kingdoms began to face an existential threat from the Christian kingdoms to the north, as

1123: 215: 8: 11562: 9049:. Edited by the Institute of Islamic Studies of the University of Zaragoza. Brill. 2013. 8910: 8281:. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 82, 119. 7689: 7562: 7520: 6978:

Wenner, Manfred W. (August 1980). "The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe".

5704: 5080: 4712: 4299: 4132: 3889: 3845: 3321: 3244:

In Seville, Almohad rulers built the Great Mosque of Seville (later transformed into the

3187: 3167: 3147:, a luxurious palace-city to serve as a new capital. The Umayyads also reconstructed the 2991:

who was followed, in turn, by Abu Bakr Ibn al-Sayigh, usually known in the Arab world as

2977: 2934:. Al-Mansur was a distinctly religious man and disapproved of the sciences of astronomy, 1828: 1580:(present-day Morocco) that had conquered much of northwest Africa. The Almoravid leader, 1500: 1488: 1463: 1404: 1005: 923: 812: 692: 523:

two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the

457: 252: 173: 110: 35: 10769:"The Legacy of al-Andalus: Craftsmanship and architectural fragments from Islamic Spain" 10142: 3232: 11203:

The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 4, c. 1024 – c. 1198, Part 1

10411:"History of Spanish Food – The Moorish Influence on Andalusian Cuisine" 10275: 10154: 10070: 10033: 9129: 9064: 8507: 8482: 8215:. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 53–54. 8146:. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 61–62. 7418: 7150: 7111: 7011: 7003: 6960: 6443:

Specifically, 27,000 Arab troops were composed of 6,000 men from each of the four main

6229: 6094: 5952: 5639: 5238: 5132: 4820: 4775: 4740: 4412: 4225: 4216: 4029: 3917: 3820: 3662: 3638: 3620: 3460: 3293: 3094: 2955: 2600: 2430:, or as doctors or ambassadors. At the end of the 15th century there were about 50,000 2381: 2284: 2181: 2033: 1787: 1733: 1714: 1696: 1664: 1608:, was eventually occupied in 1102, after El Cid's death. Zaragoza was annexed in 1110. 1589: 1492: 1480: 1471: 1459: 1325: 1203: 916: 710: 653: 401: 265: 206: 8315:

A history of Arabic astronomy : planetary theories during the golden age of Islam

4207: 4100: 3601:

consisted of 6,300 women. They were appreciated for their light skin. The concubines (

3048:

made it the new centre of Jewish intellectual endeavours. Poets and commentators like

2076:)—a manual on foods and regimen which contains guidelines for a healthy life; and the 1717:, the last Muslim stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula. The emirate was established by 1576:

rulers agreed to request the intervention of the Almoravids, a Berber empire based in

1484: 997: 915:, to North Africa. But the great Umayyad army was crushed by the Berber rebels at the 764: 11396: 11378: 11362: 11331: 11317: 11287: 11273: 11245: 11231: 11206: 11183: 11169: 11144: 11122: 11104: 11072: 11058: 11044: 11022: 11005: 10991: 10973: 10950:

Sounds and Systems: Studies in Structure and Change. A Festschrift for Theo Vennemann

10931: 10910: 10893: 10879: 10850: 10747: 10704: 10674: 10647: 10611: 10584: 10548: 10521: 10496: 10146: 10081: 10037: 9896: 9870: 9845: 9818: 9747: 9720: 9679: 9651: 9624: 9578: 9532: 9505: 9495: 9470: 9460: 9371: 9361: 9333: 9306: 9248: 9154: 9115: 9089: 9050: 8967: 8959: 8949: 8889: 8805: 8723: 8696: 8669: 8646: 8636: 8613: 8603: 8578: 8568: 8545: 8535: 8512: 8462: 8431: 8421: 8396: 8361: 8351: 8328: 8318: 8292: 8282: 8259: 8249: 8226: 8216: 8193: 8183: 8157: 8147: 8124: 8114: 8088: 8078: 8025: 7998: 7945: 7921: 7894: 7867: 7840: 7693: 7660: 7573: 7422: 7410: 7369: 7258: 7223: 7213: 7179: 7154: 7130: 7115: 7091: 7053: 7015: 6995: 6952: 6917: 6878: 6839: 6745: 6718: 6691: 6634: 6607: 6580: 6528: 6499: 6426: 6397: 6368: 6343: 6333: 6274: 6264: 6233: 6188: 6129: 6102: 6069: 5995: 5985: 5956: 5944: 5893: 5864: 5837: 5808: 5777: 5688: 5647: 5474: 5470: 5383: 5358: 5283: 4996: 4910: 4870: 4815: 4436: 4275: 4190: 3741: 3731: 3474: 3449: 3442: 3422: 3245: 3053: 2873: 2748: 2592: 2569: 2494: 2373: 2369: 2049: 1836: 1775: 1653: 1605: 1581: 1566: 1556: 1552: 1496: 1438: 1366: 1346: 1297: 1268: 1260: 1244: 1183: 1179: 1091: 1043:

These disturbances and disorder also allowed the Franks, now under the leadership of

1009: 879: 843: 663: 552: 445: 437: 408: 371: 306: 228: 186: 159: 63: 9529:

Libraries - Traditions and Innovations: Papers from the Library History Seminar XIII

8182:. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. p. 117. 5915:"Weaponizing Historical Knowledge: the Notion of Reconquista in Spanish Nationalism" 3568:

The Moors imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the end of the

2627: 2505:, the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially by trading in 2501:, and the Jews of al-Andalus prospered by devoting themselves to the service of the 1182:). By far the most important of these invasions was the attempted reconquest by the 1159: 1066:

The third consequence of the Berber revolt was the collapse of the authority of the

749: 453: 10338: 10025: 9893:

Mudéjar Art: Islamic Aesthetics in Christian Art (Islamic Art in the Mediterranean)

9281: 8502: 8494: 8454: 8388: 7402: 7250: 7142: 7103: 6987: 6944: 6909: 6870: 6831: 6422: 6303: 6221: 5977: 5934: 5926: 5712: 5696: 5680: 5663: 5562: 5413: 4810: 4733: 3792: 3706: 3691: 3179: 3171: 3144: 3028: 2869: 2619: 2420: 2386:

while increasingly adopting the Arabic language, which eventually evolved into the

2377: 2251: 2116: 2041: 1952: 1676: 1636: 1512: 1446: 1422: 1411:

broke up into a number of mostly independent mini-states and principalities called

1370: 1232: 1224: 520: 9620:

Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800

9416:

The development of Islamic library collections in Western Europe and North America

8458: 8392: 6576:

Defining Boundaries in al-Andalus: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Islamic Iberia

3523:

describe an openly bisexual lifestyle. Andalusi anthologies of poetry such as the

1701: 1146:

News of his arrival spread across al-Andalus, and when word reached its governor,

1021: 608:, and in 2002, Georg Bossong suggested its derivation from a pre-Roman substrate. 11426: 11414: 11098: 10967: 10925: 10904: 10876:

Islamic Culture Through Jewish Eyes: al-Andalus from the Tenth to Twelfth Century

10490: 9327: 9300: 9242: 9109: 9044: 8799: 8717: 8690: 8021:

The Formation of al-Andalus, Part 2: Language, Religion, Culture and the Sciences

7682: 7654: 7547:

Masterpieces from the Department of Islamic Art in The Metropolitan Museum of Art

7146: 7107: 7049: 6182: 5771: 5655: 5621: 5450: 5157: 4499: 4460: 4150: 3598: 3305: 3191: 3152: 3119: 3107: 3073: 2915: 2713:

One specialist of Al-Andalus' intellectual history, Maria Luisa Avila, says that

2707: 2677: 2623: 2573: 2539: 2387: 2263: 1899: 1684: 1680: 1596:

leaders and he returned on a campaign to conquer al-Andalus instead. Most of the

1508: 1475: 1430: 1362: 1248: 1132: 1118: 1044: 993: 966: 859: 784: 702: 676: 572: 461: 387: 359: 154: 125: 10249: 6657: 5804:

History of the World Christian Movement: Volume 1: Earliest Christianity To 1453

3363:

were also built (or rebuilt) in Mudéjar style under Christian rule, such as the

2372:

origin), formed the majority of Muslims. The Muwalladun had spoken in the local

2198:, whose astronomical tables he wrote a discussion on and subsequently improved. 858:

for assistance, offering to place himself under Carolingian sovereignty. At the

633: 390:

rule. These boundaries changed constantly through a series of conquests Western

11510: 8498: 6858: 6464: 6456: 6225: 5789:

formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania")

4655: 4467: 4396: 4159: 4077: 4021: 3726: 3701: 3257: 3183: 3123: 2907: 2764: 2740: 2734: 2416: 2296: 2215: 2186: 2159:, but he also published shorter works discussing Aristotle's planetary theories 1951:. The earliest evidence of such activities in al-Andalus dates to the reign of 1741: 1722: 1706: 1329: 1309: 1305: 1196: 1140: 946: 912: 855: 818: 568: 449: 391: 280: 11256:

Islam and the Arabs in Spanish scholarship: (Sixteenth century to the present)

10818: 10029: 9285: 8983: 8617: 8435: 8381:

Biṭrūjī: Nūr al-Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Jaҁfar]Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al-Biṭrūjī

8365: 7406: 7362:"Andalusian Roots And Abbasid Homage In The Qubbat Al-Barudiyyin In Marrakech" 7254: 6991: 6874: 6835: 3337: 3089: 2652:

Lute song in a garden for a noble lady. 13th century manuscript from Andalusi

1927:

There was much scientific activity in Al-Andalus, especially in the fields of

962: 11556: 11538: 11525: 11514: 10308: 10150: 9785: 9509: 9474: 9375: 8933: 8736: 7414: 7262: 7227: 6999: 6956: 6921: 6882: 6843: 6819: 6796: 6460: 6347: 6278: 5948: 5930: 4880: 4860: 4491: 4037: 3696: 3537: 3409:

Diffusion of bananas from India to the Iberian peninsula during Islamic rule.

3248:), which consisted of a hypostyle prayer hall, a courtyard (now known as the 2612: 2611:

influence. However, as the use of Arabic by Muwalladûn, urban Christians and

2247: 2003: 1983: 1809: 1667:

withdrew from al-Andalus altogether. In this political vacuum, a new wave of

1407:

between 1009 and 1013, although it was not finally abolished until 1031 when

1301: 1079: 1051:

in 752, hoping to deprive al-Andalus of an easy launching pad for raids into

1029: 958: 922:

In 741, Balj b. Bishr led a detachment of some 10,000 Arab troops across the

894: 835: 803: 500: 375: 10724: 9800:. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 656–658. 8971: 8650: 8630: 8582: 8562: 8549: 8529: 8332: 8296: 8263: 8243: 8230: 8197: 8161: 8128: 8108: 8092: 6948: 5999: 3264:

motif, probably influenced by the Caliphate-period architecture of Córdoba.

3222: 3064:), culminated with the widely celebrated Jewish thinker of the Middle Ages, 2493:

The longest period of relative tolerance began after 912, with the reign of

1709:(1232–1492), with the epigraphic inscription "glory to our lord the Sultan". 1267:, and restoring some prestige to the emirate. Meanwhile, across the sea the 452:

Emirate of Granada (1238–1492). Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, the city of

30:

This article is about the historical region. For the modern-day region, see

11476: 8516: 7959: 6448: 4930: 4641: 3550:

of identity. Very little is known about the homosexual behaviour of women.

3195: 3151:

over the Guadalquivir River in Córdoba, while the Almohads later added the

3049: 2947: 2604: 2404: 2329: 2240: 2226:

Other important scientific advances in al-Andalus occurred in the field of

2007: 1915: 1753: 1520:

and exerted significant influence on ceramic production across al-Andalus.

1350: 1228: 10960:

Colonial al-Andalus : Spain and the making of modern Moroccan culture

6913: 3202: 2698: 1612:

The rise and fall of the Almoravids is sometimes seen as an expression of

11466: 11296: 6897: 6789:"Biography of Emir de al-Andalus Abd al-Rahman o Abderramán II (792–852)" 6475:(translated by Francis Griffin Stokes from Dozy's original (1861) French 5719:. Also known in English, perhaps in a slightly dated or quaint sense, as 5288: 5253: 5248: 4723: 4005: 3964: 3650: 3569: 3421:. A variety of foodstuffs, spices and crops were introduced to Spain and 2943: 2885: 2710:, with significant consonance with Arabic poetry in both theme and form. 2631: 2546: 2498: 2487: 2400: 2060:. Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr (d. 1162) is particularly notable, as he wrote the 1936: 1870: 1844: 1817: 1765: 1663:. Almohad rule was diminished in prestige and in 1228 the Almohad caliph 1613: 1354: 1175: 1033: 1017: 1001: 396: 316: 311: 290: 11089:

Hamilton, Michelle M., Sarah J. Portnoy, and David A. Wacks, eds. 2004.

9357:

The Cambridge history of Arabic literature. the literature of Al-Andalus

3594:

guards, they were castrated), female saqaliba were placed in the harem.

3143:). Abd ar-Rahman III, at the height of his power, began construction of 2648: 2626:

developped. The latter consisted of many local dialects, but a standard

2184:(d. 1007), who played a role in translating and writing about Ptolemy's 1763:

Granada also accommodated a large number of Muslim refugees fleeing the

1705:

A silk textile fragment from the last Muslim dynasty of Al-Andalus, the

984:

A second significant consequence of the revolt was the expansion of the

11430: 11418: 11328:

Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict

10643:

The Fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict

10273: 8832: 6964: 5939: 3751: 3658: 3520: 3405: 3288: 3140: 3065: 3033: 3011: 2992: 2903: 2753: 2681: 2672: 2550: 2517: 2205: 2104: 2057: 1987: 1975: 1944: 1879: 1813: 1517: 1504: 1276: 1220: 1048: 718: 672: 481: 469: 465: 456:

became one of the leading cultural and economic centres throughout the

412: 383: 11180:

Maimonides: the Life and World of One of Civilization's Greatest Minds

11091:

Wine, Women, and Song: Hebrew and Arabic Literature in Medieval Iberia

10224:"'Moon Of The Faith:' A History Of The Apricot And Its Many Pleasures" 7890:

Freedom and Orthodoxy: Islam and Difference in the Post-Andalusian Age

7007: 6155: 5914: 3341: 2876:

had collected libraries of books and granted patronage to scholars of

2130:

Al-Bitruji is believed to have studied under Ibn Tufail and Bitruji's

10436: 10158: 9489: 9454: 9355: 6452: 5628: 4765: 4760: 3607: 3546: 3516: 3360: 3317: 3301: 3267: 3221:. Other examples of architecture from around this period include the 3115: 3007: 2973: 2939: 2923: 2899: 2565: 2361: 2239:

and Arab tribes. Although some irrigation projects built on existing

2124: 1932: 1617: 1584:, led several campaigns into al-Andalus, initially in defense of the 1577: 1467: 1321: 1187: 942: 831: 776: 756: 684: 680: 509: 407:

As a political domain, it successively constituted a province of the

379: 31: 9789: 6898:"Brian A. Catlos. Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain" 6259:. Sounds and systems: studies in structure and change. (in German). 6151:"De dónde vienen los nombres de las Comunidades Autónomas españolas" 5754:, Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 1995, p. 52. 3597:

The harem could contain thousands of slave concubines; the harem of

2987:

A prominent follower of al-Majriti was the philosopher and geometer

2357: 1752:, a new Berber dynasty ruling in North Africa from their capital in 1623: 1561: 1151: 938: 448:(1147–1238); the third taifa period (1232–1287); and ultimately the 11359:

The Scroll and the Cross: 1,000 Years of Jewish-Hispanic Literature

11164:

Kraemer, Joel. 2005. "Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait",

11157:

Kraemer, Joel. 1997. "Comparing Crescent and Cross (book review)",

10301:"History of Carrots – A brief summary and timeline" 9814:

Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History

9590:

Palestine and finally to Fusṭāṭ, near Cairo, where he would remain.

7381:

particular the Almoravids (1061–1147) and the Almohads (1130–1260).

6390:"Early Muslim Settlement in Spain: The Berber Tribes in Al-Andalus" 6314:) are frequent in the indigenous toponymy of the Iberian Peninsula. 5860:

The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology

3876: 3861: 3670: 3654: 3642: 3586: 3574: 3383: 3325: 3284: 3272: 3252:

or Court of Oranges), and a massive minaret tower now known as the

3003: 2996: 2968: 2895: 2877: 2521: 2477: 2473: 2304: 2231: 2227: 2204:(d. 1087) had many influential astronomical successes, as shown by 2144: 2108: 2084: 2081: 2045: 1991: 1940: 1928: 1903: 1771: 1749: 1737: 1338: 1264: 1067: 1056: 1037: 970: 887: 871: 780: 745: 741: 733: 714: 706: 643: 600: 505: 473: 76: 7131:"Amalfitans in the Caliphate of Cordoba – Or Not?" 3578:). Saqaliba slavery in al-Andalus was especially prominent in the 2719:, particularly in the legal-religious sciences as well as authors" 1055:. After a lengthy siege, the last Arab stronghold, the citadel of 875: 752:, and the first influx of Muslim settlers was widely distributed. 6247:

Bossong, Georg (2002). Restle, David; Zaefferer, Dietmar (eds.).

6061: 5890:

La Reconquista: una construcción historiográfica (siglos XVI-XIX)

5752:

V Semana de Estudios Medievales: Nájera, 1 al 5 de agosto de 1994

4346: 3674: 3602: 3490: 3465: 3426: 3348:, 13th century) and in the cities of Aragon such as Zaragoza and 3332:

ceilings, particularly during the reign of Muhammad V and after.

3253: 3237: 3136: 2580: 2534: 2525: 2510: 2464: 2408: 2350: 2339: 2236: 2139: 2092: 1943:. At the same time, Andalusi scholars were also highly active in 1911: 1632: 1155: 1075: 1071: 1052: 1025: 954: 934: 898: 890:, invaded Burgundy and Provence and expelled the raiders by 739. 863: 768: 725: 688: 580: 524: 367: 130: 54: 27:

Territories of the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim rule (711–1492)

9244:

Arabic-Andalusian Poetry and the Rise of the European Love-Lyric

8963: 3186:, and epigraphic motifs. Notable surviving examples include the 2891: 2607:. They are usually assumed to have been increasingly subject to 48: 11460: 7069:

Perry, Marvin; Myrna Chase, Margaret C. Jacob, James R. Jacob.

6249:"Der Name al-Andalus: neue Überlegungen zu einem alten Problem" 4780: 3925: 3453: 3349: 3309: 3226: 3210: 3126: 2759: 2744: 2608: 2469: 2447: 2441:

A Christian and a Muslim play chess in 13th-century al-Andalus.

2396: 2120: 2037: 1631:

By 1147, the Almoravids were overthrown in North Africa by the

1601: 1532: 974: 851: 772: 563: 11168:, ed. Kenneth Seeskin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9554:"Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West" 8599:

Convivencia and Medieval Spain: Convivencia and Medieval Spain

8415: 7477: 7453: 3641:. That, combined with the interaction with Muslims during the 3068:(1135–1205), though he did not actually do any of his work in 2572:. For that reason, the numerals came to be known in Europe as 2434:

in Granada and roughly 100,000 in the whole of Islamic Iberia.

1690: 901:(North Africa). To put down the rebellion, the Umayyad Caliph 11488: 11244:. Boston: Little, Brown and Company; London: Back Bay Books. 9491:

The lost paradise : Andalusi music in urban North Africa

8480: 8054:

Bakar, Osman (2006). "The Golden Age of Andalusian Science".

7656:

Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective

6468: 6160: 3591: 3400: 3261: 2935: 2771: 2686: 2457: 2452: 2427: 2392: 2319: 2091:

he provides one of the earliest clinical descriptions of the

1948: 1895: 1413: 1386: 950: 867: 713:

under Muslim rule in a seven-year campaign. They crossed the

697: 432: 11452:

Photocopy of the Ajbar Machmu'a, translated by Lafuente 1867

11141:

Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-Andalus

11117:

Harzig, Christiane, Dirk Hoerder, and Adrian Shubert. 2003.

6741:

Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus

6687:

Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus

6630:

Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus

11393:

The Jews of Medieval Islam: Community, Society and Identity

11391:

Wasserstein, David J. 1995. "Jewish élites in Al-Andalus",

6767:"Abbas Ibn Firnas: the first human to fly | The Links News" 6387: 3357: 3131: 2981: 2506: 2431: 907: 724:

Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expanding

11350:

Schorsch, Ismar, 1989. "The myth of Sephardic supremacy",

10846:

Inventing the Berbers: History and Ideology in the Maghrib

9692: 8886:

Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present

7859: 7802: 7730: 7718: 7679: 7610: 7586: 7489: 7341: 7317: 7305: 7269: 6786: 3649:

introducing Greek scholars to the west, helped launch the

3178:

The official workshops of the Caliphate, such as those at

2528:

against Jews in al-Andalus occurred in Córdoba (1011) and

2426:

The Jewish population worked mainly as tax collectors, in

1843:, were united in their intention to conquer it. The final 1391: 604:. Heinz Halm in 1989 derived the name from a Gothic term, 11306: 11270:

The Origins Of The Inquisition in Fifteenth Century Spain

8631: