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responses, with stimuli moving in the nasal-to-temporal direction resulting in larger responses than stimuli moving in the temporal-to-nasal direction. In humans, this asymmetry is seen only in infants, and monocular OKR becomes symmetric by six months of age because of cortical development. In several species, OKR is also more reliably evoked by upward motion than by downward motion. Both vertical and horizontal asymmetries are often attributed to functional adaptations that reflect common natural scene statistics associated with forward terrestrial locomotion.
107:
instructed to track the moving stimuli). Fast nystagmus is the second constituent eye movement in OKR. It consists of a rapid, resetting saccade in the opposite direction of the slow nystagmus (i.e., opposite to the stimulus motion). The purpose of the fast nystagmus is to keep the eye centered in the orbit, while the purpose of the slow nystagmus is to stabilize the moving visual scene on the retina.
180:
nuclei of the AOS: the nucleus of the optic tract (NOT), the lateral terminal nucleus (LTN), and the medial terminal nucleus (MTN). These nuclei are targeted by oDSGCs that prefer nasal, downward, and upward image motion, respectively. Recurrent inhibitory connections exist between these AOS nuclei,
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move in response to image motion, whereas in mammals and several other species the entire eye moves together. In addition, OKR patterns vary across species according to whether stimuli are presented monocularly or binocularly: in most species monocular presentation of stimuli results in asymmetric
106:
eye movements, it is distinct; several species that do not exhibit smooth pursuit nonetheless have slow nystagmus during OKR (though in humans, it is possible to substitute slow nystagmus for smooth pursuit during a version of OKR referred to as "look nystagmus", in which subjects are specifically
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is a common clinic tool used for this purpose. The drum most commonly contains sinusoidal or square-wave stripes that move across the subject's field of view to elicit strong optokinetic eye movements. However, nearly any moving texture evokes OKR in mammals. Outside of laboratory settings, OKR is
70:
that would otherwise occur when an animal moves its head or navigates through its environment. This is achieved by the reflexive movement of the eyes in the same direction as image motion, so as to minimize the relative motion of the visual scene on the eye. OKR is best evoked by slow, rotational
240:
In neurobiology, the isolation of the AOS from other visual pathways, its clear connection to a behavioral readout in the form of OKR, and its conservation across species make it an attractive model system to study. The AOS has been used to understand molecular mechanisms of synapse formation,
115:
OKR is one of the best preserved behaviors in the animal kingdom. It has been identified in insects, invertebrates, reptiles, amphibians, birds, fish, and all mammals. There are subtle differences in how OKR plays out across species. For instance, in fruit flies, individual segments of the
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known as ON direction selective retinal ganglion cells (oDSGCs). These cells respond selectively to motion in one of three cardinal directions (upward, downward, or nasal motion), and inherit their direction selectivity at least partially from asymmetric inhibition from
101:
When viewing constant, unidirectional motion, OKR consists of a stereotyped "sawtooth" waveform that represents two types of eye movements. During slow nystagmus, the eyes smoothly follow the direction of the stimulus. Though slow nystagmus closely resembles
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further suggesting a subtraction of signals between different oDSGC types. There are only modest connections between these nuclei and the cortex. The activity of neurons in the AOS nuclei are well-correlated with the velocity of the OKR slow phase.
154:
inhibition produces a speed tuning preference for slow stimulus motion in oDSGCs, which has been used to explain the analogous slow tuning of OKR. In some species, oDSGCs constitute the displaced ganglion cells, whose cell bodies reside in the
159:
of the retina. oDSGCs that respond to different directions of motion have slightly different response properties that are also reflected in OKR behavior, and it is thought that a linear subtraction of oDSGC
241:
feature tuning and direction selectivity in the retina, neural circuit development, axon targeting, plasticity mechanisms, and computational strategies for integrating primary sensory information.
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The projection neurons of the NOT, LTN, and MTN converge on the oculomotor plant in the brainstem, where their activity is integrated to drive the eye movements. This occurs through
Cranial Nerves
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Wang, Anna Y. M.; Kulkarni, Manoj M.; McLaughlin, Amanda J.; Gayet, Jacqueline; Smith, Benjamin E.; Hauptschein, Max; McHugh, Cyrus F.; Yao, Yvette Y.; Puthussery, Teresa (2023-10-25).
31:
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Al-Khindi, Timour; Sherman, Michael B.; Kodama, Takashi; Gopal, Preethi; Pan, Zhiwei; Kiraly, James K.; Zhang, Hao; Goff, Loyal A.; du Lac, Sascha; Kolodkin, Alex L. (October 2022).
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Lilley, Brendan N.; Sabbah, Shai; Hunyara, John L.; Gribble, Katherine D.; Al-Khindi, Timour; Xiong, Jiali; Wu, Zhuhao; Berson, David M.; Kolodkin, Alex L. (January 2019).
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Giolli, Roland A.; Blanks, Robert H.I.; Lui, Fausta (2006), "The accessory optic system: Basic organization with an update on connectivity, neurochemistry, and function",
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The reflexive nature of OKR has made it a popular method for objectively measuring vision in many contexts. OKR-based tests have been developed to objectively assess
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and more. Changes to the stereotypical OKR waveform can also be a biomarker of disease, including stroke, concussion, drug or alcohol intoxication, and
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Fenk, Lisa M.; Avritzer, Sofia C.; Weisman, Jazz L.; Nair, Aditya; Randt, Lucas D.; Mohren, Thomas L.; Siwanowicz, Igor; Maimon, Gaby (2022-12-01).
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Yonehara, Keisuke; Shintani, Takafumi; Suzuki, Ryoko; Sakuta, Hiraki; Takeuchi, Yasushi; Nakamura-Yonehara, Kayo; Noda, Masaharu (2008-02-06).
1317:"Genetic access to neurons in the accessory optic system reveals a role for Sema6A in midbrain circuitry mediating motion perception"
1250:"Expression of SPIG1 Reveals Development of a Retinal Ganglion Cell Subtype Projecting to the Medial Terminal Nucleus in the Mouse"
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motion, and operates in coordination with several complementary reflexes that also support image stabilization, including the
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do not target common visual structures. Instead, they are likely the only retinal ganglion cell type to innervate the three
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Harris, Scott C; Dunn, Felice A (2023-03-17). Meister, Markus; Moore, Tirin; Meister, Markus; Yonehara, Keisuke (eds.).
209:
Potentiation of the OKR slow phase is known to occur after long periods of continuous stimulation. These mechanisms are
1374:"The transcription factor Tbx5 regulates direction-selective retinal ganglion cell development and image stabilization"
1524:
877:"Simulated Saccadic Stimuli Suppress ON-Type Direction-Selective Retinal Ganglion Cells via Glycinergic Inhibition"
377:
Masseck, Olivia Andrea; Hoffmann, Klaus-Peter (May 2009). "Comparative
Neurobiology of the Optokinetic Reflex".
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503:"Directional effect of inactivation of the nucleus of the optic tract on optokinetic nystagmus in the cat"
237:. OKR is also commonly used in basic science as an objective measure of acuity in animal disease models.
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strongly evoked by natural image motion, including when looking out the side window of a moving vehicle.
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602:"Asymmetric retinal direction tuning predicts optokinetic eye movements across stimulus conditions"
329:"Horizontal and Vertical Look and Stare Optokinetic Nystagmus Symmetry in Healthy Adult Volunteers"
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999:"Direction-selective retinal ganglion cells and control of optokinetic nystagmus in the rabbit"
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Knapp, Christopher M.; Gottlob, Irene; McLean, Rebecca J.; Proudlock, Frank A. (2008-02-01).
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1431:"Distinct inhibitory pathways control velocity and directional tuning in the mouse retina"
934:"Distinct inhibitory pathways control velocity and directional tuning in the mouse retina"
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OKR is driven by a dedicated visual pathway called the accessory optic system (AOS).
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552:"Comparison of Vertical and Horizontal Optokinetic Nystagmus in the Squirrel Monkey"
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Taore, Aryaman; Lobo, Gabriel; Turnbull, Philip R.; Dakin, Steven C. (2022-05-11).
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1227:. Contemporary neurology series (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford university press.
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OKR is typically evoked by presenting full field visual motion to a subject. The
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Doustkouhi, Soheil M.; Turnbull, Philip R. K.; Dakin, Steven C. (2020-02-21).
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Doustkouhi, Soheil M.; Turnbull, Philip R. K.; Dakin, Steven C. (2020-11-18).
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Reflexive movement of eyes in the direction of motion to reduce motion blur
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Sivyer, Benjamin; Tomlinson, Alexander; Taylor, W. Rowland (2019-05-29).
668:, Progress in Brain Research, vol. 151, Elsevier, pp. 407–440,
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213:-dependent, and may be associated with corresponding changes to the VOR.
63:
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438:"Muscles that move the retina augment compound eye vision in Drosophila"
30:
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1103:"The Effect of Simulated Visual Field Loss on Optokinetic Nystagmus"
997:
Oyster, Clyde W.; Takahashi, Ellen; Collewijn, Han (February 1972).
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177:
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828:"Neural Mechanisms of Motion Processing in the Mammalian Retina"
763:"An ON-type direction-selective ganglion cell in primate retina"
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1160:"Diagnosis of colour vision deficits using eye movements"
1038:"The effect of refractive error on optokinetic nystagmus"
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Hoffmann, Klaus-Peter; Fischer, Wolfgang H (2001-11-01).
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706:"The analysis of image motion by the rabbit retina"
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1429:Summers, Mathew T.; Feller, Marla B. (May 2022).
932:Summers, Mathew T.; Feller, Marla B. (May 2022).
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164:may predict the magnitude of the OKR slow phase.
58:), is a compensatory reflex that supports visual
1853:
333:Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science
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550:Takahashi, Masahiro; Igarashi, Makoto (1977).
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1107:Translational Vision Science & Technology
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379:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
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1223:Leigh, R. John; Zee, David S. (2015).
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665:Neuroanatomy of the Oculomotor System
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298:10.1146/annurev.ne.07.030184.000305
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62:. The purpose of OKR is to prevent
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34:Horizontal optokinetic nystagmus.
1321:Journal of Comparative Neurology
399:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.03854.x
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832:Annual Review of Vision Science
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704:Oyster, C. W. (December 1968).
217:Scientific and medical interest
1225:The neurology of eye movements
893:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3066-18.2019
722:10.1113/jphysiol.1968.sp008671
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1841:Symmetrical tonic neck reflex
1498:Optokinetic nystagmus testing
674:10.1016/s0079-6123(05)51013-6
520:10.1016/S0042-6989(01)00184-5
286:Annual Review of Neuroscience
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1275:10.1371/journal.pone.0001533
1015:10.1016/0042-6989(72)90110-1
282:"The Accessory Optic System"
141:with a specialized class of
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280:Simpson, J I (March 1984).
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46:), also referred to as the
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1184:10.1038/s41598-022-11152-5
1062:10.1038/s41598-020-76865-x
787:10.1038/s41586-023-06659-4
462:10.1038/s41586-022-05317-5
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958:10.1016/j.cub.2022.03.054
710:The Journal of Physiology
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148:starburst amacrine cells
1834:Crossed extensor reflex
1583:Pharyngeal (gag) reflex
1574:Vestibulo-ocular reflex
881:Journal of Neuroscience
826:Wei, Wei (2018-09-15).
73:vestibulo-ocular reflex
1609:Brachioradialis reflex
1550:Pupillary light reflex
137:The AOS begins in the
79:Characteristics of OKR
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1781:Churchill–Cope reflex
1736:Bezold–Jarisch reflex
143:retinal ganglion cell
97:Eye movement patterns
52:optokinetic nystagmus
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18:Optokinetic nystagmus
1703:Superficial reflexes
1578:Oculocephalic reflex
1555:Accommodation reflex
1441:(10): 2130–2143.e3.
1384:(19): 4286–4298.e5.
944:(10): 2130–2143.e3.
345:10.1167/iovs.07-0773
48:optokinetic response
1814:Golgi tendon reflex
1756:Oculocardiac reflex
1570:Caloric reflex test
1447:2022CBio...32E2130S
1390:2022CBio...32E4286A
1266:2008PLoSO...3.1533Y
1176:2022NatSR..12.7734T
1119:10.1167/tvst.9.3.25
1054:2020NatSR..1020062D
950:2022CBio...32E2130S
779:2023Natur.623..381W
619:10.7554/eLife.81780
454:2022Natur.612..116F
391:2009NYASA1164..430M
157:inner nuclear layer
111:Comparative biology
60:image stabilization
1771:Reflex tachycardia
1766:Reflex bradycardia
1715:Cremasteric reflex
1646:Primitive reflexes
1164:Scientific Reports
1042:Scientific Reports
40:optokinetic reflex
36:
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1829:Withdrawal reflex
1731:Bainbridge reflex
1629:Ankle jerk reflex
1333:10.1002/cne.24507
1234:978-0-19-996928-9
887:(22): 4312–4322.
773:(7986): 381–386.
683:978-0-444-51696-1
568:10.1159/000275374
513:(25): 3389–3398.
448:(7938): 116–122.
125:Neural mechanisms
16:(Redirected from
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1824:Startle response
1799:List of reflexes
1710:Abdominal reflex
1593:Stretch reflexes
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1777:Respiratory
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1260:(2): e1533.
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292:(1): 13–41.
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251:Eye movement
239:
235:parkinsonism
227:color vision
220:
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118:compound eye
114:
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1819:Optokinetic
1659:Gastrocolic
1170:(1): 7734.
152:Glycinergic
64:motion blur
1856:Categories
1761:Baroreflex
1689:Tonic neck
612:: e81780.
267:References
231:stereopsis
211:cerebellar
205:Plasticity
1694:Parachute
1463:0960-9822
1341:0021-9967
1284:1932-6203
1192:2045-2322
1127:2164-2591
1113:(3): 25.
1070:2045-2322
966:0960-9822
901:0270-6474
854:2374-4642
795:0028-0836
730:0022-3751
628:2050-084X
576:1423-0275
529:0042-6989
470:0028-0836
407:0077-8923
353:1552-5783
306:0147-006X
256:Nystagmus
1809:H-reflex
1679:Stepping
1534:Reflexes
1481:35395192
1416:35998637
1359:30076594
1302:18253481
1254:PLOS ONE
1210:35562176
1145:32742755
1088:33208790
984:35395192
919:30926751
862:30095374
813:37880369
804:10632142
692:16221596
646:36930180
637:10023158
537:11718781
488:36289333
479:10103069
423:34185107
415:19645943
361:18235002
245:See also
178:midbrain
168:Midbrain
1684:Sucking
1674:Rooting
1472:9133153
1443:Bibcode
1407:9560999
1386:Bibcode
1350:6312510
1293:2217595
1262:Bibcode
1201:9095692
1172:Bibcode
1136:7354858
1079:7676235
1050:Bibcode
1023:5033683
975:9133153
946:Bibcode
910:6538852
775:Bibcode
748:5710424
739:1365363
450:Bibcode
387:Bibcode
314:6370078
75:(VOR).
66:on the
1867:Vision
1654:Galant
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442:Nature
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261:Reflex
197:, and
172:oDSGC
162:spikes
139:retina
133:Retina
68:retina
1792:Other
1664:Grasp
606:eLife
584:97609
419:S2CID
174:axons
50:, or
1669:Moro
1620:Leg
1600:Arm
1477:PMID
1459:ISSN
1412:PMID
1355:PMID
1337:ISSN
1298:PMID
1280:ISSN
1229:ISBN
1206:PMID
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678:ISBN
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484:PMID
466:ISSN
411:PMID
403:ISSN
383:1164
357:PMID
349:ISSN
310:PMID
302:ISSN
38:The
1467:PMC
1451:doi
1402:PMC
1394:doi
1345:PMC
1329:doi
1325:527
1288:PMC
1270:doi
1196:PMC
1180:doi
1131:PMC
1115:doi
1074:PMC
1058:doi
1011:doi
970:PMC
954:doi
905:PMC
889:doi
840:doi
799:PMC
783:doi
771:623
734:PMC
718:doi
714:199
670:doi
632:PMC
614:doi
564:doi
556:ORL
515:doi
474:PMC
458:doi
446:612
395:doi
341:doi
294:doi
191:III
56:OKN
44:OKR
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