Pagan Kingdom - Knowledge

1921:(r. 1112–1167), who focused on standardising administrative and economic systems. The king, also known as Sithu I, actively expanded frontier colonies and built new irrigation systems throughout the kingdom. He also introduced standardised weights and measures throughout the country to assist administration as well as trade. The standardisation provided an impetus for the monetisation of Pagan's economy, the full impact of which however would not be felt until later in the 12th century. The kingdom prospered from increased agricultural output as well as from inland and maritime trading networks. Much of the wealth was devoted to temple building. Temple building projects, which began in earnest during Kyansittha's reign, became increasingly grandiose, and began to transition into a distinctively Burman architectural style from earlier Pyu and Mon norms. By the end of Sithu I's reign, Pagan enjoyed a more synthesised culture, an efficient government and a prosperous economy. However a corresponding growth in population also put pressure on "the fixed relationship between productive land and population", forcing the later kings to expand. 2547:, the main driver for this agriculture-based economic expansion was the practice of donating tax-free lands to the Buddhist clergy. For some two hundred years between 1050 and 1250, wealthy and powerful segments of the Pagan society—members of the royalty, senior court officials, and wealthy laymen—donated to the clergy enormous acreages of agricultural land, along with hereditary tied cultivators to attain religious merit. (Both religious lands and cultivators were permanently tax exempt.) Although it ultimately became a major burden on the economy, the practice initially helped expand the economy for some two centuries. First, the monastery-temple complexes, typically located some distances away from the capital, helped anchor new population centres for the throne. Such institutions in turn stimulated associated artisan, commercial, and agricultural activities critical to the general economy. 3814:

peoples, who came down with the Mongols, came to dominate the political landscapes of the two former empires. Whereas Myanmar would see a resurgence, the post-Mongol Khmer state was reduced to a mere shadow of her former self, never to regain her preeminence. Only in the former Khmer Empire, did the Thai/Lao ethnicity and Thai/Lao languages spread permanently at the expense of the Mon-Khmer speaking peoples, not unlike the Burman takeover of the Pyu realm four centuries earlier. In Myanmar, the result was the opposite: the Shan leadership, as well as lowland Shan immigrants of Myinsaing, Pinya, Sagaing and Ava Kingdoms came to adopt Burmese cultural norms, the Burmese language, and the Bamar ethnicity. The convergence of cultural norms around existing Pagan-centered norms, at least in the Irrawaddy valley core, in turn facilitated the latter-day political reunification drives of

3254:) traditions. While the royal patronage of Theravada Buddhism since the mid-11th century had enabled the Buddhist school to gradually gain primacy, and produce over 10,000 temples in Pagan alone in its honour, other traditions continued to thrive throughout the Pagan period to degrees later unseen. While several Mahayana, Tantric, Hindu and animist elements have remained in Burmese Buddhism to the present day, in the Pagan era, however, "Tantric, Saivite, and Vaishana elements enjoyed greater elite influence than they would later do, reflecting both the immaturity of Burmese literary culture and its indiscriminate receptivity to non-Burman traditions". In this period, "heretical" did not mean non-Buddhist, merely unfaithful to one's own scriptures, whether Brahmanic, Buddhist or whatever. 1360:

Asia's earliest urban centres. By the early centuries AD, several walled cities and towns, including Tagaung, the birthplace of the first Burman kingdom according to the chronicles, had emerged. The architectural and artistic evidence indicates the Pyu realm's contact with Indian culture by the 4th century AD. The city-states boasted kings and palaces, moats and massive wooden gates, and always 12 gates for each of the signs of the zodiac, one of the many enduring patterns that would continue until the British occupation. Sri Ksetra emerged as the premier Pyu city-state in the 7th century AD. Although the size of the city-states and the scale of political organisation grew during the 7th to early 9th centuries, no sizeable kingdom had yet emerged by the 9th century.

1906:(r. 1084–1112) successfully melded the diverse cultural influences introduced into Pagan by Anawrahta's conquests. He patronised Mon scholars and artisans who emerged as the intellectual elite. He appeased the Pyus by linking his genealogy to the real and mythical ancestors of Sri Ksetra, the symbol of the Pyu golden past, and by calling the kingdom Pyu, even though it had been ruled by a Burman ruling class. He supported and favoured Theravada Buddhism while tolerating other religious groups. To be sure, he pursued these policies all the while maintaining the Burman military rule. By the end of his 28-year reign, Pagan had emerged a major power alongside the Khmer Empire in Southeast Asia, recognised as a sovereign kingdom by the Chinese 3362:. Such arrangements produced a male literacy rates of over 50 percent, and remarkable levels of textual Buddhist knowledge on the village level. But in the Pagan era, key 19th century elements were not yet in place. No village-level network of monasteries or meaningful interdependence between the monks and villagers existed. The monks relied on the royal donations, and those from major sects, which had vast landed holdings, did not have to rely on daily alms, inhibiting close interaction with villagers. The low levels of interaction in turn retarded literacy in Burmese, and limited most commoners' understanding of Buddhism to non-textual means: paintings at the great temples, pageants, folkloric versions of the 2551:

well-watered district south of Pagan. After these hubs had been developed, in the mid-to-late 12th century, Pagan moved into as yet undeveloped frontier areas west of the Irrawaddy and south of Minbu. These new lands included both irrigable wet-rice areas and non-irrigable areas suitable for rain-fed rice, pulses, sesame, and millet. Agricultural expansion and temple construction in turn sustained a market in land and certain types of labour and materials. Land reclamation, religious donations, and building projects expanded slowly before 1050, increased to 1100, accelerated sharply with the opening of new lands between c. 1140 and c. 1210 and continued at a lower level from 1220 to 1300.

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that Pagan did not have any interest in trade. On the contrary, Pagan closely administered its peninsular ports, which were transit points between the Indian Ocean and China. Maritime trade provided the court with revenues and prestige goods (coral, pearls, textiles). Evidence shows that Pagan imported silver from Yunnan, and that traded upland forest products, gems and perhaps metals with the coast. Still, no archaeological, textual or inscriptional evidence to indicate that such exports supported large numbers of producers or middlemen in Upper Myanmar itself, or that trade constituted a large part of the economy.

75: 2519:. The growth of the Pagan Empire and subsequent development of irrigated lands in new lands sustained a growth in the number of population centres and a growing prosperous economy. The economy also benefited from the general absence of warfare that would stunt the economies of later dynasties. According to Victor Lieberman, the prosperous economy supported "a rich Buddhist civilization whose most spectacular feature was a dense forest of pagodas, monasteries, and temples, totaling perhaps 10,000 brick structures, of which the remains of over 2000 survive." 1323: 3726: 2017: 2389:: Arakan, Chin Hills, Kachin Hills, and Shan Hills. These were tributary lands over which the crown only had a "largely ritual" or nominal sovereignty. In general, the king of Pagan received a periodic nominal tribute but had "no substantive authority", for example, on such matters as the selection of deputies, successors, or levels of taxation. Pagan largely stayed out of the affairs of these outlying states, only interfering when there were outright revolts, such as Arakan and Martaban in the late 1250s or northern Kachin Hills in 1277. 3573: 1891: 3717: 3221: 2751: 2382:

example, Pagan made a point of appointing its governors in the Tenasserim coast to closely supervise the ports and revenues. By the second half of the 13th century, several key ports in Lower Myanmar (Prome, Bassein, Dala) were all ruled by senior princes of the royal family. However, the escape of Lower Myanmar from Upper Myanmar's orbit in the late 13th century proves that the region was far from fully integrated. History shows that the region would not be fully integrated into the core until the late 18th century.

2863: 3404:, at least prior to Anawrahta. (Though Anawrahta is said to have driven out the Aris from his court, they were certainly back at the court by the late Pagan period, and continued to be a presence at the later Burmese courts down to the Ava period.) Ari Buddhism itself was a mix of Tantric Buddhism and local traditions. For example, ceremonial animal slaughter and alcohol consumption long antedated the Burmans' arrival, and continued in remote parts of mainland and maritime Southeast Asia until recent times. 3317: 3302: 3287: 611: 3268: 3026: 1731: 2398: 3071: 3056: 3041: 3525: 2569: 2528: 570: 6154: 2032:. But the seeds of Pagan's decline were sowed during this seemingly idyllic period. The state had stopped expanding, but the practice of donating tax-free land to religion had not. The continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth greatly reduced the tax base of the kingdom. Indeed, Htilominlo was the last of the temple builders although most of his temples were in remote lands not in the Pagan region, reflecting the deteriorating state of royal treasury. 2036:

kings to halt entirely their own or other courtiers' donations. The crown did try to reclaim some of these lands by periodically purging the clergy in the name of Buddhist purification, and seizing previously donated lands. Although some of the reclamation efforts were successful, powerful Buddhist clergy by and large successfully resisted such attempts. Ultimately, the rate of reclamation fell behind the rate at which such lands were dedicated to the

1451:'s inscriptionally verified accession date of 1044—the chronicle reported date is likely the date of foundation, not fortification. Radiocarbon dating of Pagan's walls points to c. 980 at the earliest. (If an earlier fortification did exist, it must have been constructed using less durable materials such as mud.) Likewise, inscriptional evidence of the earliest Pagan kings points to 956. The earliest mention of Pagan in external sources occurs in 6178: 2040:. (The problem was exacerbated to a smaller degree by powerful ministers, who exploited succession disputes and accumulated their own lands at the expense of the crown.) By 1280, between one and two-thirds of Upper Myanmar's cultivatable land had been donated to religion. Thus the throne lost resources needed to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen, inviting a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges by 914: 3429: 3133: 1930: 1672:

ethnic distinction between Burmans and linguistically linked Pyus seems to have existed. The city was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in authority and grandeur. By Anawrahta's accession in 1044, Pagan had grown into a small principality—about 320 kilometres (200 mi) north to south and about 130 kilometres (81 mi) from east to west, comprising roughly the present districts of

2438: 3161: 2186:. The Mongols did not know about the dethronement until June–July 1298. In response, the Mongols launched another invasion, reaching Myinsaing on 25 January 1301, but could not break through. The besiegers took the bribes of the three brothers, and withdrew on 6 April 1301. The Mongol government at Yunnan executed their commanders but sent no more invasions. They withdrew entirely from Upper Myanmar starting on 4 April 1303. 3557: 3510: 3488: 1939: 1423: 2416:. The role and power of the Hluttaw grew greatly in the following decades. It came to manage not only day-to-day affairs but also military affairs of the kingdom. (No Pagan king after Sithu II ever took command of the army again.) The powerful ministers also became kingmakers. Their support was an important factor in the accession of the last kings of Pagan from Htilominlo (r. 1211–1235) to Kyawswa (r. 1289–1297). 1755: 2881:

constant. (The size of population in medieval times tended to stay flat over the course of many centuries. England's population between the 11th and 16th centuries remained at around 2.25 million, and China's population until the 17th century remained between 60 and 100 million for 13 centuries.) Pagan was the most populous city with an estimated population of 200,000 prior to the Mongol invasions.

2212: 1411: 6166: 2504: 3541: 1862:. The conquest of Lower Burma checked the Khmer Empire's encroachment into the Tenasserim coast, secured control of the peninsular ports, which were transit points between the Indian Ocean and China, and facilitated growing cultural exchange with the external world: Mons of Lower Burma, India and Ceylon. Equally important was Anawrahta's conversion to Theravada Buddhism from his native 2072: 3379: 3420:) venerated in pre-Buddhist times. To judge by 14th-century patterns, sacrifices to nat spirits mediated by shamans, were still a central village ritual. As elsewhere in Southeast Asia, homosexuals or transvestites (who already inhabited two "incompatible" realms) as well as women with appropriate powers provided a shamanic bridge from the human world to that of the spirits. 2329:. Because of the irrigated hubs, the region supported the largest population in the kingdom, which translated into the largest concentration of royal servicemen who could be called into military service. The king directly ruled the capital and its immediate environs while he appointed most trusted members of the royal family to rule Kyaukse and Minbu. Newly settled dry zone 3148:. Mainstream scholarship holds that the Burmese alphabet was developed from the Mon script in 1058, a year after Anawrahta's conquest of the Thaton Kingdom. Burmese script may have instead been derived from the Pyu script in the 10th century based on whether the Mon script found in Myanmar was sufficiently different from the older Mon script found in the Mon homelands of 2136:(Land of the Mon) independent on 30 January 1287. In the west too, Arakan stopped paying tribute. The chronicles report that the eastern territories including trans-Salween states of Keng Hung, Kengtung and Chiang Mai stopped paying tribute although most scholars attribute Pagan's limits to the Salween. At any rate, the 250-year-old Pagan Empire had ceased to exist. 3358:

used Burmese-language manuscripts to provide youths from diverse backgrounds with basic Buddhist literacy. This was a reciprocal exchange: monks relied on villagers for their daily food, while villagers depended on monks for schooling, sermons, and an opportunity to gain merit by giving alms and inducting their young men into the community of monks, the

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Upper Myanmar and laid the foundation for their continued spread elsewhere in later centuries. The 250-year rule left a proven system of administrative and cultural norms that would be adopted and extended by successor kingdoms—not only by the Burmese-speaking Ava Kingdom but also by the Mon-speaking Hanthawaddy Kingdom and Shan-speaking Shan states.

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11th to 13th centuries provided the Buddhist school, which had been in retreat elsewhere in South Asia and Southeast Asia, a much needed reprieve and a safe shelter. Not only did Pagan help restart Theravada Buddhism in Ceylon but the over two centuries of patronage by a powerful empire made Theravada Buddhism's later growth in

3902:(Ricklefs et al 2010: 45–48): The spread of Theravada Buddhism in Siam, Lan Xang and Cambodia was also aided by the interaction with Ceylon. However, the Ceylonese interaction was possible only because the Theravada monk order was restarted in 1071–1072 by the monks from Pagan per (Harvey 1925: 32–33) and (Htin Aung 1967: 35). 2092:(Mottama) in the south. The Martaban rebellion was easily put down but Macchagiri required a second expedition before it too was put down. The calm did not last long. Martaban again revolted in 1285. This time, Pagan could not do anything to retake Martaban because it was facing an existential threat from the north. The 3000:) classes, royal bondsmen and religious bondsmen were hereditary while private bondsmen were not. A private bondsman's servitude to his patron stood until his debt was fully repaid. A bondman's obligations ceased with death, and could not be perpetuated down to his descendants. On the other hand, royal servicemen ( 1301:), lit. "the City that Tramples on Enemies"). The site reportedly was visited by the Buddha himself during his lifetime, and it was where he allegedly pronounced that a great kingdom would arise at this very location 651 years after his death. Thamoddarit was followed by a caretaker, and then Pyusawhti in 167 AD. 2028:(r. 1235–1249) were able to live off the stable and bountiful conditions he passed on with little state-building on their part. Htilomino hardly did any governing. A devout Buddhist and scholar, the king gave up the command of the army, and left administration to a privy council of ministers, the forebear of the 3813:

Continued cultural integration in an otherwise politically fragmented post-Pagan Myanmar set the stage for a resurgence of a unified Burmese state in the 16th century. An apt comparison can be made with the Khmer Empire, the other Southeast Asian Empire that Mongol invasions toppled. Various Tai-Shan

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in 1057 in Lower Myanmar. More recently, however, Aung-Thwin has argued forcefully that Anawrahta's conquest of Thaton is a post-Pagan legend without contemporary evidence, that Lower Myanmar in fact lacked a substantial independent polity prior to Pagan's expansion, and that the Mon influence on the

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Pagan's society was highly stratified among different social classes. At the top of the pyramid were the royalty (immediate royal family), followed by the upper officialdom (the extended royal family and the court), lower officialdom, artisans and crown service groups, and the commoners. The Buddhist

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The Mongols invaded again in 1287. Recent research indicates that Mongol armies may not have reached Pagan itself, and that even if they did, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. But the damage was already done. All the vassal states of Pagan revolted right after the king's death, and went

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By the mid-13th century, the problem had worsened considerably. The Upper Myanmar heartland over which Pagan exercised most political control had run out of easily reclaimed irrigable tracts. Yet their fervent desire to accumulate religious merit for better reincarnations made it impossible for Pagan

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in the east and below the current China border in the farther north. (Burmese chronicles also claim trans-Salween Shan states, including Kengtung and Chiang Mai.) Continuing his grandfather Sithu I's policies, Sithu II expanded the agricultural base of the kingdom with new manpower from the conquered

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summarises that "the Nanzhao Empire had washed up on the banks of the Irrawaddy, and would find a new life, fused with an existing and ancient culture, to produce one of the most impressive little kingdoms of the medieval world. From this fusion would result the Burmese people, and the foundations of

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entered the Pyu realm in the 830s and 840s, and settled at the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers, perhaps to help the Nanzhao pacify the surrounding countryside. Indeed, the naming system of the early Pagan kings—Pyusawhti and his descendants for six generations—was identical to that of

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The kingdom went into decline in the mid-13th century as the continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth by the 1280s had severely affected the crown's ability to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen. This ushered in a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges

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The kingdom of Pagan, the "charter polity" of Myanmar, had a lasting impact on Burmese history and the history of mainland Southeast Asia. The success and longevity of Pagan's dominance over the Irrawaddy valley enabled the ascent of Burmese language and culture, and the spread of Bamar ethnicity in

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Whatever the origin of the Burmese alphabet may be, writing in Burmese was still a novelty in the 11th century. A written Burmese language became dominant in court only in the 12th century. For much of the Pagan period, written materials needed to produce large numbers of literate monks and students

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Nonetheless, by the end of Pagan period, the process of Burmanization, which would continue into the 19th century, and eventually blanket the entire lowlands, was still in an early stage. The first extant Burmese language reference to "Burmans" appeared only in 1190, and the first reference to Upper

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The kingdom was an "ethnic mosaic". In the late 11th century, ethnic Burmans were still "a privileged but numerically limited population", heavily concentrated in the interior dry zone of Upper Burma. They co-existed with Pyus, who dominated the dry zone, until the latter came to identify themselves

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relied on its main rice basin of over 13,000 hectares.) But donations to the sangha over the 250 years of the empire accumulated to over 150,000 hectares (over 60%) of the total cultivated land. Ultimately, the practice proved unsustainable when the empire had stopped growing physically, and a major

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queens and concubines. The ministers were usually drawn from more distant branches of the royal family. Their subordinates were not royal but usually hailed from top official families. Titles, ranks, insignia, fiefs and other such rewards helped maintain the loyalty-patronage structure of the court.

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they generally had a freehand in the rest of the administration. They were chief justices, commanders-in-chief, and tax collectors. They made local officer appointments. In fact, no evidence of royal censuses or direct contact between the Pagan court and headmen beneath the governors has been found.

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in the west. In the northeast, a series of 43 forts Anawrahta established along the eastern foothills, of which 33 still exist as villages, reveal the effective extent of his authority. Moreover, most scholars attribute Pagan's control of peripheral regions (Arakan, Shan Hills) to later kings—Arakan

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By the mid-10th century, Burmans at Pagan had expanded irrigation-based cultivation while borrowing extensively from the Pyus' predominantly Buddhist culture. Pagan's early iconography, architecture and scripts suggest little difference between early Burman and Pyu cultural forms. Moreover, no sharp

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Although the Burmese temple designs evolved from Indic, Pyu (and possibly Mon) styles, the techniques of vaulting seem to have developed in Pagan itself. The earliest vaulted temples in Pagan date to the 11th century while the vaulting did not become widespread in India until the late 12th century.

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In the areas of city planning and temple design, Pagan architecture borrowed heavily from existing Pyu architectural practices, which in turn were based on various Indian styles. Pagan-era city planning largely followed Pyu patterns, the most notable being the use of 12 gates, for each of the signs

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Burman immigrants are believed to have either introduced new water management techniques or greatly enhanced existing Pyu system of weirs, dams, sluices, and diversionary barricades. The techniques of building dams, canals and weirs found in pre-colonial Upper Myanmar trace their origins to the Pyu

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monks, who enjoyed wide influence at the Pagan court. Contemporary inscriptions show that the Aris ate evening meals, and presided over public ceremonies where they drank liquor and where cattle and other animals were sacrificed—activities considered scandalous by Burmese Buddhist norms of the 18th

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To be sure, the Theravada Buddhist scene of the Pagan era had little semblance to those of Toungoo and Konbaung periods. Much of the institutional mechanisms prevalent in later centuries simply did not yet exist. For instance, in the 19th century, a network of Theravada monasteries in every village

3208:, and medicine, and developed an independent school of legal studies. Most students, and probably the leading monks and nuns, came from aristocratic families. At any rate, local illiteracy probably prevented the sort of detailed village censuses and legal rulings that became a hallmark of post-1550 3103:

and the language of the ruling class of Nanzhao. But the spread of the language to the masses lagged behind the founding of the Pagan Empire by 75 to 150 years. In the early Pagan era, both Pyu and Mon were lingua francas of the Irrawaddy valley. Pyu was the dominant language of Upper Myanmar while

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corps were drawn from specific hereditary villages that specialised in respective military skills. In an era of limited military specialisation, when the number of conscripted cultivators offered the best single indication of military success, Upper Myanmar with a greater population was the natural

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system by later dynasties), which required local chiefs to supply their predetermined quota of men from their jurisdiction on the basis of population in times of war. This basic system of military organisation was largely unchanged down to the precolonial period although later dynasties, especially

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The court was the centre of administration, representing at once executive, legislative and judiciary branches of the government. The members of the court can be divided into three general categories: royalty, ministers, and subordinate officials. At the top were the high king, princes, princesses,

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The Pagan Empire also changed the history of mainland Southeast Asia. Geopolitically, Pagan checked the Khmer Empire's encroachment into the Tenasserim coast and upper Menam valley. Culturally, the emergence of Pagan as a Theravada stronghold in the face of an expanding Hindu Khmer Empire from the

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ensured the continued spread of Burman ethnicity in post-Pagan Upper Burma, the similar emergence of non-Burmese speaking kingdoms elsewhere helped develop ethnic consciousness closely tied to respective ruling classes in Lower Burma, Shan states and Arakan. For example, according to Lieberman and

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To be sure, the notion of ethnicity in pre-colonial Burma was highly fluid, heavily influenced by language, culture, class, locale, and indeed political power. People changed their in-group identification, depending on the social context. The success and longevity of the Pagan Empire sustained the

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Internal and external trade played an important but minor role in Pagan's economy. Trade was not the main engine of economic growth for much of the Pagan period although its share of the economy probably increased in the 13th century when the agricultural sector stopped growing. That is not to say

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Various sources and estimates put Pagan's military strength anywhere between 30,000 and 60,000 men. One inscription by Sithu II, who expanded the empire to its greatest extent, describes him as the lord of 17,645 soldiers while another notes 30,000 soldiers and cavalry under his command. A Chinese

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By then, the city of Pagan, once home to 200,000 people, had been reduced to a small town, never to regain its preeminence. (It survived into the 15th century as a settlement.) The brothers placed one of Kyawswa's sons as the governor of Pagan. Anawrahta's line continued to rule Pagan as governors

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were built during their reigns. The kingdom's borders expanded to its greatest extent. Military organisation and success reached their zenith. Monumental architecture achieved a qualitative and quantitative standard that subsequent dynasties tried to emulate but never succeeded in doing. The court

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Anawrahta proved an energetic king. His acts as king were to strengthen his kingdom's economic base. In the first decade of his reign, he invested much effort into turning the arid parched lands of central Myanmar into a rice granary, successfully building/enlarging weirs and canals, mainly around

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Agriculture was the primary engine of the kingdom from its beginnings in the 9th century. Burman immigrants are believed to have either introduced new water management techniques or greatly enhanced existing Pyu system of weirs, dams, sluices, and diversionary barricades. At any rate, the Kyaukse

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or tributary states, governed by local hereditary rulers as well as Pagan appointed governors, drawn from princely or ministerial families. Because of their farther distances from the capital, the regions' rulers/governors had greater autonomy. They were required to send tributes to the crown but

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One of the most enduring developments in Burmese history was the gradual emergence of Theravada Buddhism as the primary faith of the Pagan Empire. A key turning point came c. 1056 when the Buddhist school won the royal patronage of an ascendant empire with Anawrahta's conversion from his native

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Various estimates put the population of Pagan Empire as anywhere between one and two and a half million but most estimates put it between one and a half and two million at its height. The number would be closer to the upper end, assuming that the population of pre-colonial Burma remained fairly

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For all the innovations that the Pagan dynasty introduced, one area that it regressed was the use of coinage. The Pyu practice of issuing gold and silver coinage was not retained. The common medium of exchange was lump silver "coinage", followed by gold and copper lump coinage. Silver came from

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Over the course of 250 years, the throne slowly tried to integrate the most strategically and economically important regions—i.e. Lower Myanmar, Tenasserim, northernmost Irrawaddy valley—into the core by appointing its governors in place of hereditary rulers. In the 12th and 13th centuries, for

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The earliest archaeological evidence of civilisation far dates to 11,000 BC. Archaeological evidence shows that as early as the 2nd century BC the Pyu had built water-management systems along secondary streams in central and northern parts of the Irrawaddy basin and had founded one of Southeast

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Secondly, the need to accumulate land for endowments, as well as for awards for soldiers and servicemen, drove the active development of new lands. The earliest irrigation projects focused on Kyaukse where Burmans built a large number of new weirs and diversionary canals, and Minbu a similarly

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chronicles is 1174 when Sithu II founded the Palace Guards—"two companies inner and outer, and they kept watch in ranks one behind the other". The Palace Guards became the nucleus round which the mass levy assembled in war time. Most of the field levy served in the infantry but the men for the

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The king as the absolute monarch was the chief executive, legislator and justice of the land. However, as the kingdom grew, the king gradually handed over responsibilities to the court, which became more extensive and complex, adding more administrative layers and officials. In the early 13th

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contends that the arrival of Burmans may have been a few centuries earlier, perhaps the early 7th century. The earliest human settlement at Bagan is radiocarbon dated to c. 650 AD. But evidence is inconclusive to prove that it was specifically a Burman (and not just another Pyu) settlement.)

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The early Pagan army consisted mainly of conscripts raised just prior to or during the times of war. Although historians believe that earlier kings like Anawrahta must have had permanent troops on duty in the palace, the first specific mention of a standing military structure in the Burmese

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in 1277. However, some argue that the Chinese figures, which came from eye estimates of a single battle, are greatly exaggerated. As Harvey puts it: the Mongols "erred on the side of generosity as they did not wish to diminish the glory in defeating superior numbers". But assuming that the

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interior is greatly exaggerated. Instead, he argues that it is more likely that Burmans borrowed Theravada Buddhism from their neighbour Pyus, or directly from India. The Theravada school prevalent in the early and mid Pagan periods, like in the Pyu realm, was probably derived from the

2423:, to be followed as precedents by all courts of justice. A follow-up collection of judgments was compiled during the reign of Sithu II (r. 1174–1211) by a Mon monk named Dhammavilasa. As another sign of delegation of power, Sithu II also appointed a chief justice and a chief minister. 1997:

areas, ensuring the needed wealth for a growing royalty and officialdom. Pagan dispatched governors to supervise more closely ports in Lower Myanmar and the peninsula. In the early 13th century, Pagan, alongside the Khmer Empire, was one of two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia.

1866:. The Burmese king provided the Buddhist school, which had been in retreat elsewhere in South Asia and Southeast Asia, a much needed reprieve and a safe shelter. By the 1070s, Pagan had emerged as the main Theravada stronghold. In 1071, it helped to restart the Theravada Buddhism in 2169:

in 1293/94, it was the brothers, not Kyawswa, that sent a force to reclaim the former Pagan territory in 1295–96. Though the army was driven back, it left no doubt as to who held the real power in central Myanmar. In the following years, the brothers, especially the youngest,

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Evidence shows that the actual pace of Burman migration into the Pyu realm was gradual. Indeed, no firm indications have been found at Sri Ksetra or at any other Pyu site to suggest a violent overthrow. Radiocarbon dating shows that human activity existed until c. 870 at

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By the mid-1050s, Anawrahta's reforms had turned Pagan into a regional power, and he looked to expand. Over the next ten years, he founded the Pagan Empire, the Irrawaddy valley at the core, surrounded by tributary states. Anawrahta began his campaigns in the nearer

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with a lotus bud. The lotus bud design then evolved into the "banana bud", which forms the extended apex of most Burmese pagodas. Three or four rectangular terraces served as the base for a pagoda, often with a gallery of terra-cotta tiles depicting Buddhist

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Anawrahta was followed by a line of able kings who cemented Pagan's place in history. Pagan entered a golden age that would last for the next two centuries. Aside from a few occasional rebellions, the kingdom was largely peaceful during the period. King

2963:) of the king, and were often assigned to individual headmen and officials who acted as the king's representatives. They received land grants from the crown, and were exempt from most personal taxes in exchange for regular or military service. Second, 1933:

Pagan Empire during Sithu II's reign. Burmese chronicles also claim Kengtung and Chiang Mai. Core areas shown in darker yellow. Peripheral areas in light yellow. Pagan incorporated key ports of Lower Myanmar into its core administration by the 13th

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came to power. Over the next three decades, he turned this small principality into the First Burmese Empire—the "charter polity" that formed the basis of modern-day Burma/Myanmar. Historically verifiable Burmese history begins with his accession.

3108:

of the kingdom only in the early 12th century, and perhaps the late 12th century when the use of Pyu and Mon in official usage declined. Mon continued to flourish in Lower Myanmar but Pyu as a language had died out by the early 13th century.

1384:

the Nanzhao kings where the last name of the father became the first name of the son. The chronicles date these early kings to between the 2nd and 5th centuries AD, scholars to between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. (A minority view led by

2156:

emerged as king of Pagan in May 1289. But the new "king" controlled just a small area around the capital, and had no real army. The real power in Upper Myanmar now rested with three brothers, who were former Pagan commanders, of nearby

1055:

founded the Pagan Empire, presumably for the first time unifying under one polity the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. By the late 12th century, Anawrahta's successors had extended their influence farther to the south into the upper

3462:

Pagan stands out not only for the sheer number of religious edifices but also for the magnificent architecture of the buildings, and their contribution to Burmese temple design. Pagan temples fall into one of two broad categories: the

3792:

Another architectural innovation originated in Pagan is the Buddhist temple with a pentagonal floor plan. This design grew out of hybrid (between one-face and four-face designs) designs. The idea was to include the veneration of the

1850:. (Even those latter-day kings may not have had more than nominal control over the farther peripheral regions. For example, some scholars such as Victor Lieberman argue that Pagan did not have any "effective authority" over Arakan.) 1805:. Estimates of the extent of his empire vary greatly. The Burmese and Siamese chronicles report an empire which covered the present-day Myanmar and northern Thailand. The Siamese chronicles assert that Anawrahta conquered the entire 3415:

pantheon that sought to assimilate local deities and persons of prowess to a more unified cultus. The Burmans may have derived the concept of an official pantheon from Mon tradition. Likewise, the early Pagan court worshiped snakes

3440:

Bagan is well known today for its architecture, and over 2000 remaining temples that dot the modern-day Pagan (Bagan) plains today. Other, non-religious aspects of Pagan architecture were equally important to later Burmese states.

3789:, in the form of spacious vaulted chambered temple but failed as craftsmen and masons of the later era had lost the knowledge of vaulting and keystone arching to reproduce the spacious interior space of the Pagan hollow temples.) 1111:

practices remained heavily entrenched at all social strata. Pagan's rulers built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Bagan Archaeological Zone of which over 2000 remain. The wealthy donated tax-free land to religious authorities.

3759:

temples come in two basic styles: "one-face" design and "four-face" design—essentially one main entrance and four main entrances. Other styles such as five-face and hybrids also exist. The one-face style grew out of 2nd century

2916:) although Shan migrants were changing the ethnic makeup of the hill region. In the south, Mons were dominant in Lower Burma by the 13th century, if not earlier. In the west, an Arakanese ruling class who spoke Burmese emerged. 2075:

Rise of small kingdoms after the fall of Pagan Empire c. 1310. Tai-Shan Realm of Shan states, Lan Na and Sukhothai as well as Ramanya in Lower Myanmar were Mongol vassals. Myinsaing was the only non-Mongol vassal state in the

2554:

By the second half of the 13th century, Pagan had developed an enormous amount of cultivated lands. Estimates based on surviving inscriptions alone range from 200,000 to 250,000 hectares. (In comparison, Pagan's contemporary

2198:

until 1368/69. The male side of Pagan ended there although the female side passed into Pinya and Ava royalty. But the Pagan line continued to be claimed by successive Burmese dynasties down to the last Burmese dynasty

1820:

Archaeological evidence however confirms only a smaller empire of the Irrawaddy valley and nearer periphery. Anawrahta's victory terracotta votive tablets emblazoned with his name in Sanskrit have been found along the

1853:

At any rate, all scholars accept that during the 11th century, Pagan consolidated its hold of Upper Burma, and established its authority over Lower Burma. The emergence of Pagan Empire would have a lasting impact on

3675:

had developed into a more bell-shaped form in which the parasols morphed into a series of increasingly smaller rings placed on one top of the other, rising to a point. On top the rings, the new design replaced the

2365:). The governors and taik-leaders lived off apanage grants and local taxes. But unlike their frontier counterparts, the core zone governors did not have much autonomy because of the close proximity to the capital. 2181:

as viceroy of Pagan on 20 March 1297. The brothers resented the new arrangement as a Mongol vassalage as it directly reduced their power. On 17 December 1297, the three brothers overthrew Kyawswa, and founded the

2004:(Burmans) was openly used in Burmese language inscriptions. Burmese became the primary written language of the kingdom, replacing Pyu and Mon. His reign also saw the realignment of Burmese Buddhism with Ceylon's 2536:

agricultural basin's development in the 10th and 11th centuries enabled the kingdom of Pagan to expand beyond the dry zone of Upper Myanmar, and to dominate its periphery, including the maritime Lower Myanmar.

2928:", evidenced by "the growth of Burmese writing, the concomitant decline in Pyu (and perhaps Mon) culture, new trends in art and architecture, and the expansion of Burmese-speaking cultivators into new lands". 92:'s reign. Kengtung and Chiang Mai are also claimed to be part of the Empire according to the Burmese chronicles. Pagan incorporated key ports of Lower Burma into its core administration by the 13th century. 2116:). In 1283–85, their forces moved south and occupied the land down to Hanlin. Instead of defending the country, the king fled Pagan for Lower Myanmar, where he was assassinated by one of his sons in 1287. 1435:, the Pyu city reportedly destroyed by an 832 Nanzhao raid. The region of Pagan received waves of Burman settlements in the mid-to-late 9th century, and perhaps well into the 10th century. Though 2924:, which Lieberman describes as "assimilation by bi-lingual peoples, eager to identify with the imperial elite". According to Lieberman, Pagan's imperial power enabled the "construction of Burman 1771:, east of Pagan. The newly irrigated regions attracted people, giving him an increased manpower base. He graded every town and village according to the levy it could raise. The region, known as 2456:. The army was organised into a small standing army of a few thousand, which defended the capital and the palace, and a much larger conscript-based wartime army. Conscription was based on the 2152:

never sanctioned an actual occupation of Pagan. His real aim appeared to have been "to keep the entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented." At Pagan, one of Narathihapate's sons

3104:

Mon was sufficiently prestigious for Pagan rulers to employ the language frequently for inscriptions and perhaps court usages. Inscriptional evidence indicates that Burmese became the

3764:, and the four-face out of 7th-century Sri Ksetra. The temples, whose main features were the pointed arches and the vaulted chamber, became larger and grander in the Pagan period. 3173:, even in the 13th century, "the art of writing was then still in its infancy with the Burmans". Manuscripts were rare and extremely costly. As late as 1273, a complete set of the 2000:

His reign also saw the rise of Burmese culture which finally emerged from the shadows of Mon and Pyu cultures. With the Burman leadership of the kingdom now unquestioned, the term

3186:

At Pagan and at main provincial centres, Buddhist temples supported an increasingly sophisticated Pali scholarship, which specialised in grammar and philosophical-psychological (

3183:

of silver, which could buy over 2000 hectares of paddy fields. Literacy in Burmese, not to mention Pali, was the effective monopoly of the aristocracy and their monastic peers.

2305:

of Upper Myanmar, measuring approximately 150 to 250 kilometres (93 to 155 mi) in radius from the capital. The region consisted of the capital and the key irrigated hubs (

1971:

finally developed a complex organisation that became the model for later dynasties. the agricultural economy reached its potential in Upper Myanmar. The Buddhist clergy, the

3008:) were hereditary, and were exempt from personal taxes and royal service in exchange for maintaining the affairs of monasteries and temples. Unlike royal servicemen or even 1269:) succeeded his father, and was followed by a dynasty of 31 kings, and then another dynasty of 17 kings. Some three and a half centuries later, in 483 BC, scions of Tagaung 3450:

era and the Pagan era. Pagan's several water management projects in the dry zone provided Upper Myanmar with an enduring economic base to dominate the rest of the country.

1781:, lit. "rice country"), became the granary, the economic key of the north country. History shows that one who gained control of Kyaukse became kingmaker in Upper Myanmar. 550: 536: 522: 508: 483: 469: 455: 1281:(Prome). Sri Ksetra lasted nearly six centuries, and was succeeded in turn by the Kingdom of Pagan. The Glass Palace Chronicle goes on to relate that around 107 AD, 1136:(1277–1301) toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287. The collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. 2419:

The court was also the chief justice of the land. Sithu I (r. 1112–1167) was the first Pagan king to issue an official collection of judgments, later known as the

6234: 3391:

Other traditions also continued to thrive not only at the village level but also at the nominally Theravadin court. One powerful group was the Forest Dweller or

2941:

Aung-Thwin, "the very notion of Mons as a coherent ethnicity may have emerged only in the 14th and 15th centuries after the collapse of Upper Burman hegemony".

1988:

in 1174, the first extant record of a standing army, and pursued an expansionist policy. Over his 27-year reign, Pagan's influence reached further south to the

6239: 21: 1204:

The Glass Palace Chronicle traces the origins of the Pagan kingdom to India during the 9th century BC, more than three centuries before the Buddha was born.

3613:. The Pagan-era stupas in turn were the prototypes for later Burmese stupas in terms of symbolism, form and design, building techniques and even materials. 1348:, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant; and that Pagan kings had adopted the Pyu histories and legends as their own. Indeed, the 3333:

Tantric Buddhism. According to mainstream scholarship, Anawrahta proceeded to revitalise Theravada Buddhism in Upper Myanmar with help from the conquered

3124:. The use of Sanskrit, which had been prevalent in the Pyu realm and in the early Pagan era, declined after Anawrahta's conversion to Theravada Buddhism. 3798: 3192:) studies, and which reportedly won the admiration of Sinhalese experts. Besides religious texts, Pagan's monks read works in a variety of languages on 1809:

valley, and received tribute from the Khmer king. One Siamese chronicle states that Anawrahta's armies invaded the Khmer kingdom and sacked the city of

4401: 2259:). In general, the crown's authority diffused away with the increasing distance from the capital. Each state was administered at three general levels: 1051:/Burmans. Over the next two hundred years, the small principality gradually grew to absorb its surrounding regions until the 1050s and 1060s when King 2973:) commoners lived not on royal land but on communally-held land, and owed no regular royal service but paid substantial head taxes. Private bondsmen ( 767: 1418:

at Bagan (Pagan), the only remaining section of the old walls. The main walls are dated to c. 1020 and the earliest pieces of the walls to c. 980.

529: 488: 2177:

To check the increasing power of the three brothers, Kyawswa submitted to the Mongols in January 1297, and was recognised by the Mongol emperor

3228:

The religion of Pagan was fluid, syncretic and by later standards, unorthodox—largely a continuation of religious trends in the Pyu era where

2495:

are not improbable, and are in line with figures given for the Burmese military between the 16th and 19th centuries in a variety of sources.

1371:

of Yunnan between the 750s and 830s AD. Like that of the Pyu, the original home of Burmans prior to Yunnan is believed to be in present-day

6254: 6214: 2345:) areas on the west bank of the Irrawaddy were entrusted to the men of lesser rank, as well as those from powerful local families known as 942: 6219: 2598:), which was not a unit of value but rather a unit of weight at approximately 16.3293 grams. Other weight-based units in relation to the 5163: 3695:

are the earliest examples of this type. Examples of the trend toward a more bell-shaped design gradually gained primacy as seen in the

1133: 2024:

Sithu II's success in state building created stability and prosperity throughout the kingdom. His immediate successors Htilominlo and

6249: 5613: 5464: 2178: 5633: 855: 805: 3777:

more or less intact. (Unfortunately, the vaulting techniques of the Pagan era were lost in the later periods. Only much smaller

1725: 6093: 5820: 5341: 5319: 5300: 5214: 5152: 1224:) – the clan of the Buddha – left his homeland with followers in 850 BC after military defeat by the neighbouring kingdom of 3773:

The masonry of the buildings shows "an astonishing degree of perfection", where many of the immense structures survived the

2983:) owed labour only to their individual patron, and lay outside the system of royal obligation. Finally, religious bondsmen ( 5839: 5648: 5381: 1379:. After the Nanzhao attacks had greatly weakened the Pyu city-states, large numbers of Burman warriors and their families 5758: 5643: 5623: 849: 587: 583: 2936:) in 1235. The notion of ethnicity continued to be highly fluid, and closely tied to political power. While the rise of 1914:. Several diverse elements—art, architecture, religion, language, literature, ethnic plurality—had begun to synthesize. 6224: 5861: 5712: 5371: 3004:) were hereditary, and were exempt from personal taxes in exchange for royal service. Similarly, religious servicemen ( 2742:

with varying degrees of purity were in use. Records show that people also used a system of barter to conduct commerce.

2008:

school. The Pyus receded into the background, and by the early 13th century, had largely assumed the Burman ethnicity.

3797:, the future and fifth Buddha of this era, in addition to the four who had already appeared. The Dhammayazika and the 2890:

as Burmans by the early 13th century. Inscriptions also mention a variety of ethnic groups in and around Upper Burma:

5433: 5266: 5192: 5121: 5102: 4236:

Cham epigraphic mentions of Pokam (Pagan) date to 1155 Śaka (1233/34 AD) and thirteenth century AD, rather than 1050.

2953:

The majority of the people belonged to one of four broad groups of commoners. First, royal servicemen were bondsmen (

2432: 1159:

tradition. Considerable differences exist between the views of modern scholarship and various chronicle narratives.

5970: 5391: 3847: 3755:-style temple is a structure used for meditation, devotional worship of the Buddha and other Buddhist rituals. The 935: 843: 837: 4210:

Griffiths, Arlo; Lepoutre, Amandine (2013). "Campa Epigraphical Data on Polities and Peoples of Ancient Myanmar".

811: 5965: 381: 2684:. Other metals were also in use. The value of other metal currencies vis-a-vis the silver kyat are shown below. 5727: 5608: 5362:

Ricklefs, M.C.; Bruce McFarland Lockhart; Albert Lau; Portia Reyes; Maitrii Aung-Thwin; Bruce Lockhart (2010).

2066: 351: 5638: 3884:; Harvey's map of Pagan Empire on p. 21 shows present-day Kyaukpru District (specifically, Ann) as Macchagiri. 1762:; Minimal, if any, control over Arakan; Pagan's suzerainty over Arakan confirmed four decades after his death. 1177:

According to the local myth and chronicles written down in the 18th century trace its origins to 167 AD, when

5904: 5849: 5692: 5426:

Money, markets, and trade in early Southeast Asia: the development of indigenous monetary systems to AD 1400

4397: 1344:

in the mid-to-late 9th century AD; that the earlier parts of the chronicle are the histories and legends of

5980: 5924: 5832: 5793: 5778: 5732: 5707: 5603: 5578: 5457: 3140:. The old Burmese style of writing did not have cursive features, which are hallmarks of the modern script. 1405: 861: 817: 775: 6244: 6113: 6038: 5938: 5899: 5697: 5672: 2084:'s accession in 1256. The inexperienced king faced revolts in Arakanese state of Macchagiri (present-day 928: 895: 880: 875: 831: 1095:

norms by the late 12th century. Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level although

6118: 6005: 5293:

Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland

3152:

and on whether a recast 18th century copy of an original stone inscription is permissible as evidence.

2486:

account mentions a Burmese army of 40,000 to 60,000 (including 800 elephants and 10,000 horses) at the

2125: 2100:

demanded tribute, in 1271 and again in 1273. When Narathihapate refused both times, the Mongols under

1480:(the Royal Horoscopes Chronicle). Prior to Anawrahta, inscriptional evidence exists thus far only for 1242:. The chronicle does not claim that he had arrived in an empty land, only that he was the first king. 1155:

The origins of the Pagan kingdom have been reconstructed using archaeological evidence as well as the

694: 6229: 5856: 5717: 5702: 5677: 3692: 2950:

clergy was not a class in the secular society but nonetheless represented an important social class.

2220: 3893:(Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 148, footnote 8): Thursday, Full moon of Tabodwe 648 ME = 30 January 1287 2738:

The lack of standardised coinage certainly complicated commerce. For instance, many types of silver

2491:

precolonial population of Myanmar was relatively constant, the estimates of 40,000 to 60,000 of the

1977:, enjoyed one of its most wealthy periods. Civil and criminal laws were codified in the vernacular, 6259: 6170: 5815: 5687: 2993:) were also private bondsmen who owed labour only to monasteries and temples but not to the crown. 1735: 900: 3307: 2906:. The peoples who lived in the highland perimeter were collectively classified as "hill peoples" ( 6128: 6000: 5955: 5894: 5783: 5763: 5450: 3593:, also called a pagoda, is a massive structure, typically with a relic chamber inside. The Pagan 3096: 2016: 1963: 1859: 1037: 885: 1304:

The chronicle narratives then merge, and agree that a dynasty of kings followed Pyusawhti. King

6209: 5889: 5788: 2487: 2105: 3407:

The state also accommodated the powerful animist traditions, as shown in the official spirit (

6053: 6033: 5768: 5598: 5511: 5167: 3774: 3193: 793: 620: 1008:) was the first Burmese kingdom to unify the regions that would later constitute modern-day 6123: 5985: 5960: 5919: 5844: 5805: 5773: 5660: 5571: 3100: 2776:

away from the capital. Construction of a large temple in the reign of Sithu II cost 44,027

2289:, village), with the high king's court at the centre. The kingdom consisted of at least 14 2104:

systematically invaded the country. The first invasion in 1277 defeated the Burmese at the

1084: 761: 128: 2920:

spread of Burman ethnicity and culture in Upper Burma in a process that came to be called

1946:

Pagan reached the height of political and administrative development during the reigns of

8: 6133: 5990: 5746: 5722: 5556: 5353: 3739: 3696: 3563: 3117: 2162: 2133: 1822: 1150: 735: 686: 515: 1322: 6188: 6098: 6015: 5914: 5877: 5827: 5682: 5628: 5561: 5503: 5477: 4227: 3735: 3700: 3645: 3579: 3229: 3121: 2540: 2453: 2302: 2223:

system in which the sovereign exercised direct political authority in the core region (

1985: 1959: 1874:. Another key development according to traditional scholarship was the creation of the 1606: 1516: 1485: 1476: 1270: 1172: 1156: 1064:, in the farther north to below the current China border, and to the west, in northern 1033: 890: 799: 747: 668: 636: 602: 138: 5361: 5252:(in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2006, 4th printing ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing. 5133:

Powerful Learning: Buddhist Literati and the Throne in Burma's Last Dynasty, 1752–1885

3346:. It was the predominant Theravada school in Myanmar until the late 12th century when 3112:

Another important development in Burmese history and Burmese language was the rise of

6177: 6083: 6058: 5975: 5531: 5429: 5367: 5337: 5315: 5296: 5262: 5210: 5188: 5148: 5117: 5098: 4231: 3831: 3531: 3400: 3233: 2925: 2183: 2166: 2148:

but refused to fill the power vacuum they had created farther south. Indeed, Emperor

2145: 2085: 1989: 1973: 1967: 1590: 1481: 1235: 705: 501: 366: 142: 3725: 3667:

such as the Bupaya (c. 9th century) were the direct descendants of the Pyu style at

6158: 6108: 6103: 6078: 6063: 6043: 5995: 5950: 5800: 5583: 5288: 4219: 3819: 3716: 3688: 3572: 3547: 3496: 3237: 3220: 3145: 3137: 3092: 3032: 2361: 2341: 2322: 2317: 2255: 2235: 2200: 2153: 2109: 1978: 1875: 1794: 1768: 1372: 1181:

founded the dynasty at Pagan (Bagan). But the 19th-century Glass Palace Chronicle (

1083:

and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the

1080: 1017: 972: 960: 781: 591: 577: 308: 275: 5140: 3342:

region in southeast India, associated with the famous Theravada Buddhist scholar,

3012:

commoners, the religious bondsmen could not be conscripted into military service.

2750: 1708:. To the north lay the Nanzhao Kingdom, and to the east still largely uninhabited 6088: 6068: 5566: 5541: 5516: 5386: 3852: 3815: 3794: 3602: 3433: 3347: 3209: 2862: 1955: 1855: 1798: 1693: 1542: 1507: 1368: 1341: 1331: 1239: 1183: 1168: 1057: 1021: 1013: 755: 715: 640: 626: 474: 460: 1890: 1367:, the millennium-old Pyu realm came crashing down under repeated attacks by the 6182: 6048: 6023: 5593: 5546: 5521: 3606: 3339: 3334: 3322: 3277: 2895: 2326: 1843: 1830: 1376: 1291:), nephew of the last king of Sri Ksetra, founded the city of Pagan (formally, 1117: 918: 721: 659: 237: 3316: 3301: 3286: 3267: 3025: 1730: 610: 6203: 6073: 5618: 5551: 5536: 5329: 5202: 3838:(Laos), and Khmer Empire (Cambodia) in the 13th and 14th centuries possible. 3786: 3781:

style temples were built after Pagan. In the 18th century, for example, King

3621: 3597:

or pagodas evolved from earlier Pyu designs, which in turn were based on the

3515: 3273: 3175: 3105: 2786: 2784:. Manuscripts were rare and extremely costly. In 1273, a complete set of the 2446: 2410:

century, c. 1211, part of the court evolved into the king's privy council or

2191: 2081: 2045: 1993: 1947: 1911: 1895: 1871: 1847: 1802: 1790: 1432: 1415: 1392: 1256: 1065: 1061: 1029: 727: 709: 699: 222: 210: 89: 36: 23: 3876:(Harvey 1925: 326–327): The location of Macchagiri is likely to the west of 2465:

the Toungoo dynasty, did introduce standardisation and other modifications.

2397: 1716:. The size of the principality is about 6% of that of modern Burma/Myanmar. 6028: 5909: 3393: 3384: 3250: 3070: 2556: 2442: 2240: 2129: 2097: 1929: 1907: 1863: 1826: 1558: 1452: 1192: 1125: 1088: 1073: 1025: 649: 124: 4223: 3411:) propitiation ceremonies, and in the court's sponsorship of an elaborate 3366:

stories of the Buddha's life, etc. Most commoners retained the worship of

3055: 3040: 2586:

domestic mines as well as Yunnan. The base unit of currency of the silver

5588: 5380: 3881: 3857: 3652:

while the umbrella mounted on the brickwork represents the world's axis.

3524: 3343: 3245: 2937: 2903: 2588: 2512: 2195: 2149: 2101: 2049: 1918: 1839: 1364: 1282: 1260: 1255:) ventured south, and in 825 BC founded his own kingdom in what is today 1246: 1129: 741: 543: 261: 198: 120: 4398:"KING ANAWRAHTA AND THE RISE AND FALL OF BAGAN | Facts and Details" 2527: 3668: 3656: 3649: 3629: 3500: 3351: 3292: 3188: 3062: 3047: 2891: 2568: 2470: 2041: 2005: 1951: 1903: 1879: 1786: 1713: 1709: 1459:

in 1004. Mon inscriptions first mentioned Pagan in 1093, respectively.

1422: 1353: 1345: 1274: 1121: 1069: 250: 241: 186: 2758:

Surviving records provide a glimpse of the kingdom's economic life. A

1455:

records, which report that envoys from Pagan visited the Song capital

5357:(in Burmese) (8th printing, 2004 ed.). Yangon: Armanthit Sarpay. 5276: 5233: 5185:

Seventeenth-century Burma and the Dutch East India Company, 1634–1680

3877: 3782: 3761: 3428: 3201: 3197: 3149: 2899: 2158: 1759: 1742: 1654: 1448: 1385: 1178: 1104: 1096: 1052: 323: 174: 2144:

After their 1287 invasion, the Mongols continued to control down to

2112:(modern-day Yingjiang, Yunnan, 112 kilometres (70 mi) north of 1813:, and another one goes so far as to say that Anawrahta even visited 5810: 5442: 5399: 3835: 3663:

gradually developed a longer, cylindrical form. The earliest Pagan

3241: 3170: 3132: 2867: 2544: 2437: 2171: 1689: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1574: 1336:

Modern scholarship holds that the Pagan dynasty was founded by the

1225: 1205: 1100: 146: 3160: 5473: 3205: 2474: 2412: 2093: 2089: 2029: 1705: 1697: 1685: 1638: 1527: 1489: 1456: 1305: 1108: 1009: 292: 246: 150: 3556: 3509: 3487: 2071: 1754: 5334:

The River of Lost Footsteps – Histories of Burma

5245: 5116:(illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. 3827: 3683: 3610: 2503: 2211: 2121: 2025: 1938: 1867: 1810: 1410: 1215: 1188: 3655:

The original Indic design was gradually modified first by the

3628:, "the egg") on which a rectangular box surrounded by a stone 3609:

in present-day southeastern India, and to a smaller extent to

3144:

The spread of Burmese language was accompanied by that of the

3465: 2516: 2239:), and administered farther surrounding regions as tributary 2113: 1834: 1806: 1701: 1622: 1349: 1337: 1048: 1044: 109: 3540: 3398:

and 19th centuries. Aris reportedly also enjoyed a form of

3113: 3077: 2657: 2478: 1814: 1712:, to the south and the west Pyus, and farther south still, 1278: 1092: 425: 5226:

History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824

3378: 2768:, 0.71 hectare) of fertile land near Pagan cost 20 silver 1076:, was one of two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia. 1043:

The kingdom grew out of a small 9th-century settlement at

3640:

was a shaft supporting several ceremonial umbrellas. The

1981:, to become the basic jurisprudence for subsequent ages. 1885: 5261:(illustrated ed.). Hunter Publishing. p. 255. 5147:. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. 4896: 1356:

became mixed after years of immigration and settlement.

1016:

and its periphery laid the foundation for the ascent of

4069:

Cooler 2002: Chapter I: Prehistoric and Animist Periods

1072:. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Pagan, alongside the 3091:

The primary language of the ruling class of Pagan was

5402:(December 1959). "History of Burma: A.D. 1300–1400". 5390:(in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2003 ed.). Yangon: 5114:

The mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma

3164:

Frescoes of Buddhist Jataka stories at a Pagan temple

2507:

Pagan's prosperous economy built over 10,000 temples.

2219:

Pagan's government can be generally described by the

2020:

Cumulative donations to the Sangha in 25-year periods

4979: 4977: 1187:) connects the dynasty's origins to the clan of the 4617: 4615: 3169:in the villages simply did not exist. According to 2780:while a large "Indian style" monastery cost 30,600 5489: 5240:. New York and London: Cambridge University Press. 4967: 4965: 4963: 4683: 4681: 4589: 4587: 2385:The royal authority attenuated further in farther 5256: 5011: 5002: 4995: 4993: 4991: 4989: 4974: 4792: 4790: 4356: 4354: 4209: 3224:Statute of Vishnu at the Nat-Hlaung Kyaung Temple 2132:-speaking regions of Lower Myanmar, and declared 6201: 4624: 4612: 4575: 2080:The first signs of disorder appeared soon after 1882:in 1058, one year after the conquest of Thaton. 1870:whose Buddhist clergy had been wiped out by the 5209:(3rd ed.). Hutchinson University Library. 4960: 4678: 4584: 4518: 3444: 6235:States and territories established in the 840s 5419:(in Burmese). Vol. 1. Yangon: Maha Dagon. 5283:(in Burmese). Yangon: Yangon University Press. 5187:(illustrated ed.). Singapore: NUS Press. 5166:. Northern Illinois University. Archived from 4986: 4953: 4951: 4914: 4912: 4910: 4908: 4860: 4842: 4817: 4815: 4813: 4811: 4787: 4704: 4702: 4605: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4381: 4351: 4241: 4176: 3945: 3943: 3933: 3931: 3929: 3927: 6240:States and territories disestablished in 1297 5458: 4766: 4764: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3474: 2988: 2978: 2968: 2958: 2911: 2763: 2662: 2642: 2624: 2593: 2401:Burmese nobles partaking in equestrian sports 2354: 2334: 2310: 2284: 2274: 2264: 2248: 2228: 1776: 1309: 1296: 1286: 1264: 1250: 1229: 1219: 1209: 1196: 936: 58: 5047: 5029: 4727: 4720: 4718: 4716: 4714: 4559: 4557: 4511: 4509: 4421: 4419: 4278: 4276: 4266: 4264: 4262: 4250: 4167: 4149: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4029: 4027: 4025: 3636:) was set. Extending up from the top of the 2511:The economy of Pagan was based primarily on 1426:Pagan realm at Anawrahta's accession in 1044 5056: 4948: 4905: 4869: 4833: 4808: 4799: 4699: 4651: 4596: 4527: 4437: 4363: 4194: 4185: 4004: 3997: 3995: 3969: 3967: 3940: 3924: 3601:designs of the Andhra region, particularly 1317: 977: 5465: 5451: 5111: 5092: 5074: 5038: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4761: 4536: 4372: 4108: 3976: 3015: 2680:, unless specified, always meant a silver 2139: 943: 929: 73: 5287: 5275: 5232: 5097:. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. 4939: 4930: 4921: 4824: 4754: 4752: 4750: 4748: 4736: 4711: 4669: 4660: 4554: 4506: 4481: 4479: 4467: 4451: 4449: 4416: 4333: 4317: 4315: 4285: 4273: 4259: 4135: 4022: 3915: 3659:, and then by Burmans at Pagan where the 1734:Statue of King Anawrahta in front of the 1466:list of early Pagan kings as reported by 1443:in 849—or more accurately, 876 after the 5414: 5398: 5065: 4488: 4324: 4045: 3992: 3964: 3957: 3955: 3427: 3377: 3219: 3159: 3131: 2861: 2749: 2567: 2526: 2502: 2436: 2396: 2210: 2070: 2015: 1937: 1928: 1889: 1753: 1729: 1421: 1409: 1321: 5350: 5328: 5145:The Indianized States of Southeast Asia 5130: 5020: 4887: 4851: 4773: 4690: 4566: 4158: 4126: 4099: 4081: 4054: 3801:are examples of the pentagonal design. 2452:Pagan's military was the origin of the 1741:In December 1044, a Pagan prince named 1474:dates adjusted to 1044 and the list of 588:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 6202: 5223: 5161: 5139: 4878: 4745: 4642: 4633: 4545: 4497: 4476: 4458: 4446: 4428: 4342: 4312: 4303: 4294: 4117: 4072: 4036: 4013: 2852: 2174:, increasingly acted like sovereigns. 1886:Cultural synthesis and economic growth 1492:, the fortifier of Pagan according to 1162: 5446: 5423: 5309: 4090: 4063: 3952: 3257: 3248:) schools as well as native animist ( 2875: 2373:Surrounding the core region were the 2368: 2360: 2340: 2316: 2254: 2234: 1245:Abhiraja had two sons. The elder son 971: 6165: 5472: 5382:Royal Historical Commission of Burma 5257:Köllner, Helmut; Axel Bruns (1998). 5244: 5201: 5182: 5135:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. 2932:Burma as "the land of the Burmans" ( 2301:The core region was the present-day 2165:of Lower Myanmar became a vassal of 1238:in present-day northern Myanmar and 6255:Former monarchies of Southeast Asia 6215:Former countries in Burmese history 5624:State Peace and Development Council 5366:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 544. 5228:. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd. 4404:from the original on 28 August 2019 3436:followed its Pagan era predecessors 3373: 2515:, and to a much smaller degree, on 2060: 1273:much farther down the Irrawaddy at 13: 6220:Former countries in Southeast Asia 5095:Pagan: The Origins of Modern Burma 3382:Mt. Popa, home of the pantheon of 3350:led the realignment with Ceylon's 14: 6271: 5404:Journal of Burma Research Society 4902:Aung-Thwin 2005: 167–178, 197–200 3706: 2944: 2560:factor in the empire's downfall. 2433:Military history of Pagan Dynasty 1363:According to a reconstruction by 1012:. Pagan's 250-year rule over the 6176: 6164: 6153: 6152: 5392:Ministry of Information, Myanmar 3896: 3724: 3715: 3616:Originally, an Indian/Ceylonese 3571: 3555: 3539: 3523: 3508: 3486: 3315: 3300: 3285: 3266: 3069: 3054: 3039: 3024: 2894:, Thets, Kadus, Sgaws, Kanyans, 2884: 1314:) fortified the city in 849 AD. 912: 609: 568: 548: 534: 520: 506: 481: 467: 453: 6250:1290s disestablishments in Asia 5364:A New History of Southeast Asia 5143:(1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). 5086: 4390: 4203: 3887: 3870: 3494:Evolution of the Burmese stupa: 3423: 1719: 1700:, and the riverine portions of 16:First Burmese Empire (849–1297) 5295:. Cambridge University Press. 5164:"The Art and Culture of Burma" 3767: 2531:Development of irrigated lands 2522: 2296: 2067:First Mongol invasion of Burma 1984:Sithu II formally founded the 1399: 1060:, to the east at least to the 1: 5336:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 3909: 3848:Burmese monarchs' family tree 3155: 2857: 2482:centre of political gravity. 2215:Ruins of the old Pagan Palace 2206: 2124:, the man who had seized the 2120:their own way. In the south, 1950:(Sithu II; r. 1174–1211) and 1917:Pagan's rise continued under 80: 5833:State Administration Council 5579:Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom 5310:Moore, Elizabeth H. (2007). 5131:Charney, Michael W. (2006). 5112:Aung-Thwin, Michael (2005). 5093:Aung-Thwin, Michael (1985). 4999:Köllner, Bruns 1998: 118–120 3699:(late 12th century) and the 3469:-style solid temple and the 3445:Irrigation and city planning 3086: 2796: 2686: 2604: 2108:, and secured their hold of 1789:, and extended conquests to 1749: 1498: 1406:List of early Pagan monarchs 1326:Southeast Asia around 700 CE 1191:and the first Buddhist king 7: 5634:2011–2015 political reforms 5312:Early Landscapes of Myanmar 5162:Cooler, Richard M. (2002). 3880:on the western side of the 3841: 3671:. By the 11th century, the 3644:is a representation of the 3625: 3370:spirits and other beliefs. 3215: 3031:Myazedi inscription in the 2580: 2426: 1470:, shown in comparison with 1447:dates are adjusted to King 1271:founded yet another kingdom 10: 6276: 5417:Studies in Burmese History 5080:Ricklefs et al 2010: 43–45 4256:Maha Yazawin 2006: 346–347 3127: 2498: 2430: 2247:, lit. "conquered lands", 2064: 2011: 1858:as well as the history of 1723: 1665:Son of Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu 1403: 1329: 1166: 1148: 1144: 1139: 6225:Former monarchies of Asia 6148: 6014: 5946: 5937: 5885: 5876: 5754: 5745: 5668: 5659: 5502: 5490:Myanmar is also known as 5488: 5484: 5424:Wicks, Robert S. (1992). 3937:Lieberman 2003: 90–91, 94 3804: 3475: 3457: 2996:Of the three bonded (non- 2989: 2979: 2969: 2959: 2912: 2802: 2799: 2764: 2745: 2692: 2689: 2663: 2643: 2625: 2610: 2607: 2594: 2355: 2335: 2311: 2285: 2275: 2265: 2249: 2229: 1924: 1777: 1633:Son of Nyaung-u Sawrahan 1396:modern Burmese culture." 1310: 1297: 1287: 1265: 1251: 1230: 1220: 1210: 1197: 1045:Pagan (present-day Bagan) 964: 432: 419: 415: 405: 401: 396: 392: 377: 362: 347: 334: 319: 303: 288: 271: 267: 257: 232: 228: 216: 204: 192: 180: 168: 164: 156: 134: 116: 105: 97: 72: 67: 59: 53: 5759:Administrative divisions 5314:. Bangkok: River Books. 5017:Aung-Thwin 2005: 224–225 5008:Aung-Thwin 2005: 210–213 4983:Aung-Thwin 2005: 233–235 4687:Aung-Thwin 1985: 93, 163 4630:Aung-Thwin 1985: 130–131 4621:Aung-Thwin 1985: 104–105 4581:Aung-Thwin 1985: 196–197 4563:Köllner, Bruns 1998: 115 4494:Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 360 4212:Journal of Burma Studies 4051:Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 188 3863: 3620:had a hemispheric body ( 2563: 2392: 2126:governorship of Martaban 1825:coastline in the south, 1817:to receive his tribute. 1521: 1513: 1504: 1501: 1318:Scholarly reconstruction 6129:Twelve Auspicious Rites 5910:Myanmar kyat (currency) 5053:Lieberman 2003: 122–123 5035:Lieberman 2003: 131–139 4957:Lieberman 2003: 117–118 4918:Lieberman 2003: 115–116 4875:Lieberman 2003: 133–134 4839:Lieberman 2003: 130–131 4821:Lieberman 2003: 114–115 4708:Lieberman 2003: 100–101 4609:Lieberman 2003: 112–113 4593:Aung-Thwin 1985: 99–101 3989:Lieberman 2003: 119–120 3785:attempted to build the 3738:(left) and "four-face" 3648:: its shape symbolises 3432:Design of 19th century 3016:Language and literature 2140:Disintegration and fall 2055: 1860:mainland Southeast Asia 1488:. The list starts from 1038:mainland Southeast Asia 794:British colonial period 276:Burmese calendar begins 5224:Harvey, G. E. (1925). 4971:Aung-Thwin 2005: 26–31 4927:Aung-Thwin 2005: 31–34 4866:Aung-Thwin 1985: 81–91 4848:Aung-Thwin 1985: 71–73 4796:Aung-Thwin 1985: 95–96 4770:Than Tun 1964: 182–183 4524:Than Tun 1959: 119–120 4387:Aung-Thwin 1985: 25–26 4360:Aung-Thwin 1985: 23–24 4247:Aung-Thwin 1985: 21–22 4182:Aung-Thwin 2005: 36–37 3921:Lieberman 2003: 88–123 3437: 3388: 3225: 3210:Toungoo administration 3165: 3141: 3097:Tibeto-Burman language 2872: 2871:New Year's festivities 2755: 2573: 2532: 2508: 2488:battle of Ngasaunggyan 2449: 2421:Alaungsithu hpyat-hton 2402: 2216: 2128:in 1285, consolidated 2106:Battle of Ngasaunggyan 2077: 2021: 1943: 1935: 1898: 1763: 1738: 1726:List of Pagan monarchs 1659:1017–1059 / 1044–1086 1439:states that Pagan was 1427: 1419: 1327: 576:This article contains 352:First Mongol invasions 5428:. SEAP Publications. 5351:Pan Hla, Nai (1968). 5183:Dijk, Wil O. (2006). 5044:Htin Aung 1967: 82–83 4936:Htin Aung 1967: 15–17 4742:Lieberman 2003: 94–95 4724:Lieberman 2003: 95–97 4675:Lieberman 2003: 88–89 4515:Htin Aung 1967: 73–75 4425:Htin Aung 1967: 51–52 4378:Coedès 1968: 178, 183 4330:Kyaw Thet 1962: 41–42 4270:Lieberman 2003: 90–91 4224:10.1353/jbs.2013.0014 4001:Htin Aung 1967: 63–65 3973:Lieberman 2003: 92–97 3830:(northern Thailand), 3703:(late 13th century). 3431: 3381: 3295:Buddha – North facing 3223: 3163: 3135: 2865: 2754:The Htilominlo Temple 2753: 2571: 2530: 2506: 2440: 2400: 2214: 2074: 2019: 1941: 1932: 1893: 1757: 1733: 1643:992–1017 / 1020–1044 1425: 1413: 1325: 1221:သကျ သာကီဝင် မင်းမျိုး 768:Nyaungyan Restoration 695:Warring states period 621:Prehistory of Myanmar 382:Final Mongol invasion 117:Common languages 37:21.17222°N 94.86028°E 5966:Environmental issues 5925:Units of measurement 5572:First Toungoo Empire 5291:, Victor B. (2003). 4733:Aung-Thwin 1985: 190 4657:Harvey 1925: 323–324 4542:Coedès 1968: 210–211 4173:Aung-Thwin 2005: 185 4155:Aung-Thwin 1985: 205 4114:Coedès 1968: 105–106 3949:Aung-Thwin 1985: 197 3834:(central Thailand), 3099:related to both the 2539:As reconstructed by 1954:(r. 1211–1235). The 1627:986–992 / 1014–1020 1032:, and the growth of 992:; also known as the 973:[bəɡàɰ̃kʰɪʔ] 812:Nationalist movement 776:Restored Hanthawaddy 762:First Toungoo Empire 738:1287–1539, 1550–1552 324:Pagan Empire founded 88:Pagan Empire during 5604:Japanese occupation 5557:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 5354:Razadarit Ayedawbon 5170:on 26 December 2016 5071:Lieberman 2003: 188 4857:Lieberman 2003: 113 4830:Myint-U 2006: 72–73 4805:Aung-Thwin 1985: 71 4784:Lieberman 2003: 118 4473:Myint-U 2006: 60–62 4443:Aung-Thwin 1985: 26 4369:Wicks 1992: 130–131 4200:Aung-Thwin 1985: 21 4191:Aung-Thwin 2005: 38 4164:Htin Aung 1967: 367 4146:Myint-U 2006: 56–57 4033:Myint-U 2006: 44–45 4019:Lieberman 2003: 196 4010:Than Tun 1964: ix–x 3747:In contrast to the 3740:Dhammayangyi Temple 3697:Dhammayazika Pagoda 3118:liturgical language 2853:Culture and society 2460:system (called the 2362:[taiʔðədʑí] 2163:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 2088:) in the west, and 1758:Pagan Empire under 1611:964–986 / 992–1014 1234:). They settled at 1163:Chronicle tradition 1151:Early Pagan Kingdom 844:Ne Win dictatorship 818:Japanese occupation 806:Resistance movement 736:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 687:Early Pagan Kingdom 516:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 293:Founding of Kingdom 33: / 6245:849 establishments 6189:Outline of Myanmar 5905:Telecommunications 5821:commander-in-chief 5614:Socialist Republic 5562:Kingdom of Mrauk U 5238:A History of Burma 5026:Lieberman 2003: 88 4945:Harvey 1925: 55–56 4758:Htin Aung 1967: 57 4639:Htin Aung 1967: 45 4551:Than Tun 1964: 137 4533:Than Tun 1959: 122 4503:Htin Aung 1967: 83 4455:Htin Aung 1967: 55 4348:Lieberman 2003: 92 4339:Harvey 1925: 29–30 4321:Htin Aung 1967: 34 4291:Harvey 1925: 23–34 4282:Harvey 1925: 24–25 4123:Lieberman 2003: 90 4078:Lieberman 2003: 89 4042:Lieberman 2003: 91 3961:Lieberman 2003: 24 3736:Gawdawpalin Temple 3701:Mingalazedi Pagoda 3534:(pre-11th century) 3518:(pre-11th century) 3438: 3389: 3258:Theravada Buddhism 3230:Theravada Buddhism 3226: 3166: 3142: 3122:Theravada Buddhism 2876:Size of population 2873: 2811:1 basket of paddy 2756: 2602:were also in use. 2574: 2541:Michael Aung-Thwin 2533: 2509: 2454:Royal Burmese Army 2450: 2445:in the service of 2403: 2369:Peripheral regions 2227:, lit. "country", 2217: 2078: 2022: 1992:, at least to the 1960:Gawdawpalin Temple 1944: 1942:Pagan plains today 1936: 1899: 1764: 1739: 1607:Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu 1595:931–964 / 959–992 1579:915–931 / 943–959 1563:906–915 / 934–943 1547:878–906 / 906–934 1532:846–878 / 874–906 1517:Zatadawbon Yazawin 1486:Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu 1477:Zatadawbon Yazawin 1428: 1420: 1328: 1259:. The younger son 1173:Sri Ksetra Kingdom 1036:in Myanmar and in 1034:Theravada Buddhism 919:Myanmar portal 850:SLORC / SPDC junta 800:Anglo-Burmese Wars 748:Kingdom of Mrauk U 669:Arakanese kingdoms 637:Sri Ksetra Kingdom 603:History of Myanmar 367:Myinsaing takeover 139:Theravada Buddhism 112:(Bagan) (849–1297) 42:21.17222; 94.86028 6197: 6196: 6144: 6143: 5981:Human trafficking 5933: 5932: 5872: 5871: 5840:Political parties 5779:Foreign relations 5741: 5740: 5532:Myinsaing Kingdom 5498: 5497: 5415:Than Tun (1964). 5343:978-0-374-16342-6 5321:978-974-9863-31-2 5302:978-0-521-80496-7 5216:978-1-4067-3503-1 5205:, D.G.E. (1960). 5154:978-0-8248-0368-1 3799:Ngamyethna Pagoda 3734:"One-face"-style 3693:Shwesandaw Pagoda 3479:) hollow temple. 3401:ius primae noctis 3335:kingdom of Thaton 3308:Koṇāgamana Buddha 3240:, various Hindu ( 3234:Mahayana Buddhism 2926:cultural hegemony 2850: 2849: 2772:but only 1 to 10 2736: 2735: 2674: 2673: 2318:[kʰəjàiɴ] 2256:[nàiɴŋàɴ] 2190:under Myinsaing, 2184:Myinsaing Kingdom 2086:Kyaukpyu District 1990:Strait of Malacca 1968:Htilominlo Temple 1910:, and the Indian 1669: 1668: 1591:Nyaung-u Sawrahan 1482:Nyaung-u Sawrahan 1240:founded a kingdom 1157:Burmese chronicle 953: 952: 856:Political reforms 629:200 BCE – 1050 CE 584:rendering support 564: 563: 560: 559: 556: 555: 502:Myinsaing Kingdom 494: 493: 218:• 1256–1287 206:• 1174–1211 194:• 1112–1167 182:• 1084–1112 170:• 1044–1077 143:Mahayana Buddhism 6267: 6230:Burmese monarchy 6180: 6168: 6167: 6156: 6155: 6114:National symbols 5944: 5943: 5900:Opium production 5883: 5882: 5752: 5751: 5666: 5665: 5584:Konbaung dynasty 5486: 5485: 5467: 5460: 5453: 5444: 5443: 5439: 5420: 5411: 5395: 5377: 5358: 5347: 5332:, Thant (2006). 5325: 5306: 5284: 5281:History of Burma 5272: 5253: 5250:Maha Yazawin Gyi 5241: 5236:, Maung (1967). 5229: 5220: 5198: 5179: 5177: 5175: 5158: 5136: 5127: 5108: 5081: 5078: 5072: 5069: 5063: 5062:Hall 1960: 30–31 5060: 5054: 5051: 5045: 5042: 5036: 5033: 5027: 5024: 5018: 5015: 5009: 5006: 5000: 4997: 4984: 4981: 4972: 4969: 4958: 4955: 4946: 4943: 4937: 4934: 4928: 4925: 4919: 4916: 4903: 4900: 4894: 4893:Harvey 1925: 307 4891: 4885: 4882: 4876: 4873: 4867: 4864: 4858: 4855: 4849: 4846: 4840: 4837: 4831: 4828: 4822: 4819: 4806: 4803: 4797: 4794: 4785: 4782: 4771: 4768: 4759: 4756: 4743: 4740: 4734: 4731: 4725: 4722: 4709: 4706: 4697: 4696:Harvey 1925: 333 4694: 4688: 4685: 4676: 4673: 4667: 4666:Dijk 2006: 37–38 4664: 4658: 4655: 4649: 4646: 4640: 4637: 4631: 4628: 4622: 4619: 4610: 4607: 4594: 4591: 4582: 4579: 4573: 4572:Harvey 1925: 365 4570: 4564: 4561: 4552: 4549: 4543: 4540: 4534: 4531: 4525: 4522: 4516: 4513: 4504: 4501: 4495: 4492: 4486: 4483: 4474: 4471: 4465: 4462: 4456: 4453: 4444: 4441: 4435: 4432: 4426: 4423: 4414: 4413: 4411: 4409: 4394: 4388: 4385: 4379: 4376: 4370: 4367: 4361: 4358: 4349: 4346: 4340: 4337: 4331: 4328: 4322: 4319: 4310: 4309:Coedès 1968: 149 4307: 4301: 4298: 4292: 4289: 4283: 4280: 4271: 4268: 4257: 4254: 4248: 4245: 4239: 4238: 4207: 4201: 4198: 4192: 4189: 4183: 4180: 4174: 4171: 4165: 4162: 4156: 4153: 4147: 4144: 4133: 4132:Harvey 1925: 308 4130: 4124: 4121: 4115: 4112: 4106: 4103: 4097: 4094: 4088: 4085: 4079: 4076: 4070: 4067: 4061: 4060:Harvey 1925: 349 4058: 4052: 4049: 4043: 4040: 4034: 4031: 4020: 4017: 4011: 4008: 4002: 3999: 3990: 3987: 3974: 3971: 3962: 3959: 3950: 3947: 3938: 3935: 3922: 3919: 3903: 3900: 3894: 3891: 3885: 3874: 3728: 3719: 3689:Shwezigon Pagoda 3575: 3559: 3543: 3527: 3512: 3497:Bawbawgyi Pagoda 3490: 3478: 3477: 3374:Other traditions 3319: 3304: 3289: 3270: 3238:Tantric Buddhism 3232:co-existed with 3146:Burmese alphabet 3138:Burmese alphabet 3073: 3058: 3043: 3033:Burmese alphabet 3028: 2992: 2991: 2982: 2981: 2972: 2971: 2962: 2961: 2915: 2914: 2843:1000 betal nuts 2797: 2767: 2766: 2687: 2666: 2665: 2646: 2645: 2628: 2627: 2605: 2597: 2596: 2543:, G.H. Luce and 2441:Pagan commander 2364: 2358: 2357: 2344: 2338: 2337: 2320: 2314: 2313: 2288: 2287: 2278: 2277: 2268: 2267: 2258: 2252: 2251: 2238: 2232: 2231: 2061:Mongol invasions 1964:Mahabodhi Temple 1876:Burmese alphabet 1833:in the east and 1795:Tenasserim coast 1780: 1779: 1769:Kyaukse district 1499: 1313: 1312: 1300: 1299: 1290: 1289: 1268: 1267: 1254: 1253: 1233: 1232: 1223: 1222: 1213: 1212: 1200: 1199: 1134:Mongol invasions 1081:Burmese language 1024:, the spread of 1018:Burmese language 1014:Irrawaddy valley 991: 988: 985: 982: 979: 975: 970: 966: 957:Kingdom of Pagan 945: 938: 931: 917: 916: 915: 896:Military history 891:Royal chronicles 881:List of capitals 838:AFPFL government 782:Konbaung dynasty 663: 644: 613: 599: 598: 590: instead of 572: 571: 552: 551: 538: 537: 524: 523: 510: 509: 498: 497: 485: 484: 471: 470: 457: 456: 450: 449: 434: 433: 411:1.5 to 2 million 384: 373:17 December 1297 369: 354: 339: 326: 311: 309:Burmese alphabet 295: 284: 278: 85: 82: 77: 62: 61: 55:Kingdom of Pagan 51: 50: 48: 47: 45: 44: 43: 38: 34: 31: 30: 29: 26: 6275: 6274: 6270: 6269: 6268: 6266: 6265: 6264: 6260:Former kingdoms 6200: 6199: 6198: 6193: 6140: 6119:Public holidays 6010: 6006:Sex trafficking 5929: 5868: 5806:Law enforcement 5737: 5713:Protected areas 5655: 5567:Toungoo dynasty 5542:Sagaing Kingdom 5517:Pyu city-states 5494: 5480: 5471: 5436: 5387:Hmannan Yazawin 5374: 5344: 5322: 5303: 5269: 5259:Myanmar (Burma) 5217: 5195: 5173: 5171: 5155: 5124: 5105: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5075: 5070: 5066: 5061: 5057: 5052: 5048: 5043: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5025: 5021: 5016: 5012: 5007: 5003: 4998: 4987: 4982: 4975: 4970: 4961: 4956: 4949: 4944: 4940: 4935: 4931: 4926: 4922: 4917: 4906: 4901: 4897: 4892: 4888: 4884:Harvey 1925: 29 4883: 4879: 4874: 4870: 4865: 4861: 4856: 4852: 4847: 4843: 4838: 4834: 4829: 4825: 4820: 4809: 4804: 4800: 4795: 4788: 4783: 4774: 4769: 4762: 4757: 4746: 4741: 4737: 4732: 4728: 4723: 4712: 4707: 4700: 4695: 4691: 4686: 4679: 4674: 4670: 4665: 4661: 4656: 4652: 4648:Harvey 1925: 58 4647: 4643: 4638: 4634: 4629: 4625: 4620: 4613: 4608: 4597: 4592: 4585: 4580: 4576: 4571: 4567: 4562: 4555: 4550: 4546: 4541: 4537: 4532: 4528: 4523: 4519: 4514: 4507: 4502: 4498: 4493: 4489: 4485:Harvey 1925: 68 4484: 4477: 4472: 4468: 4464:Harvey 1925: 62 4463: 4459: 4454: 4447: 4442: 4438: 4434:Harvey 1925: 56 4433: 4429: 4424: 4417: 4407: 4405: 4396: 4395: 4391: 4386: 4382: 4377: 4373: 4368: 4364: 4359: 4352: 4347: 4343: 4338: 4334: 4329: 4325: 4320: 4313: 4308: 4304: 4300:Harvey 1925: 19 4299: 4295: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4274: 4269: 4260: 4255: 4251: 4246: 4242: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4186: 4181: 4177: 4172: 4168: 4163: 4159: 4154: 4150: 4145: 4136: 4131: 4127: 4122: 4118: 4113: 4109: 4104: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4087:Moore 2007: 236 4086: 4082: 4077: 4073: 4068: 4064: 4059: 4055: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4037: 4032: 4023: 4018: 4014: 4009: 4005: 4000: 3993: 3988: 3977: 3972: 3965: 3960: 3953: 3948: 3941: 3936: 3925: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3907: 3906: 3901: 3897: 3892: 3888: 3875: 3871: 3866: 3853:Mrauk-U Kingdom 3844: 3807: 3795:Maitreya Buddha 3775:1975 earthquake 3770: 3745: 3744: 3743: 3742: 3731: 3730: 3729: 3721: 3720: 3709: 3646:Buddhist cosmos 3603:Amaravati Stupa 3587: 3586: 3585: 3584: 3583: 3576: 3568: 3567: 3560: 3552: 3551: 3544: 3536: 3535: 3528: 3520: 3519: 3513: 3505: 3504: 3491: 3460: 3454:of the zodiac. 3447: 3434:Mandalay Palace 3426: 3376: 3348:Shin Uttarajiva 3330: 3329: 3328: 3327: 3326: 3320: 3312: 3311: 3305: 3297: 3296: 3290: 3282: 3281: 3271: 3260: 3218: 3158: 3130: 3089: 3084: 3083: 3082: 3081: 3080: 3074: 3066: 3065: 3059: 3051: 3050: 3044: 3036: 3035: 3029: 3018: 2947: 2887: 2878: 2860: 2855: 2748: 2583: 2566: 2525: 2501: 2493:entire military 2435: 2429: 2395: 2371: 2299: 2209: 2142: 2069: 2063: 2058: 2014: 1956:Sulamani Temple 1927: 1888: 1856:Burmese history 1752: 1728: 1722: 1508:Hmannan Yazawin 1408: 1402: 1377:Gansu provinces 1369:Nanzhao Kingdom 1342:Nanzhao Kingdom 1334: 1332:Pyu city-states 1320: 1293:Arimaddana-pura 1184:Hmannan Yazawin 1175: 1169:Tagaung Kingdom 1165: 1153: 1147: 1142: 1058:Malay Peninsula 1026:Bamar ethnicity 989: 986: 983: 980: 968: 949: 913: 911: 756:Toungoo dynasty 716:Sagaing Kingdom 657: 641:Tagaung Kingdom 634: 627:Pyu city-states 597: 596: 595: 582:Without proper 573: 569: 549: 535: 521: 507: 482: 475:Mon city-states 468: 461:Pyu city-states 454: 408: 407:• c. 1210 385: 380: 370: 365: 355: 350: 340: 337: 327: 322: 312: 306: 299:23 December 849 296: 291: 282: 279: 274: 245: 219: 207: 195: 183: 171: 93: 87: 83: 63: 56: 41: 39: 35: 32: 27: 24: 22: 20: 19: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6273: 6263: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6195: 6194: 6192: 6191: 6186: 6174: 6162: 6149: 6146: 6145: 6142: 6141: 6139: 6138: 6137: 6136: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6020: 6018: 6012: 6011: 6009: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5947: 5941: 5935: 5934: 5931: 5930: 5928: 5927: 5922: 5920:Transportation 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5886: 5880: 5874: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5866: 5865: 5864: 5857:Prime Minister 5854: 5853: 5852: 5842: 5837: 5836: 5835: 5825: 5824: 5823: 5818: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5797: 5796: 5794:Women's rights 5791: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5755: 5749: 5743: 5742: 5739: 5738: 5736: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5695: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5669: 5663: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5653: 5652: 5651: 5646: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5609:Union of Burma 5606: 5601: 5596: 5594:Karenni States 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5575: 5574: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5547:Kingdom of Ava 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5522:Thaton Kingdom 5519: 5514: 5508: 5506: 5500: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5482: 5481: 5470: 5469: 5462: 5455: 5447: 5441: 5440: 5434: 5421: 5412: 5396: 5378: 5373:978-0230212145 5372: 5359: 5348: 5342: 5326: 5320: 5307: 5301: 5285: 5273: 5267: 5254: 5242: 5230: 5221: 5215: 5199: 5193: 5180: 5159: 5153: 5141:Coedès, George 5137: 5128: 5122: 5109: 5103: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5082: 5073: 5064: 5055: 5046: 5037: 5028: 5019: 5010: 5001: 4985: 4973: 4959: 4947: 4938: 4929: 4920: 4904: 4895: 4886: 4877: 4868: 4859: 4850: 4841: 4832: 4823: 4807: 4798: 4786: 4772: 4760: 4744: 4735: 4726: 4710: 4698: 4689: 4677: 4668: 4659: 4650: 4641: 4632: 4623: 4611: 4595: 4583: 4574: 4565: 4553: 4544: 4535: 4526: 4517: 4505: 4496: 4487: 4475: 4466: 4457: 4445: 4436: 4427: 4415: 4389: 4380: 4371: 4362: 4350: 4341: 4332: 4323: 4311: 4302: 4293: 4284: 4272: 4258: 4249: 4240: 4218:(2): 373–390. 4202: 4193: 4184: 4175: 4166: 4157: 4148: 4134: 4125: 4116: 4107: 4098: 4096:Harvey 1925: 3 4089: 4080: 4071: 4062: 4053: 4044: 4035: 4021: 4012: 4003: 3991: 3975: 3963: 3951: 3939: 3923: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3905: 3904: 3895: 3886: 3868: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3861: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3843: 3840: 3806: 3803: 3769: 3766: 3733: 3732: 3723: 3722: 3714: 3713: 3712: 3711: 3710: 3708: 3707:Hollow temples 3705: 3607:Nagarjunakonda 3582:(13th century) 3577: 3570: 3569: 3566:(12th century) 3561: 3554: 3553: 3550:(11th century) 3545: 3538: 3537: 3529: 3522: 3521: 3514: 3507: 3506: 3492: 3485: 3484: 3483: 3482: 3481: 3459: 3456: 3446: 3443: 3425: 3422: 3375: 3372: 3323:Gautama Buddha 3321: 3314: 3313: 3306: 3299: 3298: 3291: 3284: 3283: 3280:– South facing 3278:Kassapa Buddha 3272: 3265: 3264: 3263: 3262: 3261: 3259: 3256: 3217: 3214: 3157: 3154: 3129: 3126: 3088: 3085: 3075: 3068: 3067: 3060: 3053: 3052: 3045: 3038: 3037: 3030: 3023: 3022: 3021: 3020: 3019: 3017: 3014: 2946: 2945:Social classes 2943: 2886: 2883: 2877: 2874: 2859: 2856: 2854: 2851: 2848: 2847: 2844: 2840: 2839: 2836: 2828: 2827: 2824: 2823:of cow's milk 2816: 2815: 2812: 2808: 2807: 2801: 2747: 2744: 2734: 2733: 2730: 2722: 2721: 2718: 2710: 2709: 2706: 2698: 2697: 2691: 2672: 2671: 2668: 2652: 2651: 2648: 2634: 2633: 2630: 2616: 2615: 2609: 2582: 2579: 2572:Ruins of Pagan 2565: 2562: 2524: 2521: 2500: 2497: 2431:Main article: 2428: 2425: 2394: 2391: 2370: 2367: 2342:[taiʔ] 2298: 2295: 2208: 2205: 2141: 2138: 2065:Main article: 2062: 2059: 2057: 2054: 2013: 2010: 1926: 1923: 1887: 1884: 1846:Shan Hills to 1829:in the north, 1751: 1748: 1721: 1718: 1667: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1651: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1619: 1618: 1617:Son of Tannet 1615: 1612: 1609: 1603: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1587: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1571: 1570: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1555: 1554: 1551: 1548: 1545: 1539: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1530: 1524: 1523: 1520: 1512: 1503: 1401: 1398: 1330:Main article: 1319: 1316: 1277:, near modern 1164: 1161: 1149:Main article: 1146: 1143: 1141: 1138: 951: 950: 948: 947: 940: 933: 925: 922: 921: 908: 907: 906: 905: 904: 903: 893: 888: 883: 878: 870: 869: 868: 867: 866: 865: 859: 853: 847: 841: 826: 825: 824: 823: 822: 821: 815: 809: 803: 788: 787: 786: 785: 779: 773: 772: 771: 765: 753: 752: 751: 745: 739: 733: 732: 731: 725: 722:Kingdom of Ava 719: 713: 710:Pinya Kingdoms 692: 691: 690: 675: 674: 673: 672: 665: 664: 660:Thaton Kingdom 654: 653: 646: 645: 631: 630: 624: 623:11,000–200 BCE 615: 614: 606: 605: 592:Burmese script 586:, you may see 578:Burmese script 574: 567: 566: 565: 562: 561: 558: 557: 554: 553: 546: 540: 539: 532: 526: 525: 518: 512: 511: 504: 495: 492: 491: 486: 478: 477: 472: 464: 463: 458: 446: 445: 440: 430: 429: 421: 417: 416: 413: 412: 409: 406: 403: 402: 399: 398: 394: 393: 390: 389: 386: 378: 375: 374: 371: 363: 360: 359: 356: 348: 345: 344: 341: 335: 332: 331: 328: 320: 317: 316: 313: 304: 301: 300: 297: 289: 286: 285: 280: 272: 269: 268: 265: 264: 259: 258:Historical era 255: 254: 238:rule by decree 234: 230: 229: 226: 225: 220: 217: 214: 213: 208: 205: 202: 201: 196: 193: 190: 189: 184: 181: 178: 177: 172: 169: 166: 165: 162: 161: 158: 154: 153: 136: 132: 131: 118: 114: 113: 107: 103: 102: 99: 95: 94: 79:Pagan Empire, 78: 70: 69: 65: 64: 57: 54: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6272: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6210:Pagan Kingdom 6208: 6207: 6205: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6184: 6179: 6175: 6173: 6172: 6163: 6161: 6160: 6151: 6150: 6147: 6135: 6132: 6131: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6017: 6013: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5971:Ethnic groups 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5948: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5936: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5887: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5875: 5863: 5860: 5859: 5858: 5855: 5851: 5848: 5847: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5834: 5831: 5830: 5829: 5826: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5816:military rule 5814: 5813: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5786: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5756: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5744: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5694: 5691: 5689: 5688:Deforestation 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5670: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5658: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5629:2007 protests 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5619:8888 Uprising 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5552:Prome Kingdom 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5537:Pinya Kingdom 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5527:Pagan Kingdom 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5509: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5493: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5468: 5463: 5461: 5456: 5454: 5449: 5448: 5445: 5437: 5435:9780877277101 5431: 5427: 5422: 5418: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5388: 5384:(1829–1832). 5383: 5379: 5375: 5369: 5365: 5360: 5356: 5355: 5349: 5345: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5317: 5313: 5308: 5304: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5268:9783886184156 5264: 5260: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5222: 5218: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5194:9789971693046 5190: 5186: 5181: 5169: 5165: 5160: 5156: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5129: 5125: 5123:9780824828868 5119: 5115: 5110: 5106: 5104:0-8248-0960-2 5100: 5096: 5091: 5090: 5077: 5068: 5059: 5050: 5041: 5032: 5023: 5014: 5005: 4996: 4994: 4992: 4990: 4980: 4978: 4968: 4966: 4964: 4954: 4952: 4942: 4933: 4924: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4909: 4899: 4890: 4881: 4872: 4863: 4854: 4845: 4836: 4827: 4818: 4816: 4814: 4812: 4802: 4793: 4791: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4767: 4765: 4755: 4753: 4751: 4749: 4739: 4730: 4721: 4719: 4717: 4715: 4705: 4703: 4693: 4684: 4682: 4672: 4663: 4654: 4645: 4636: 4627: 4618: 4616: 4606: 4604: 4602: 4600: 4590: 4588: 4578: 4569: 4560: 4558: 4548: 4539: 4530: 4521: 4512: 4510: 4500: 4491: 4482: 4480: 4470: 4461: 4452: 4450: 4440: 4431: 4422: 4420: 4403: 4399: 4393: 4384: 4375: 4366: 4357: 4355: 4345: 4336: 4327: 4318: 4316: 4306: 4297: 4288: 4279: 4277: 4267: 4265: 4263: 4253: 4244: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4206: 4197: 4188: 4179: 4170: 4161: 4152: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4129: 4120: 4111: 4105:Hall 1960: 11 4102: 4093: 4084: 4075: 4066: 4057: 4048: 4039: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4016: 4007: 3998: 3996: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3970: 3968: 3958: 3956: 3946: 3944: 3934: 3932: 3930: 3928: 3918: 3914: 3899: 3890: 3883: 3879: 3873: 3869: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3845: 3839: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3823: 3821: 3817: 3811: 3802: 3800: 3796: 3790: 3788: 3787:Mingun Pagoda 3784: 3780: 3776: 3765: 3763: 3758: 3754: 3751:, the hollow 3750: 3741: 3737: 3727: 3718: 3704: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3687:stories. The 3686: 3685: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3653: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3614: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3581: 3574: 3565: 3558: 3549: 3542: 3533: 3526: 3517: 3511: 3502: 3499:(7th century 3498: 3495: 3489: 3480: 3472: 3468: 3467: 3455: 3451: 3442: 3435: 3430: 3421: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3405: 3403: 3402: 3396: 3395: 3387: 3386: 3380: 3371: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3355: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3336: 3325:– West facing 3324: 3318: 3310:– East facing 3309: 3303: 3294: 3288: 3279: 3275: 3274:Ananda Temple 3269: 3255: 3253: 3252: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3222: 3213: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3190: 3184: 3182: 3178: 3177: 3172: 3162: 3153: 3151: 3147: 3139: 3134: 3125: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3107: 3106:lingua franca 3102: 3098: 3094: 3079: 3072: 3064: 3057: 3049: 3042: 3034: 3027: 3013: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2994: 2986: 2976: 2966: 2956: 2951: 2942: 2939: 2935: 2929: 2927: 2923: 2922:Burmanization 2917: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2885:Ethnic groups 2882: 2870: 2869: 2864: 2845: 2842: 2841: 2837: 2834: 2830: 2829: 2825: 2822: 2818: 2817: 2813: 2810: 2809: 2806: 2798: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2788: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2761: 2752: 2743: 2741: 2731: 2728: 2724: 2723: 2719: 2716: 2712: 2711: 2707: 2704: 2700: 2699: 2696: 2688: 2685: 2683: 2679: 2669: 2660: 2659: 2654: 2653: 2649: 2640: 2636: 2635: 2631: 2622: 2618: 2617: 2614: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2591: 2590: 2578: 2570: 2561: 2558: 2552: 2548: 2546: 2542: 2537: 2529: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2505: 2496: 2494: 2489: 2483: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2466: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2434: 2424: 2422: 2417: 2415: 2414: 2407: 2399: 2390: 2388: 2383: 2379: 2376: 2366: 2363: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2319: 2308: 2304: 2294: 2292: 2282: 2279:, town), and 2272: 2269:, province), 2262: 2257: 2246: 2242: 2241:vassal states 2237: 2236:[pjì] 2226: 2222: 2213: 2204: 2202: 2197: 2193: 2187: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2173: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2137: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2117: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2082:Narathihapate 2073: 2068: 2053: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2033: 2031: 2027: 2018: 2009: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1995: 1994:Salween river 1991: 1987: 1986:Palace Guards 1982: 1980: 1976: 1975: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1948:Narapatisithu 1940: 1931: 1922: 1920: 1915: 1913: 1912:Chola dynasty 1909: 1905: 1897: 1896:Ananda Temple 1892: 1883: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1851: 1849: 1848:Narapatisithu 1845: 1841: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1791:Lower Myanmar 1788: 1782: 1774: 1770: 1761: 1756: 1747: 1744: 1737: 1732: 1727: 1717: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1656: 1653: 1652: 1648: 1645: 1642: 1640: 1637: 1636: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1624: 1621: 1620: 1616: 1613: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1588: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1576: 1573: 1572: 1568: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1556: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1529: 1526: 1525: 1522:Relationship 1519: 1518: 1511:/ (adjusted) 1510: 1509: 1500: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1478: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1424: 1417: 1416:Tharabha Gate 1412: 1407: 1397: 1394: 1393:Thant Myint-U 1390: 1387: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1361: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1333: 1324: 1315: 1307: 1302: 1294: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1262: 1258: 1248: 1243: 1241: 1237: 1227: 1217: 1207: 1202: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1185: 1180: 1174: 1170: 1160: 1158: 1152: 1137: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1062:Salween river 1059: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1030:Upper Myanmar 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 1002:Bagan dynasty 999: 995: 994:Pagan dynasty 974: 962: 958: 946: 941: 939: 934: 932: 927: 926: 924: 923: 920: 910: 909: 902: 901:Military rule 899: 898: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 882: 879: 877: 874: 873: 872: 871: 863: 860: 857: 854: 851: 848: 845: 842: 839: 836: 835: 834:1948–present 833: 830: 829: 828: 827: 819: 816: 813: 810: 807: 804: 801: 798: 797: 795: 792: 791: 790: 789: 783: 780: 777: 774: 769: 766: 763: 760: 759: 757: 754: 749: 746: 743: 740: 737: 734: 729: 728:Prome Kingdom 726: 723: 720: 717: 714: 711: 707: 704: 703: 701: 700:Upper Myanmar 698: 697: 696: 693: 688: 685: 684: 682: 681:Pagan Kingdom 679: 678: 677: 676: 670: 667: 666: 661: 656: 655: 652:825?–1057? 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When the 2150:Kublai Khan 2134:Ramannadesa 2102:Kublai Khan 1919:Alaungsithu 1844:cis-Salween 1840:Alaungsithu 1462:Below is a 1400:Early Pagan 1283:Thamoddarit 1261:Kanyaza Nge 1247:Kanyaza Gyi 1132:. Repeated 1000:; also the 742:Shan States 544:Shan States 438:Preceded by 262:Middle Ages 233:Legislature 121:Old Burmese 84: 1210 40: / 6204:Categories 6099:Literature 6054:Censorship 6034:State Seal 5828:Parliament 5769:Corruption 5693:Ecoregions 5512:Prehistory 5174:5 February 3910:References 3669:Sri Ksetra 3650:Mount Meru 3630:balustrade 3532:Lawkananda 3501:Sri Ksetra 3352:Mahavihara 3293:Kakusandha 3189:abhidhamma 3179:cost 3000 3156:Literature 3006:hpaya-kyun 2990:ဘုရားကျွန် 2985:hpaya-kyun 2858:Demography 2803:in silver 2790:cost 3000 2717:of copper 2693:in silver 2471:elephantry 2387:naingngans 2375:naingngans 2245:naingngans 2207:Government 2179:Temür Khan 2006:Mahavihara 1952:Htilominlo 1904:Kyansittha 1880:Mon script 1823:Tenasserim 1787:Shan Hills 1724:See also: 1710:Shan Hills 1662:1044–1077 1646:1038–1044 1630:1021–1038 1614:1001–1021 1505:Reign per 1404:See also: 1354:Pyu people 1346:Pyu people 1288:သမုဒ္ဒရာဇ် 1275:Sri Ksetra 1252:ကံရာဇာကြီး 1231:ပဉ္စာလရာဇ် 1216:Sakya clan 1167:See also: 1070:Chin Hills 969:pronounced 832:Modern era 796:1824–1948 758:1510–1752 702:1297–1555 397:Population 251:Htilominlo 242:Htilominlo 240:) (before 187:Kyansittha 157:Government 28:94°51′37″E 25:21°10′20″N 6124:Tattooing 6084:Festivals 6079:Etymology 5986:Languages 5961:Education 5845:President 5774:Elections 5733:Volcanoes 5708:Mountains 5661:Geography 5649:Civil war 5639:2021 coup 5289:Lieberman 5277:Kyaw Thet 5234:Htin Aung 4408:28 August 4232:161215387 3783:Bodawpaya 3762:Beikthano 3548:Shwezigon 3202:astrology 3198:phonology 3176:Tripiṭaka 3150:Dvaravati 3087:Languages 2960:ကျွန်တော် 2908:taungthus 2835:of honey 2787:Tripiṭaka 2349:leaders ( 2307:khayaings 2167:Sukhothai 2159:Myinsaing 1878:from the 1760:Anawrahta 1750:Formation 1743:Anawrahta 1655:Anawrahta 1598:956–1001 1449:Anawrahta 1441:fortified 1386:Htin Aung 1365:G.H. Luce 1266:ကံရာဇာငယ် 1198:မဟာ သမ္မတ 1179:Pyusawhti 1118:Arakanese 1105:Brahmanic 1053:Anawrahta 862:SAC junta 858:2011–2015 852:1988–2010 846:1962–1988 840:1948–1962 820:1942–1945 814:1900–1948 808:1885–1895 802:1824–1885 784:1752–1885 778:1740–1757 770:1599–1752 764:1510–1599 750:1429–1785 744:1215–1563 730:1482–1542 724:1365–1555 718:1315–1365 712:1297–1365 706:Myinsaing 683:849–1297 671:788?–1406 343:1174–1250 330:1050s–60s 175:Anawrahta 135:Religion 6159:Category 6134:Weddings 6094:Folklore 6064:Clothing 6044:Calendar 6039:Capitals 5991:Religion 5811:Military 5801:Conflict 5747:Politics 5723:Wildlife 5644:Protests 5478:articles 5400:Than Tun 5279:(1962). 4402:Archived 3842:See also 3836:Lan Xang 3820:Konbaung 3691:and the 3473:-style ( 3354:school. 3246:Vaishana 3216:Religion 3171:Than Tun 2896:Palaungs 2868:Thingyan 2705:of gold 2581:Currency 2545:Than Tun 2447:Sithu II 2443:Aung Zwa 2427:Military 2303:Dry Zone 2201:Konbaung 2172:Thihathu 2090:Martaban 1778:လယ်တွင်း 1690:Yamethin 1682:Myingyan 1678:Meiktila 1674:Mandalay 1649:Brother 1601:Usurper 1582:934–956 1575:Theinhko 1569:Usurper 1566:904–934 1550:876–904 1535:846–876 1502:Monarch 1457:Bianjing 1311:ပျဉ်ပြား 1226:Panchala 1214:)of the 1206:Abhiraja 1101:Mahayana 1068:and the 996:and the 965:ပုဂံခေတ် 876:Timeline 689:849–1044 420:Currency 211:Sithu II 160:Monarchy 147:Hinduism 90:Sithu II 68:849–1297 60:ပုဂံခေတ် 6171:Commons 6069:Cuisine 6016:Culture 5939:Society 5915:Tourism 5878:Economy 5698:Islands 5683:Climate 5673:Borders 5504:History 5474:Myanmar 5330:Myint-U 3816:Toungoo 3678:harmika 3634:harmika 3242:Saivite 3206:alchemy 3194:prosody 3136:Modern 3128:Scripts 3093:Burmese 3002:kyundaw 2955:kyundaw 2913:တောင်သူ 2499:Economy 2475:cavalry 2462:ahmudan 2458:kyundaw 2413:Hluttaw 2323:Kyaukse 2250:နိုင်ငံ 2221:mandala 2154:Kyawswa 2146:Tagaung 2110:Kanngai 2096:of the 2094:Mongols 2076:region. 2046:Mongols 2030:Hluttaw 2012:Decline 1979:Burmese 1934:century 1706:Pakkoku 1698:Sagaing 1686:Kyaukse 1639:Sokkate 1528:Pyinbya 1494:Hmannan 1490:Pyinbya 1472:Hmannan 1468:Hmannan 1464:partial 1445:Hmannan 1437:Hmannan 1373:Qinghai 1340:of the 1306:Pyinbya 1236:Tagaung 1211:အဘိရာဇာ 1145:Origins 1140:History 1126:Mongols 1116:by the 1109:animist 1097:Tantric 1047:by the 1022:culture 1010:Myanmar 981: 961:Burmese 886:Leaders 423:silver 388:1300–01 379:• 364:• 358:1277–87 349:• 336:• 321:• 305:• 290:• 273:• 249:(since 247:Hluttaw 199:Sithu I 151:Animism 106:Capital 101:Kingdom 6183:Portal 6059:Cinema 6049:Zodiac 6029:Anthem 5976:Health 5718:Rivers 5678:Cities 5476: 5432: 5370: 5340: 5318: 5299: 5265: 5213: 5191: 5151: 5120: 5101: 4230: 3878:Thayet 3828:Lan Na 3805:Legacy 3749:stupas 3684:jataka 3665:stupas 3611:Ceylon 3595:stupas 3516:Bupaya 3458:Stupas 3364:Jataka 3360:sangha 3340:Andhra 3244:, and 3116:, the 2746:Prices 2557:Angkor 2477:, and 2312:ခရိုင် 2291:taings 2266:တိုင်း 2122:Wareru 2038:sangha 2026:Kyaswa 2002:Mranma 1974:sangha 1966:, and 1925:Zenith 1872:Cholas 1868:Ceylon 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