204:
because here position signals dominate over velocity signals. David A. Robinson discovered that the eye muscles require this dual velocity-position drive, and also proposed that it must arise in the brain by mathematically integrating the velocity signal and then sending the resulting position signal to the motoneurons. Robinson was correct: the 'neural integrator' for horizontal eye position was found in the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi in the medulla, and the neural integrator for vertical and torsional eye positions was found in the
538:
obtained by watching the object in motion. In the absence of visual feedback, such as when the object passes behind an opaque barrier, humans can continue to visually track the apparent position of the object using anticipatory (extra-retinal) systems within the brain, and the VOR is also suppressed during this activity. The VOR can even be cognitively suppressed, such as when following an imagined target with the eyes and head together, although the effect tends to be less dramatic than with visual feedback.
120:
33:
604:
746:, in which the head is rapidly moved to the side with force, and is controlled if the eyes succeed to remain to look in the same direction. When the function of the right balance system is reduced, by a disease or by an accident, a quick head movement to the right cannot be sensed properly anymore. As a consequence, no compensatory eye movement is generated, and the patient cannot fixate a point in space during this rapid head movement.
615:
makes the cupula temporarily lighter. In this state, if a person lies down with right cheek touching the ground, then the cupula in the left ear would float towards the left, creating an illusory sense of slow left-to-right head rotation. To compensate for this, the VOR moves the eyes towards the left slowly until it reaches the limit, and the eyes pull to the right rapidly (nystagmus). This is the
794:
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that simulates the visual effect of having a very leaky oculomotor integrator. After 1 hour of viewing, the integrator becomes "anti-leaky", meaning that its value grows exponentially even in the absence of input. The eye motion becomes positive-feedback, meaning that if it is slightly to the left of
546:
The "gain" of the VOR is defined as the change in the eye angle divided by the change in the head angle during the head turn. Ideally the gain of the rotational VOR is 1.0. The gain of the horizontal and vertical VOR is usually close to 1.0, but the gain of the torsional VOR (rotation around the line
749:
The head impulse test can be done at the bed side and used as a screening tool for problems with a person's vestibular system. It can also be diagnostically tested by doing a video-head impulse test (VHIT). In this diagnostic test, a person wears highly sensitive goggles that detect rapid changes in
80:
during head movement. Gaze is held steadily on a location by producing eye movements in the direction opposite that of head movement. For example, when the head moves to the right, the eyes move to the left, meaning the image a person sees stays the same even though the head has turned. Since slight
581:
The oculomotor integrator is a leaky integrator, with a characteristic leaking time of ~20 s. If the leaking time is too low, some form of adaptation occurs to "patch the leak" to raise the leaking time. It is hypothesized that the leaking integrator is constructed by a feedback circuit with a gain
781:
Summary: Cervico-ocular reflex, also known by its acronym COR, involves the achievement of stabilization of a visual target, and image on the retina, through adjustments of gaze impacted by neck and, or head movements or rotations. The process works in conjunction with the vestibulo-ocular reflex
614:
consumption can disrupt the VOR, reducing dynamic visual acuity. In normal conditions, the cupula and the endolymph are equal in density (both are ). After ingesting ethanol, the ethanol diffuses into the cupula before it diffuses into the endolymph, because it is closer to blood capillaries. This
110:
The VOR has both rotational and translational aspects. When the head rotates about any axis (horizontal, vertical, or torsional) distant visual images are stabilized by rotating the eyes about the same axis, but in the opposite direction. When the head translates, for example during walking, the
537:
When a person tracks the movement of something with both their eyes and head together, the VOR is counterproductive to the goal of keeping the gaze and head angle aligned. Research indicates that there exists mechanisms in the brain to suppress the VOR using the active visual (retinal) feedback
203:
In addition to these direct pathways, which drive the velocity of eye rotation, there is an indirect pathway that builds up the position signal needed to prevent the eye from rolling back to center when the head stops moving. This pathway is particularly important when the head is moving slowly
1355:
Aw ST, Halmagyi GM, Haslwanter T, Curthoys IS, Yavor RA, Todd MJ (December 1996). "Three-dimensional vector analysis of the human vestibuloocular reflex in response to high-acceleration head rotations. II. responses in subjects with unilateral vestibular loss and selective semicircular canal
223:, with a characteristic leaking time of 20 s. For example, when the subject is sitting still and focusing on an object, and suddenly the light is turned off, the eyes would return to their neutral position in around 40 seconds even as the subject is attempting to keep the focus.
524:
The vestibulo-ocular reflex needs to be fast: for clear vision, head movement must be compensated almost immediately; otherwise, vision corresponds to a photograph taken with a shaky hand. Signals are sent from the semicircular canals using only three neurons, called the
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of sight) is generally low. The gain of the translational VOR has to be adjusted for distance, because of the geometry of motion parallax. When the head translates, the angular direction of near targets changes faster than the angular direction of far targets.
107:(gravity organ). Though the semicircular canals cause most of the reflexes which are responsive to acceleration, the maintaining of balance is mediated by the stretch of neck muscles and the pull of gravity on the utricle (otolith organ) of the inner ear.
81:
head movement is present all the time, VOR is necessary for stabilizing vision: people with an impaired reflex find it difficult to read using print, because the eyes do not stabilise during small head tremors, and also because damage to reflex can cause
550:
If the gain of the VOR is wrong (different from 1)—for example, if eye muscles are weak, or if a person puts on a new pair of eyeglasses—then head movement results in image motion on the retina, resulting in blurred vision. Under such conditions,
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After some time, the density of cupula and endolymph equalizes, removing the nystagmus effect. After ethanol is fully metabolized, the cupula returns to normal density first, creating nystagmus in the opposite direction (PAN II) during the
239:
in the brainstem. From this nuclei excitatory fibres cross to the left abducens nucleus. There they project and stimulate the lateral rectus of the left eye via the abducens nerve. In addition, by the medial longitudinal fasciculus and
458:
619:, phase I (PAN I). The unusual vestibular stimulation also caused motion sickness symptoms: illusions of bodily rotations, dizziness, and nausea. These symptoms subside in a few seconds after assuming an upright posture.
1972:
Kelders, W P A ; Kleinrensink; G J , van der Geest, J N ; Feenstra, L ; de Zeeuw, C I ; Frens, M. (November 2003). Compensatory increase of the cervico-ocular reflex with age in healthy humans.
761:(compensatory eye movement in the absence of head motion) by pouring cold or warm water into the ear. Also available is bi-thermal air caloric irrigations, in which warm and cool air is administered into the ear.
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who habitually wear positive spectacle have higher VOR gain. People who habitually wear contact lens show no change in VOR gain. Monocular, disconjugate adaptation of the VOR is possible, for example, after
306:
99:
In lower animals, the organs that coordinate balance and movement are not independent from eye movement. A fish, for instance, moves its eyes by reflex when its tail is moved. Humans have
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of the same side. In addition there are inhibitory vestibular pathways to the ipsilateral abducens nucleus. However no direct vestibular neuron to medial rectus motoneuron pathway exists.
768:; this plays an important part in confirming diagnosis of brainstem death. A code of practice must be followed in this process, namely that of the Academy of Medical Royal Colleges.
231:
For instance, if the head is turned clockwise as seen from above, then excitatory impulses are sent from the semicircular canal on the right side via the vestibular nerve through
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of the eye is negligible, as individuals wearing weighted contact lens that increases the rotational moment of inertia almost 100-fold still has the same VOR (p. 94 ).
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Furthermore, some neurons from the right vestibular nucleus directly stimulate the right medial rectus motor neurons, and inhibits the right abducens nucleus.
529:. This results in eye movements that lag head movement by less than 10 ms. The vestibulo-ocular reflex is one of the fastest reflexes in the human body.
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of slightly below 1, and adaptation occurs by adjusting the gain of the feedback circuit. The hypothesis is tested by using an specially patterned
634:(1.1 density of water) consumption has the exact opposite nystagmus effect compared to ethanol consumption. Consuming a mixture of heavy water (
1135:
Crawford JD, Cadera W, Vilis T (June 1991). "Generation of torsional and vertical eye position signals by the interstitial nucleus of Cajal".
92:, where the vestibular system sits, and works even in total darkness or when the eyes are closed. However, in the presence of light, the
1824:"The Video Head Impulse Test (vHIT) of Semicircular Canal Function – Age-Dependent Normative Values of VOR Gain in Healthy Subjects"
587:
a fixation target, it would drift even further to the left, and similarly for the right. It is also accompanied by nausea. (p. 84 )
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detect head translation and drive the translational component. The signal for the horizontal rotational component travels via the
111:
visual fixation point is maintained by rotating gaze direction in the opposite direction, by an amount that depends on distance.
17:
1100:
Cannon SC, Robinson DA (May 1987). "Loss of the neural integrator of the oculomotor system from brain stem lesions in monkey".
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1736:
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1417:"The interaction of visual, vestibular and extra-retinal mechanisms in the control of head and gaze during head-free pursuit"
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892:"Sensory Reception: Human Vision: Structure and function of the Human Eye" vol. 27, p. 179 Encyclopædia Britannica, 1987
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of the opposite side of the brain. Here, fibres synapse with 2 additional pathways. One pathway projects directly to the
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on one side and an excitatory signal to the muscles on the other side. The result is a compensatory movement of the eyes.
1802:
Neuro-Ophthalmology
Virtual Education Library (NOVEL): Daniel Gold Collection. Spencer S. Eccles Health Sciences Library
258:
1014:
Angelaki DE (July 2004). "Eyes on target: what neurons must do for the vestibuloocular reflex during linear motion".
1715:"Positional nystagmus/vertigo with specific gravity differential between cupula and endolymph (buoyancy hypothesis)"
255:
The VOR is controlled by a neural integrator. The neuron from each horizontal semicircular canal fires at a rate of
2083:
2033:
1758:
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in the midbrain. The same neural integrators also generate eye position for other conjugate eye movements such as
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adjusts the gain of the VOR to produce more accurate eye motion. This is what is referred to as VOR adaptation.
244:, they activate the medial rectus muscles on the right eye. As a result, both eyes will turn counter-clockwise.
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1962:
182:
159:
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The vestibulo-ocular reflex. A rotation of the head is detected, which triggers an inhibitory signal to the
847:
616:
598:
952:
Crawford JD, Vilis T (March 1991). "Axes of eye rotation and
Listing's law during rotations of the head".
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is its horizontal angular speed. The two terms account for the elasticity and viscosity of ocular tissue.
126:
The vestibulo-ocular reflex is driven by signals arising from the vestibular system of the inner ear. The
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637:
96:
is also added to the movement. Most features of VOR are present in kittens raised in complete darkness.
1961:
Schubert, Michael C. (December 2010) "The cervico-ocular reflex". Handbook of
Clinical Neurophysiology.
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483:
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eye movement. This test can provide site-specific information on vestibular system and its function.
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Nearsighted people who habitually wear negative spectacles have lower VOR gain. Farsighted people or
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88:
The VOR does not depend on what is seen. It can also be activated by hot or cold stimulation of the
1057:
Straka H, Dieringer N (July 2004). "Basic organization principles of the VOR: lessons from frogs".
1538:"Short-term adaptation of the phase of the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) in normal human subjects"
1491:"Short-term adaptation of the phase of the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) in normal human subjects"
817: – classical conditioning involving pairing of a stimulus with an eyeblink-eliciting stimulus
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of the eye via the abducens nerve. Another nerve tract projects from the abducens nucleus by the
1986:
311:
2167:
2108:
1577:"Effect of ethanol on visual-vestibular interactions during vertical linear body acceleration"
823:
814:
758:
463:
1235:"Role of neural integrators in oculomotor systems: a systematic narrative literature review"
782:(VOR). It is conspicuous in certain animals that cannot move their eyes much, such as owls.
453:{\displaystyle (4\;\mathrm {Hz/deg} )\theta +(1.0\;\mathrm {Hz/(deg/sec)} ){\dot {\theta }}}
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232:
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Another pathway (not in picture) directly projects from the vestibular nucleus through the
8:
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McGarvie LA, MacDougall HG, Halmagyi GM, Burgess AM, Weber KP, Curthoys IS (2015-07-08).
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1668:"MAN IN MOTION: HISTORICAL AND CLINICAL ASPECTS OF VESTIBULAR FUNCTION: A REVIEW"
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1468:. Contemporary neurology series (Ed. 2 ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Co.
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1879:, Handbook of Clinical Neurology, vol. 137, Elsevier, pp. 119–131,
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Similar pathways exist for the vertical and torsional components of the VOR.
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811: – Structure at the rear of the vertebrate brain, beneath the cerebrum
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2010:
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is the sensed horizontal angular velocity of the semicircular canal. The
27:
Reflex where rotation of the head causes eye movement to stabilize vision
1332:
Microcosms of the brain: what sensorimotor systems reveal about the mind
904:"Development of vestibulo-ocular responses in visually deprived kittens"
2319:
1553:
1506:
919:
835: – Type of eye movement used for closely following a moving object
808:
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detect head rotation and provide the rotational component, whereas the
1250:
603:
2045:
1636:
1537:
903:
147:
89:
82:
901:
68:, it is also known as the Cervico-ocular reflex. The reflex acts to
2367:
719:
624:
902:
Berthoz A, Jeannerod M, Vital-Durand F, Oliveras JL (1975-10-01).
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611:
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209:
131:
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The vestibulo-ocular reflex can be tested by the aforementioned
2092:
73:
53:
722:(1.26 density of water), have similar effects as heavy water.
1927:
Continuing
Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain
567:
1354:
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that drive eye muscle activity, specifically activating the
2061:
1757:
Rietz R, Troia BW, Yonkers AJ, Norris TW (September 1987).
1991:
341:
commanding the horizontal eye muscles fires at a rate of
77:
1759:"Glycerol-induced Positional Nystagmus in Human Beings"
1756:
837:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
828:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
988:"VOR (Slow and Fast) | NOVEL – Daniel Gold Collection"
607:
Orientation of three semicircular canals in the head.
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486:
466:
347:
314:
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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
819:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
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1334:. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.
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1535:
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472:
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329:
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1574:
301:{\displaystyle (90+0.4{\dot {H}})\;\mathrm {Hz} }
2412:
2030:(vHIT) Site with thorough information about vHIT
2052:Depiction of Oculocephalic and Caloric reflexes
1872:
1056:
1621:"Heavy water nystagmus and effects of alcohol"
1581:Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research
1575:Schmäl F, Thiede O, Stoll W (September 2003).
1414:
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1009:
1007:
947:
945:
2077:
1536:Kramer PD, Shelhamer M, Zee DS (1995-01-01).
1128:
951:
753:Another way of testing the VOR response is a
1984:
1721:, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 285–289,
250:
103:, neck muscle "stretch" receptors, and the
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1938:
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150:. From these nuclei, fibers cross to the
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118:
31:
14:
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1614:
1612:
1610:
1489:Kramer P, Shelhamer M, Zee D (1995).
1329:
1325:
1323:
573:The phase of the VOR can also adapt.
480:is the horizontal turning angle, and
166:of the opposite side, which contains
1763:Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery
1619:Money KE, Myles WS (February 1974).
1415:Ackerley R, Barnes GR (April 2011).
888:
886:
2057:Videos of animals demonstrating VOR
1719:Vertigo: Its Multisensory Syndromes
1298:10.1146/annurev.ne.12.030189.000341
1204:10.1146/annurev.ne.12.030189.000341
826: – Dysfunction of eye movement
707:{\displaystyle 2\;\mathrm {ml/kg} }
667:{\displaystyle 4\;\mathrm {ml/kg} }
24:
2048:– "Vestibuloocular Reflex Testing"
1987:"The vestibular system of the owl"
1885:10.1016/b978-0-444-63437-5.00009-1
1607:
1593:10.1097/01.ALC.0000087085.98504.8C
1320:
714:) largely cancels out the effect.
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25:
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2034:Motor Learning in the VOR in Mice
2028:(Video) Head Impulse Testing site
2021:
1713:Brandt T (2003), Brandt T (ed.),
1233:Sanchez K, Rowe FJ (March 2018).
883:
738:This reflex can be tested by the
1985:Money K, Correia M (June 1972).
1795:
792:
771:
757:, which is an attempt to induce
502:{\displaystyle {\dot {\theta }}}
1978:
1966:
1955:
1921:Oram J, Murphy P (2011-06-01).
1914:
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1815:
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1706:
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1408:
1384:
1348:
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1226:
1179:
1071:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.05.003
1873:Shepard N, Jacobson G (2016),
1466:The neurology of eye movements
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980:
895:
865:
435:
431:
405:
386:
377:
348:
286:
262:
160:medial longitudinal fasciculus
13:
1:
2400:Symmetrical tonic neck reflex
1286:Annual Review of Neuroscience
1192:Annual Review of Neuroscience
877:www.dizziness-and-balance.com
858:
850: – neurological disorder
206:interstitial nucleus of Cajal
2091:
2003:10.1016/0300-9629(72)90116-8
1728:10.1007/978-1-4757-3801-8_17
1433:10.1113/jphysiol.2010.199471
848:Vestibulocerebellar syndrome
617:positional alcohol nystagmus
599:Positional alcohol nystagmus
7:
1876:The caloric irrigation test
1542:Experimental Brain Research
1495:Experimental Brain Research
908:Experimental Brain Research
785:
183:ascending tract of Deiter's
114:
60:during head movement, with
10:
2442:
1775:10.1177/019459988709700306
1358:Journal of Neurophysiology
1282:"Integrating with Neurons"
1280:Robinson DA (March 1989).
1188:"Integrating with Neurons"
1186:Robinson DA (March 1989).
1102:Journal of Neurophysiology
1016:Journal of Neurophysiology
954:Journal of Neurophysiology
733:
596:
330:{\displaystyle {\dot {H}}}
226:
2350:
2282:
2261:
2203:
2150:
2099:
1464:Leigh RJ, Zee DS (1991).
1421:The Journal of Physiology
1370:10.1152/jn.1996.76.6.4021
1114:10.1152/jn.1987.57.5.1383
251:Integrated neural control
64:due to activation of the
1940:10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkr008
1841:10.3389/fneur.2015.00154
1684:10.1093/brain/114.5.2159
1059:Progress in Neurobiology
992:collections.lib.utah.edu
966:10.1152/jn.1991.65.3.407
519:
2393:Crossed extensor reflex
2142:Pharyngeal (gag) reflex
2133:Vestibulo-ocular reflex
1157:10.1126/science.2047862
740:rapid head impulse test
576:
541:
473:{\displaystyle \theta }
174:of the eye through the
56:that acts to stabilize
46:vestibulo-ocular reflex
18:Vestibulo-ocular reflex
2168:Brachioradialis reflex
2109:Pupillary light reflex
1828:Frontiers in Neurology
873:"Vestibular nystagmus"
744:Halmagyi–Curthoys test
708:
668:
608:
503:
474:
454:
331:
302:
123:
41:
2340:Churchill–Cope reflex
2295:Bezold–Jarisch reflex
1798:"VOR (Slow and Fast)"
1028:10.1152/jn.00047.2004
815:Eyeblink conditioning
777:Cervico-ocular reflex
729:Clinical significance
709:
669:
606:
591:Disruption by ethanol
504:
475:
455:
332:
303:
235:and end in the right
199:Oculomotor integrator
156:lateral rectus muscle
122:
35:
2262:Superficial reflexes
2137:Oculocephalic reflex
2114:Accommodation reflex
1923:"Diagnosis of death"
1239:Acta Ophthalmologica
844: – Eye movement
678:
638:
484:
464:
345:
312:
259:
187:medial rectus muscle
172:medial rectus muscle
2373:Golgi tendon reflex
2315:Oculocardiac reflex
2129:Caloric reflex test
1149:1991Sci...252.1551C
766:caloric reflex test
755:caloric reflex test
140:vestibular ganglion
128:semicircular canals
101:semicircular canals
38:extraocular muscles
2330:Reflex tachycardia
2325:Reflex bradycardia
2274:Cremasteric reflex
2205:Primitive reflexes
1554:10.1007/BF00241127
1507:10.1007/BF00241127
920:10.1007/BF00238024
716:Macroglobulinaemia
704:
664:
609:
565:extraocular muscle
499:
470:
450:
327:
298:
219:The integrator is
164:oculomotor nucleus
124:
42:
2408:
2407:
2388:Withdrawal reflex
2290:Bainbridge reflex
2188:Ankle jerk reflex
1894:978-0-444-63437-5
1738:978-1-4757-3801-8
1666:Brandt T (1991).
1631:(5440): 404–405.
1475:978-0-8036-5528-7
1427:(Pt 7): 1627–42.
1341:978-0-19-850735-2
1251:10.1111/aos.13307
514:moment of inertia
496:
447:
324:
283:
242:oculomotor nuclei
237:vestibular nuclei
233:Scarpa's ganglion
144:vestibular nuclei
66:vestibular system
16:(Redirected from
2433:
2383:Startle response
2358:List of reflexes
2269:Abdominal reflex
2152:Stretch reflexes
2086:
2079:
2072:
2063:
2062:
2015:
2014:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1942:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1870:
1864:
1863:
1853:
1843:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1745:
1730:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1678:(5): 2159–2174.
1663:
1657:
1656:
1637:10.1038/247404a0
1616:
1605:
1604:
1572:
1566:
1565:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1444:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1402:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1330:Tweed D (2003).
1327:
1318:
1317:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1245:(2): e111–e118.
1230:
1224:
1223:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1143:(5012): 1551–3.
1132:
1126:
1125:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1011:
1002:
1001:
999:
998:
984:
978:
977:
949:
940:
939:
899:
893:
890:
881:
880:
869:
853:
838:
833:Pursuit movement
829:
820:
802:
797:
796:
795:
713:
711:
710:
705:
703:
696:
673:
671:
670:
665:
663:
656:
584:optokinetic drum
527:three neuron arc
508:
506:
505:
500:
498:
497:
489:
479:
477:
476:
471:
459:
457:
456:
451:
449:
448:
440:
434:
421:
404:
376:
366:
336:
334:
333:
328:
326:
325:
317:
307:
305:
304:
299:
297:
285:
284:
276:
176:oculomotor nerve
152:abducens nucleus
136:vestibular nerve
70:stabilize images
21:
2441:
2440:
2436:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2411:
2410:
2409:
2404:
2363:Acoustic reflex
2346:
2300:Coronary reflex
2278:
2257:
2199:
2183:Patellar reflex
2146:
2119:Jaw jerk reflex
2095:
2090:
2036:at edboyden.org
2024:
2019:
2018:
1983:
1979:
1971:
1967:
1960:
1956:
1919:
1915:
1907:
1905:
1895:
1871:
1867:
1820:
1816:
1806:
1804:
1794:
1790:
1755:
1751:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1711:
1707:
1664:
1660:
1617:
1608:
1573:
1569:
1534:
1530:
1487:
1483:
1476:
1462:
1458:
1413:
1409:
1400:
1398:
1396:psycnet.apa.org
1390:
1389:
1385:
1353:
1349:
1342:
1328:
1321:
1278:
1274:
1231:
1227:
1184:
1180:
1133:
1129:
1108:(5): 1383–409.
1098:
1094:
1055:
1051:
1012:
1005:
996:
994:
986:
985:
981:
950:
943:
900:
896:
891:
884:
871:
870:
866:
861:
856:
851:
836:
827:
818:
800:Medicine portal
798:
793:
791:
788:
779:
774:
736:
731:
725:
718:, or consuming
692:
685:
679:
676:
675:
674:) and ethanol (
652:
645:
639:
636:
635:
601:
593:
579:
544:
535:
533:VOR suppression
522:
512:The rotational
488:
487:
485:
482:
481:
465:
462:
461:
439:
438:
417:
400:
393:
362:
355:
346:
343:
342:
316:
315:
313:
310:
309:
290:
275:
274:
260:
257:
256:
253:
229:
201:
142:and end in the
117:
94:fixation reflex
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2439:
2429:
2428:
2423:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2402:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2354:
2352:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2327:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2305:Cushing reflex
2302:
2297:
2292:
2286:
2284:
2283:Cardiovascular
2280:
2279:
2277:
2276:
2271:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2209:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2193:Plantar reflex
2190:
2185:
2177:
2176:
2175:
2173:Triceps reflex
2170:
2165:
2156:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2144:
2139:
2126:
2124:Corneal reflex
2121:
2116:
2111:
2105:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2089:
2088:
2081:
2074:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2037:
2031:
2023:
2022:External links
2020:
2017:
2016:
1997:(2): 353–358.
1977:
1965:
1954:
1913:
1893:
1865:
1814:
1788:
1769:(3): 282–287.
1749:
1737:
1705:
1658:
1606:
1567:
1548:(2): 318–326.
1528:
1501:(2): 318–326.
1481:
1474:
1456:
1407:
1383:
1364:(6): 4021–30.
1347:
1340:
1319:
1272:
1225:
1178:
1127:
1092:
1065:(4): 259–309.
1049:
1003:
979:
941:
914:(4): 425–442.
894:
882:
863:
862:
860:
857:
855:
854:
845:
839:
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821:
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804:
803:
787:
784:
778:
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732:
730:
727:
702:
699:
695:
691:
688:
683:
662:
659:
655:
651:
648:
643:
630:As predicted,
597:Main article:
592:
589:
578:
575:
553:motor learning
543:
540:
534:
531:
521:
518:
495:
492:
469:
446:
443:
437:
433:
430:
427:
424:
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416:
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391:
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323:
320:
296:
293:
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279:
273:
270:
267:
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252:
249:
228:
225:
214:smooth pursuit
200:
197:
116:
113:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2438:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
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2401:
2398:
2394:
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2356:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2322:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2310:Diving reflex
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2275:
2272:
2270:
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2254:
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2221:
2219:
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2214:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2163:Biceps reflex
2161:
2160:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2149:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2101:Cranial nerve
2098:
2094:
2087:
2082:
2080:
2075:
2073:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2047:
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2042:
2038:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1975:
1969:
1963:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1917:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1877:
1869:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1803:
1799:
1792:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1753:
1740:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1709:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1662:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1587:(9): 1520–6.
1586:
1582:
1578:
1571:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1532:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
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1496:
1492:
1485:
1477:
1471:
1467:
1460:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1397:
1393:
1387:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1351:
1343:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1324:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1229:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1182:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1096:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1053:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1010:
1008:
993:
989:
983:
975:
971:
967:
963:
960:(3): 407–23.
959:
955:
948:
946:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
898:
889:
887:
878:
874:
868:
864:
849:
846:
843:
840:
834:
831:
825:
822:
816:
813:
810:
807:
806:
801:
790:
783:
772:Related terms
769:
767:
762:
760:
756:
751:
747:
745:
741:
726:
723:
721:
717:
693:
681:
653:
641:
633:
628:
626:
620:
618:
613:
605:
600:
595:
588:
585:
574:
571:
569:
566:
561:
556:
554:
548:
539:
530:
528:
517:
515:
510:
493:
490:
467:
444:
441:
418:
401:
389:
383:
380:
363:
351:
340:
321:
318:
280:
277:
271:
268:
265:
248:
245:
243:
238:
234:
224:
222:
217:
215:
211:
207:
196:
193:
191:
188:
184:
179:
177:
173:
169:
168:motor neurons
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
121:
112:
108:
106:
102:
97:
95:
91:
86:
84:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
39:
34:
30:
19:
2336:Respiratory
2039:
1994:
1990:
1980:
1968:
1957:
1933:(3): 77–81.
1930:
1926:
1916:
1906:, retrieved
1875:
1868:
1831:
1827:
1817:
1805:. Retrieved
1801:
1791:
1766:
1762:
1752:
1742:, retrieved
1718:
1708:
1675:
1671:
1661:
1628:
1624:
1584:
1580:
1570:
1545:
1541:
1531:
1498:
1494:
1484:
1465:
1459:
1424:
1420:
1410:
1399:. Retrieved
1395:
1386:
1361:
1357:
1356:occlusion".
1350:
1331:
1292:(1): 33–45.
1289:
1285:
1275:
1242:
1238:
1228:
1198:(1): 33–45.
1195:
1191:
1181:
1140:
1136:
1130:
1105:
1101:
1095:
1062:
1058:
1052:
1022:(1): 20–35.
1019:
1015:
995:. Retrieved
991:
982:
957:
953:
911:
907:
897:
876:
867:
780:
763:
752:
748:
743:
739:
737:
724:
629:
621:
610:
594:
580:
572:
557:
549:
545:
536:
526:
523:
511:
254:
246:
230:
218:
202:
194:
190:motor neuron
180:
138:through the
125:
109:
98:
87:
62:eye movement
49:
45:
43:
29:
2378:Optokinetic
2218:Gastrocolic
1807:20 November
632:heavy water
570:. (p. 27 )
2415:Categories
2320:Baroreflex
2248:Tonic neck
1908:2024-07-06
1744:2024-07-06
1401:2018-05-15
997:2019-10-03
859:References
809:Cerebellum
339:motoneuron
2253:Parachute
2046:eMedicine
1949:1743-1816
1783:0194-5998
1692:0006-8950
1645:1476-4687
1562:1432-1106
1515:0014-4819
1392:"PsycNET"
1306:0147-006X
1259:1755-375X
1212:0147-006X
928:1432-1106
824:Nystagmus
759:nystagmus
494:˙
491:θ
468:θ
445:˙
442:θ
381:θ
322:˙
281:˙
148:brainstem
90:inner ear
83:nystagmus
2421:Reflexes
2368:H-reflex
2238:Stepping
2093:Reflexes
1903:27638067
1860:26217301
1796:Gold D.
1601:14506414
1451:21300755
1267:27874249
1173:15724175
1087:38651254
1079:15261395
1044:15755814
1036:15212435
786:See also
720:glycerol
625:hangover
460:, where
308:, where
210:saccades
132:otoliths
115:Function
2243:Sucking
2233:Rooting
2041:ent/482
2011:4404369
1851:4495346
1834:: 154.
1700:1933240
1653:4544739
1523:8566196
1442:3099020
1378:8985897
1314:2648952
1220:2648952
1165:2047862
1145:Bibcode
1137:Science
1122:3585473
974:2051188
936:1183513
842:Saccade
734:Testing
612:Ethanol
560:aphakes
227:Example
185:to the
162:to the
146:in the
105:utricle
76:of the
74:retinas
72:on the
52:) is a
2426:Vision
2213:Galant
2009:
1947:
1901:
1891:
1858:
1848:
1781:
1735:
1698:
1690:
1651:
1643:
1625:Nature
1599:
1560:
1521:
1513:
1472:
1449:
1439:
1376:
1338:
1312:
1304:
1265:
1257:
1218:
1210:
1171:
1163:
1120:
1085:
1077:
1042:
1034:
972:
934:
926:
54:reflex
2351:Other
2223:Grasp
1672:Brain
1169:S2CID
1083:S2CID
1040:S2CID
568:palsy
520:Speed
221:leaky
2228:Moro
2179:Leg
2159:Arm
2007:PMID
1945:ISSN
1899:PMID
1889:ISBN
1856:PMID
1809:2019
1779:ISSN
1733:ISBN
1696:PMID
1688:ISSN
1649:PMID
1641:ISSN
1597:PMID
1558:ISSN
1519:PMID
1511:ISSN
1470:ISBN
1447:PMID
1374:PMID
1336:ISBN
1310:PMID
1302:ISSN
1263:PMID
1255:ISSN
1216:PMID
1208:ISSN
1161:PMID
1118:PMID
1075:PMID
1032:PMID
970:PMID
932:PMID
924:ISSN
577:Leak
542:Gain
212:and
58:gaze
44:The
2044:at
1999:doi
1935:doi
1881:doi
1846:PMC
1836:doi
1771:doi
1723:doi
1680:doi
1676:114
1633:doi
1629:247
1589:doi
1550:doi
1546:106
1503:doi
1499:106
1437:PMC
1429:doi
1425:589
1366:doi
1294:doi
1247:doi
1200:doi
1153:doi
1141:252
1110:doi
1067:doi
1024:doi
962:doi
916:doi
742:or
390:1.0
272:0.4
78:eye
50:VOR
2417::
2005:.
1995:42
1993:.
1989:.
1943:.
1931:11
1929:.
1925:.
1897:,
1887:,
1854:.
1844:.
1830:.
1826:.
1800:.
1777:.
1767:97
1765:.
1761:.
1731:,
1717:,
1694:.
1686:.
1674:.
1670:.
1647:.
1639:.
1627:.
1623:.
1609:^
1595:.
1585:27
1583:.
1579:.
1556:.
1544:.
1540:.
1517:.
1509:.
1497:.
1493:.
1445:.
1435:.
1423:.
1419:.
1394:.
1372:.
1362:76
1360:.
1322:^
1308:.
1300:.
1290:12
1288:.
1284:.
1261:.
1253:.
1243:96
1241:.
1237:.
1214:.
1206:.
1196:12
1194:.
1190:.
1167:.
1159:.
1151:.
1139:.
1116:.
1106:57
1104:.
1081:.
1073:.
1063:73
1061:.
1038:.
1030:.
1020:92
1018:.
1006:^
990:.
968:.
958:65
956:.
944:^
930:.
922:.
912:23
910:.
906:.
885:^
875:.
627:.
266:90
216:.
178:.
85:.
2135:/
2131:/
2085:e
2078:t
2071:v
2013:.
2001::
1951:.
1937::
1883::
1862:.
1838::
1832:6
1811:.
1785:.
1773::
1725::
1702:.
1682::
1655:.
1635::
1603:.
1591::
1564:.
1552::
1525:.
1505::
1478:.
1453:.
1431::
1404:.
1380:.
1368::
1344:.
1316:.
1296::
1269:.
1249::
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