490:
27:
1331:, to become an ophthalmologist, three years of postgraduate study is required after completing an MBBS degree. The postgraduate degree in ophthalmology is called medical doctor in ophthalmology. Currently, this degree is provided by Tilganga Institute of Ophthalmology, Tilganga, Kathmandu, BPKLCO, Institute of Medicine, TU, Kathmandu, BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, and National Academy of Medical Science, Kathmandu. A few Nepalese citizens also study this subject in Bangladesh, China, India, Pakistan, and other countries. All graduates have to pass the Nepal Medical Council Licensing Exam to become a registered ophthalmologists in Nepal. The concurrent residency training is in the form of a PG student (resident) at a medical college, eye hospital, or institution according to the degree providing university's rules and regulations. Nepal Ophthalmic Society holds regular conferences and actively promotes continuing medical education.
1497:
1443:
state-standard
Philippine Board of Ophthalmology (PBO) regulates ophthalmology residency programs and board certification. To become a general ophthalmologist in the Philippines, a candidate must have completed a doctor of medicine degree (MD) or its equivalent (e.g. MBBS), have completed an internship in Medicine, have passed the physician licensure exam, and have completed residency training at a hospital accredited by the Philippine Board of Ophthalmology (accrediting arm of PAO). Attainment of board certification in ophthalmology from the PBO is essential in acquiring privileges in most major health institutions. Graduates of residency programs can receive further training in ophthalmology subspecialties, such as neuro-ophthalmology, retina, etc. by completing a fellowship program that varies in length depending on each program's requirements.
1607:(1828–1870) (Germany) probably the most important ophthalmologist of the nineteenth century, along with Helmholtz and Donders, one of the 'founding fathers' of ophthalmology as a specialty, he was a brilliant clinician and charismatic teacher who had an international influence on the development of ophthalmology, and was a pioneer in mapping visual field defects and diagnosis and treatment of glaucoma, and he introduced a cataract extraction technique that remained the standard for more than 100 years, and many other important surgical techniques such as iridectomy. He rationalised the use of many ophthalmically important drugs, including mydriatics and miotics; he also was the founder of one of the earliest ophthalmic societies (German Ophthalmological Society, 1857) and one of the earliest ophthalmic journals (
1031:
1319:, after completing MBBS degree, postgraduate study in ophthalmology is required. The degrees are doctor of medicine, master of surgery, diploma in ophthalmic medicine and surgery, and diplomate of national board. The concurrent training and work experience are in the form of a junior residency at a medical college, eye hospital, or institution under the supervision of experienced faculty. Further work experience in the form of fellowship, registrar, or senior resident refines the skills of these eye surgeons. All members of the India Ophthalmologist Society and various state-level ophthalmologist societies hold regular conferences and actively promote continuing medical education.
501:
1410:, after MBBS, a four-year full-time residency program leads to an exit-level FCPS examination in ophthalmology, held under the auspices of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Pakistan. The tough examination is assessed by both highly qualified Pakistani and eminent international ophthalmic consultants. As a prerequisite to the final examinations, an intermediate module, an optics and refraction module, and a dissertation written on a research project carried out under supervision is also assessed.
4212:
1632:
4242:
1596:
4252:
4232:
4222:
982:
721:
1242:, the FRACO or FRANZCO is the equivalent postgraduate specialist qualification. The structured training system takes place over five years of postgraduate training. Overseas-trained ophthalmologists are assessed using the pathway published on the RANZCO website. Those who have completed their formal training in the UK and have the CCST or CCT, usually are deemed to be comparable.
738:, also known as ocular surgery, is surgery performed on the eye or its adnexa by an ophthalmologist. The eye is a fragile organ, and requires extreme care before, during, and after a surgical procedure. An eye surgeon is responsible for selecting the appropriate surgical procedure for the patient and for taking the necessary safety precautions.
1303:. Approximately 35 vacancies open per year for ophthalmology residency training in all of Canada. These numbers fluctuate per year, ranging from 30 to 37 spots. Of these, up to ten spots are at French-speaking universities in Quebec. At the end of the five years, the graduating ophthalmologist must pass the oral and written portions of the
1801:(1906–2001) (United Kingdom), in 1949, may have been the first to successfully implant an artificial intraocular lens after observing that plastic fragments in the eyes of wartime pilots were well tolerated; he fought for decades against strong reactionary opinions to have the concept accepted as feasible and useful.
1538:(1812–1887), the elder (Austrian), proved that myopia is largely due to an excessive axial length, published influential textbooks on eye disease, and ran annual eye clinics in needy areas long before the concept of volunteer eye camps became popular; his name is still attached to some disease signs, e.g., von
1813:(1912–2006) (Belgium) was the "father of modern retinal surgery" and developer of the Schepens indirect binocular ophthalmoscope whilst at Moorfields Eye Hospital; he was the founder of the Schepens Eye Research Institute, associated with Harvard Medical School and the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, in
1504:
Ophthalmologists typically complete four years of undergraduate studies, four years of medical school and four years of eye-specific training (residency). Some pursue additional training, known as a fellowship - typically one to two years. Ophthalmologists are physicians who specialize in the eye and
891:
advanced such ideas with empiricism. He dissected the eyes of animals, and discovering three layers (not two), found that the fluid was of a constant consistency with the lens forming (or congealing) after death, and the surrounding layers were seen to be juxtaposed. He and his contemporaries further
357:
specific to that field. This may include a one-year integrated internship that involves more general medical training in other fields such as internal medicine or general surgery. Following residency, additional specialty training (or fellowship) may be sought in a particular aspect of eye pathology.
361:
Ophthalmologists prescribe medications to treat ailments, such as eye diseases, implement laser therapy, and perform surgery when needed. Ophthalmologists provide both primary and specialty eye care—medical and surgical. Most ophthalmologists participate in academic research on eye diseases at some
989:
Medieval
Islamic Arabic and Persian scientists (unlike their classical predecessors) considered it normal to combine theory and practice, including the crafting of precise instruments, and therefore, found it natural to combine the study of the eye with the practical application of that knowledge.
932:
was then discovered and the sclera, retina, choroid, and cornea were seen to meet at the same point. The two chambers were seen to hold the same fluid, as well as the lens being attached to the choroid. Galen continued the notion of a central canal, but he dissected the optic nerve and saw that it
1353:
grants membership (MRCSI (Ophth)) and fellowship (FRCSI (Ophth)) qualifications in conjunction with the Irish
College of Ophthalmologists. Total postgraduate training involves an intern year, a minimum of three years of basic surgical training, and a further 4.5 years of higher surgical training.
578:
is a medical technological platform used to assess ocular structures. The information is then used by physicians to assess staging of pathological processes and confirm clinical diagnoses. Subsequent OCT scans are used to assess the efficacy of managing diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular
1442:
In the
Philippines, Ophthalmology is considered a medical specialty that uses medicine and surgery to treat diseases of the eye. There is only one professional organization in the country that is duly recognized by the PMA and the PCS: the Philippine Academy of Ophthalmology (PAO). PAO and the
1417:
The M.S. in ophthalmology is also one of the specialty programs. In addition to programs for physicians, various diplomas and degrees for allied eyecare personnel are also being offered to produce competent optometrists, orthoptists, ophthalmic nurses, ophthalmic technologists, and ophthalmic
1413:
Moreover, a two-and-a-half-year residency program leads to an MCPS while a two-year training of DOMS is also being offered. For candidates in the military, a stringent two-year graded course, with quarterly assessments, is held under Armed Forces Post
Graduate Medical Institute in Rawalpindi.
1267:, after medical school an ophthalmology residency is undertaken. The residency typically lasts five years, which culminates in fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons of Canada (FRCSC). Subspecialty training is undertaken by approximately 30% of fellows (FRCSC) in a variety of fields from
1254:
to be an ophthalmologist the basic degree is an MBBS. Then they have to obtain a postgraduate degree or diploma in an ophthalmology specialty. In
Bangladesh, these are diploma in ophthalmology, diploma in community ophthalmology, fellow or member of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in
26:
855:, "study, discourse"), i.e., "the study of eyes". The discipline applies to all animal eyes, whether human or not, since the practice and procedures are quite similar with respect to disease processes, although there are differences in the anatomy or disease prevalence.
1165:
In 1946, Igersheimer conducted the first experiments on light coagulation. In 1949, he performed the first successful treatment of a retinal detachment with a light beam (light coagulation) with a self-constructed device on the roof of the ophthalmic clinic at the
903:, extending as a fourth epithelial layer over the eye. Rufus was the first to recognise a two-chambered eye, with one chamber from cornea to lens (filled with water), the other from lens to retina (filled with a substance resembling egg whites).
1827:(1915–2005) (Canada) was Canadian Standards Association and a sport safety advocate to prevent eye injuries and spinal cord injuries, developed safer sports equipment, named to the Order of Canada, inducted into Canada's Sport Hall of Fame.
645:) is a technique for measuring the corneo-retinal standing potential that exists between the front and the back of the human eye. The resulting signal is called the electrooculogram. Primary applications are in ophthalmological
2499:
Agarwal, R.K. (1965), Ancient Indian
Ophthalmology, The Ophthalmic Optician, 5(21),1093–1100 (the title of this journal was changed to Optometry Today in 1985), published by the Association of Optometrists, London,
1591:"chirurgien oculiste of the lycees, the civil hospices and all the charitable institutions of the departments of the Empire", and he also was known for his free interventions, mainly in favour of poor people
362:
point in their training and many include research as part of their career. Ophthalmology has always been at the forefront of medical research with a long history of advancement and innovation in eye care.
1062:. This allowed for detailed study of the eye and an advanced model. Some mistakes persisted, such as: why the pupil changed size (seen to be vessels of the iris filling with blood), the existence of the
1220:/DOMS/DNB, who typically complete an undergraduate degree, general medical school, followed by a residency in ophthalmology. Ophthalmologists typically perform optical, medical and surgical eye care.
489:
1505:
related structures. They perform medical and surgical eye care and may also write prescriptions for corrective lenses. They often manage late stage eye disease, which typically involves surgery.
959:
in approximately the sixth century BC, which describes 76 ocular diseases (of these, 51 surgical) as well as several ophthalmological surgical instruments and techniques. His description of
883:. They recognized the sclera and transparent cornea running flushly as the outer coating of the eye, with an inner layer with pupil, and a fluid at the centre. It was believed, by
994:, and others beginning with the medieval Arabic period, taught that the crystalline lens is in the exact center of the eye. This idea was propagated until the end of the 1500s.
1229:
1729:(1875–1956) (Russia) contributed the tube flap grafting method, corneal transplantation, and preservation of grafts from cadaver eyes and tissue therapy; he founded the
3372:
920:(second century AD) remedied some mistaken descriptions, including about the curvature of the cornea and lens, the nature of the optic nerve, and the existence of a
1807:(1900-1989) (Pakistan), was the "father of medical services" in Pakistan and distinguished ophthalmologist widely recognized as an expert in the field of eye care.
1111:
of Great
Britain in 1772. His skill at removing cataracts legitimized the field. The first dedicated ophthalmic hospital opened in 1805 in London; it is now called
2206:
83:
2297:
3269:
2408:
1945:
1930:
1730:
2115:
1464:
1419:
1532:(1840–1917) discovered Leber's congenital amaurosis, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, Leber's miliary aneurysm, and Leber's stellate neuroretinitis
2327:
1699:
in 1829, entirely as a philanthropic endeavor; later he was appointed as the first director of the ophthalmology department at the Grand
Hospital of
2176:
1180:
Zofia
Falkowska (1915–93) head of the Faculty and Clinic of Ophthalmology in Warsaw from 1963 to 1976, was the first to use lasers in her practice.
2527:
1084:(1763–1821) was an Austrian ophthalmologist and leader of the First Viennese School of Medicine. He introduced a flap operation for treatment of
2975:
Namal Arin, Reisman Arnold (2007). "Joseph Igersheimer (1879–1965): A Visionary Ophthalmologist and his Contributions before and after Exile".
1391:
2743:
2048:
1139:
as a treatment for glaucoma and improved cataract surgery, he is also considered the founding father of the German Ophthalmological Society.
31:
US Navy Commander Kenneth Kubis and U.S. Air Force Captain Tighe Richardson use an operating microscope while performing cataract eye surgery
2010:
1771:(1851–1930) was an Austrian ophthalmologist known for his discovery and description of numerous ocular diseases and abnormalities including
1177:(1888–1940), who introduced certain diagnostic, surgical, and nonsurgical eye-care procedures. He was executed by the German Nazis in 1940.
924:. Although this model was a roughly correct modern model of the eye, it contained errors. Still, it was not advanced upon again until after
3053:
Modern ophthalmology : the highlights : the account of a master wintnessing a 60 year epoch of evolution and progress (1950-2010)
1647:-winner in 1911 for his research on the eye as a light-refracting apparatus, he described the 'schematic eye', a mathematical model of the
1173:
Polish ophthalmology dates to the thirteenth century. The Polish Ophthalmological Society was founded in 1911. A representative leader was
746:
Ophthalmology includes subspecialities that deal either with certain diseases or diseases of certain parts of the eye. Some of them are:
3741:
1142:
Numerous ophthalmologists fled Germany after 1933 as the Nazis began to persecute those of Jewish descent. A representative leader was
2775:
Leffler CT, Hogewind BF (2023). "Jacques Daviel performed the first documented planned primary cataract extraction on Sep. 18, 1750".
4082:
1496:
229:
224:
2145:
1426:
and the Pakistan Institute of Community Ophthalmology in Peshawar. Subspecialty fellowships also are being offered in the fields of
1200:
in 1851. They both made theoretical calculations on image formation in optical systems and also had studied the optics of the eye.
583:
2236:
3681:
1434:, Al Shifa Trust Eye Hospital Rawalpindi, and Al- Ibrahim Eye Hospital Karachi also have started a degree program in this field.
1030:
1839:(1916–1998) (Spain) was the "father of modern refractive surgery" and in the 1960s, he developed lamellar techniques, including
1491:
1460:
3398:
2085:
1604:
1132:
2821:
3981:
2428:
1904:
1350:
3362:
1703:, Sicily, in 1831 after the Sicilian government became convinced of the importance of state support for the specialization
1883:(b.1960) (Namibia) is a renowned ophthalmologist notable for her charitable work among people with eye-related illnesses.
1107:
in 1727. A major breakthrough came with the appointment of Baron de Wenzel (1724–90), a German who became the oculist to
1785:(1902–1960) (Japan) pioneer in incisional refractive surgery, including techniques for astigmatism and the invention of
887:(fifth century BC) and others, that this fluid was the medium of vision and flowed from the eye to the brain by a tube.
4117:
3459:
2471:
2198:
3060:
3027:
2940:
Davidson Luke (1996). "'Identities Ascertained': British Ophthalmology in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century".
2607:
2172:
2111:
1920:
1776:
1456:
1340:
310:
2286:
1548:(1696–1762) (France) performed the first documented planned primary cataract extraction on Sep. 18, 1750 in Cologne.
1192:(1840–1905), a co-owner of at the Zeiss Jena factories in Germany, where he developed numerous optical instruments.
2510:
1661:, invented the ophthalmoscope (1851) and published important work on physiological optics, including colour vision.
892:
put forth the existence of three tubes leading from the eye, not one. One tube from each eye met within the skull.
3367:
1925:
1798:
1463:
grant MRCOphth/FRCOphth and MRCSEd/FRCSEd, (although membership is no longer a prerequisite for fellowship), the
976:
3261:
2398:
1584:
1154:, he built a modern clinic and trained students. In 1939, he went to the United States, becoming a professor at
4235:
4107:
3541:
2686:
1782:
1431:
1217:
219:
2107:
1580:
4281:
2817:
Fuchs, Ernst, and Alexander Duane.Text-book of Ophthalmology. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1908
1104:
1088:(Beer's operation), as well as having popularized the instrument used to perform the surgery (Beer's knife).
1071:
1765:
extraction; he founded the Barraquer Clinic in 1941 and the Barraquer Institute in 1947 in Barcelona, Spain.
1761:(1884–1965) (Spain), in 1917, invented the first motorized vacuum instrument (erisophake) for intracapsular
1651:
based on his measurements known as the 'optical constants' of the eye; his measurements are still used today
4087:
2323:
2265:
2081:
1509:
1115:. Clinical developments at Moorfields and the founding of the Institute of Ophthalmology (now part of the
1091:
In North America, indigenous healers treated some eye diseases by rubbing or scraping the eyes or eyelids.
1063:
921:
573:
129:
3152:
3084:
Wincewicz Andrzej; et al. (2009). "Dr Adam Zamenhof (1888-1940) and his insight into ophthalmology".
3731:
2599:
2445:
2403:
2168:
1873:(1930–2004) (United States) developed the ultrasound and mechanized irrigation and aspiration system for
2523:
1692:(1846 – 1907), Danish-Brazilian ophthalmologist who founded the first eye infirmary in São Paulo, Brazil
1520:
The following is a list of physicians who have significantly contributed to the field of ophthalmology:
1146:(1879–1965), best known for his discoveries with arsphenamine for the treatment of syphilis. He fled to
3711:
3206:
2440:
1159:
1059:
551:
3131:
909:
the Greek philosopher of the second century AD gave a detailed description of cataract surgery by the
4140:
2548:
Kansupada, K. B.; Sassani, J. W. (1997). "Sushruta: The father of Indian surgery and ophthalmology".
2487:
1116:
391:
3185:
1836:
3932:
3854:
3849:
3769:
3529:
1857:(1910–1988) (Poland), in 1961, developed the first cryoprobe for intracapsular cataract extraction.
1355:
1123:
established the site as the largest eye hospital in the world and a nexus for ophthalmic research.
964:
910:
469:
The most valued pharmaceutical companies worldwide whose leading products are in Ophthalmology are
2751:
2377:
2352:
2056:
1986:
1562:
and he made possible the prescribing of combinations of spherical and cylindrical lenses to treat
3912:
3886:
3308:
Annuario Storico del Regno della Due Sicilie, dal Principio del Governo, di Ferdinando II Borbone
2018:
1997:
1863:(1927–2000) (Russia) was the "father of ophthalmic microsurgery" and he improved and popularized
1535:
1427:
1112:
1067:
1051:
788:
590:
349:
is a physician who undergoes subspecialty training in medical and surgical eye care. Following a
3427:
1554:(1818–1889) (Dutch) published pioneering analyses of ocular biomechanics, intraocular pressure,
1080:
performed the first documented planned primary cataract extraction on Sep. 18, 1750 in Cologne.
4276:
3504:
3452:
1151:
879:, physicians largely based their anatomical conceptions of the eye on speculation, rather than
820:
690:
650:
3239:
1475:. Such clinical work is within the NHS, with supplementary private work for some consultants.
827:
Medical retina and vitreo-retinal surgery sometimes are combined and together they are called
4155:
4041:
4014:
3987:
3939:
3893:
3588:
2509:
Roy, P.N., Mehra, K.S. and Deshpande, P.J. (1975), Cataract surgery performed before 800 BC,
1965:
1910:
1654:
1383:
1304:
1280:
1196:(1821–1894) was a polymath who made contributions to many fields of science and invented the
1193:
1167:
630:
1542:
in trachoma and his son, Ferdinand Ritter von Arlt, the younger, was also an ophthalmologist
4175:
4135:
4002:
3816:
3811:
3791:
3726:
3578:
1804:
1768:
1468:
1398:
degrees and to undertake clinical fellowships in the UK, Australia, and the United States.
1162:
is widely credited with developing the predecessor of laser coagulation, photocoagulation.
1100:
783:
622:
531:
474:
421:
406:
354:
181:
147:
67:
933:
was solid. He mistakenly counted seven optical muscles, one too many. He also knew of the
8:
4255:
4197:
4180:
3839:
3556:
2679:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
2141:
1874:
1860:
1772:
1576:
1346:
1300:
814:
767:
598:
536:
379:
103:
4145:
4102:
4092:
3881:
3834:
3801:
3796:
3546:
3524:
3109:
3000:
2917:
2892:
2868:
2843:
2796:
2654:
2627:
2573:
2228:
1551:
1213:
1188:
The prominent physicists of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries included
1143:
1120:
1070:
noted the existence of photoreceptors, however, they were not properly described until
798:
707:
685:
637:
610:
500:
426:
214:
1695:
Socrate Polara (1800–1860, Italy) founded the first dedicated ophthalmology clinic in
4241:
4215:
4097:
4067:
4046:
4009:
3992:
3907:
3871:
3861:
3756:
3676:
3620:
3583:
3568:
3509:
3476:
3445:
3344:
3101:
3066:
3056:
3033:
3023:
2992:
2957:
2922:
2893:"Baron De Wenzel, Oculist to King George III: His Impact on British Ophthalmologists"
2873:
2800:
2788:
2725:
2682:
2659:
2603:
2591:
2565:
2467:
1864:
1830:
1786:
1758:
1726:
1664:
1640:
1081:
1019:
828:
674:
662:
657:
436:
125:
3113:
3004:
1889:(b. 1963) (United States) worked as an ophthalmologist before becoming a US senator.
4225:
3917:
3902:
3779:
3654:
3610:
3394:
3334:
3289:
3093:
2984:
2949:
2912:
2904:
2863:
2855:
2780:
2715:
2649:
2639:
2577:
2557:
2077:
1854:
1810:
1736:
1689:
1572:
1268:
1155:
991:
960:
951:
896:
750:
527:
411:
262:
4245:
4190:
4051:
4036:
4019:
3959:
3954:
3898:
3876:
3573:
3519:
3499:
3294:
Console and Classify. The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century
2815:
2450:
1744:
1680:
1568:
1292:
1108:
1055:
772:
693:
514:
431:
401:
79:
63:
817:
specialty training programs in veterinary ophthalmology exist in some countries.
4077:
4031:
3844:
3774:
3593:
3339:
3322:
2784:
1915:
1870:
1840:
1706:
1616:
1545:
1539:
1452:
1382:. A minimum of 8.5 years of training is required before eligibility to work in
1197:
1077:
840:
494:
350:
121:
95:
2908:
2720:
2703:
1150:
in 1933. As one of eight emigrant directors in the Faculty of Medicine at the
370:
A brief list of some of the most common diseases treated by ophthalmologists:
4270:
4160:
3949:
3806:
3746:
3649:
3070:
3037:
2988:
2859:
2436:
1844:
1818:
1740:
1714:
1710:
1668:
1529:
1288:
1174:
869:
777:
626:
521:
478:
463:
458:
353:, a doctor specialising in ophthalmology must pursue additional postgraduate
45:
3097:
1418:
technicians in this field. These programs are being offered, notably by the
872:
from ancient Egypt dating to 1550 BC, a section is devoted to eye diseases.
4165:
4150:
3976:
3701:
3551:
3536:
3482:
3348:
3105:
2996:
2961:
2877:
2792:
2729:
2663:
1880:
1672:
997:
929:
678:
396:
385:
99:
2953:
2926:
2569:
823:, deals with surgical management of retinal and posterior segment diseases
4024:
3969:
3866:
3721:
3696:
3514:
2644:
1950:
1940:
1795:(1870–1935) (Switzerland) was the "father of retinal detachment surgery".
1792:
1644:
1563:
1478:
Only 2.3 ophthalmologists exist per 100,000 population in the UK – fewer
1472:
1379:
1239:
900:
876:
735:
729:
728:
For a comprehensive list of surgeries performed by ophthalmologists, see
107:
71:
1833:(1918–2005) (United States) was the "father of pediatric ophthalmology".
4112:
3997:
3964:
3736:
3686:
3671:
3666:
3659:
3644:
3634:
2561:
1960:
1867:, invented a surgical cure for cataract, and he developed scleroplasty.
1848:
1824:
1684:
1631:
1251:
1209:
1189:
1136:
1047:
880:
792:
561:
556:
540:
453:
441:
91:
1892:
Andromahi Rapanou ((b. 1984) (Greece), specialist in Retinal Pathology
4185:
3927:
3922:
3786:
3764:
3639:
3603:
3397:. American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus.
1955:
1886:
1676:
1648:
1624:
1595:
1375:
1296:
1235:
1039:
934:
899:(first century AD) recognised a more modern concept of the eye, with
888:
884:
850:
844:
806:, deals with treatment of retinal problems through non-surgical means
701:
646:
618:
546:
470:
335:
41:
981:
3691:
3468:
3156:
2628:"A medieval fallacy: the crystalline lens in the center of the eye"
1762:
1748:
1658:
1588:
1555:
1407:
1367:
1276:
1085:
1043:
1015:
956:
946:
925:
762:
666:
614:
416:
374:
331:
323:
244:
193:
75:
59:
1455:, three colleges grant postgraduate degrees in ophthalmology. The
1022:
translated this at approximately 1150 into the new term "retina".
513:
Following are examples of examination methods performed during an
4170:
3630:
3598:
3491:
1935:
1700:
1620:
1284:
809:
447:
327:
197:
87:
3214:
2257:
1991:
1814:
1752:
1696:
1619:(b.1859) (Poland) was a Polish ophthalmologist who created the
1559:
1423:
1371:
1359:
1272:
1264:
1147:
967:. He has been described as one of the first cataract surgeons.
906:
803:
756:
697:
670:
606:
605:
measures the electrical responses of various cell types in the
248:
3432:
2835:
2626:
Leffler CT, Hadi TM, Udupa A, Schwartz SG, Schwartz D (2016).
1877:, first allowing cataract extraction through a small incision.
1733:, Odessa, one of the leading eye-care institutes in the world.
720:
594:
to visualize the vascular networks of the retina and choroid.
2429:
1363:
1328:
1316:
1018:
wrote in his Canon "rescheth", which means "retiformis", and
917:
2708:
Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology
1230:
Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Ophthalmologists
1066:, and the nature of the retina. Unaware of their functions,
274:
3437:
2844:"Ophthalmology in North America: Early Stories (1491-1801)"
1471:
and one of these degrees is required for specialization in
1094:
301:
295:
3422:
2974:
2486:
Bidyadhar, N.K. (1939), Sushruta's Ophthalmic Operations,
1579:, healing, among many, personalities such as the minister
665:
which may be caused by various medical conditions such as
298:
289:
268:
3177:
2621:
2619:
1667:(1843–1925) (Germany) in 1879 became the first to use an
1395:
1387:
863:
277:
2625:
1000:, an Arabic native of Damascus, wrote a large textbook,
3235:
2373:
2348:
2167:
Churchill, Jennifer; Gudgel, Dan T. (1 November 2013).
1255:
ophthalmology, and Master of Science in ophthalmology.
3127:
2616:
311:
271:
265:
3428:
Multilingual illustrated Dictionary of Ophthalmology
2550:
Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology
1946:
List of systemic diseases with ocular manifestations
1931:
Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology
1731:
Filatov Institute of Eye Diseases and Tissue Therapy
712:
of the eyes may be performed by an ophthalmologist.
696:
technique for mapping the anterior curvature of the
292:
280:
1747:; he also made major contributions to the study of
1508:Ophthalmologists must complete the requirements of
1420:
College of Ophthalmology and Allied Vision Sciences
286:
283:
102:(malignancies, or cancers, and benign eye tumors),
3083:
2676:
2590:
1214:MD/DO in the U.S. or MBBS in the UK and elsewhere
4268:
3055:. Panama: Jaypee-Highlights Medical Publishers.
2547:
1103:, appointed to the position by the governors of
2774:
2677:David C. Lindberg (1997). Helaine Selin (ed.).
2166:
2135:
2133:
1512:to maintain licensure and for recertification.
1467:of Glasgow grants FRCS. Postgraduate work as a
1386:posts. Some trainees take extra time to obtain
1054:, preparations for fixing the eye for study by
1002:The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology
334:that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of
1183:
843:roots of the word ophthalmology are ὀφθαλμός (
3453:
3310:. Tipografica Trani (Napoli). pp. 66–67.
3128:"College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan"
2939:
2704:"From where does "rete" in retina originate?"
1354:Clinical training takes place within public,
1038:In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
2391:
2130:
1621:constructed international auxiliary language
1223:
1203:
2702:de Jong, Paulus T. V. M. (10 August 2014).
2681:. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 410.
1739:(1879–1963) (Japan), in 1918, invented the
1515:
1482:than in any nations in the European Union.
1099:The first ophthalmic surgeon in the UK was
3742:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
3460:
3446:
2890:
2287:"Top Global Pharmaceutical Company Report"
2043:
2041:
2039:
2037:
25:
4083:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
3338:
2916:
2867:
2719:
2653:
2643:
1709:(1834–1908) (Netherlands) introduced the
230:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
225:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
2461:
1630:
1594:
1495:
1095:Ophthalmic surgery in The United Kingdom
1029:
980:
719:
584:Optical coherence tomography angiography
499:
488:
16:Field of medicine treating eye disorders
3236:"European Union of medical specialists"
2841:
2770:
2768:
2701:
2034:
1843:and keratophakia, as well as the first
1058:, and later the freezing of the eye by
4269:
3320:
3305:
1720:
1523:
1492:Medical education in the United States
1461:Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh
1010:Simple and Compounded Ophthalmic Drugs
864:Ancient near east and the Greek period
759:, ocular surface, and external disease
3441:
3375:from the original on October 22, 2022
3178:"Philippine Academy of Ophthalmology"
2884:
2813:
2321:
2139:
724:An ophthalmologist performing surgery
715:
661:to detect dysfunction in central and
4221:
3982:Physical medicine and rehabilitation
3050:
3044:
3017:
3011:
2765:
2524:"Susruta: The Great Surgeon of Yore"
2105:
1905:Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye
1351:Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland
567:
4231:
3323:"Professor Ernst Fuchs (1851-1930)"
2744:"Important Dates in Vision Science"
2422:
2140:Smith, Yolanda (5 September 2016).
1571:(1757–1833) (Italy), specialist in
444:(misalignment or deviation of eyes)
13:
4118:Medical Scientist Training Program
3259:
2179:from the original on 19 March 2018
2148:from the original on 19 March 2018
2118:from the original on 19 March 2018
1743:, a common method for determining
1609:Graefe's Archives of Ophthalmology
1500:New York Ophthalmic Hospital, 1893
1307:exam in either English or French.
963:was compatible with the method of
508:
14:
4293:
3416:
2324:"Subspecialties of Ophthalmology"
2226:
2173:American Academy of Ophthalmology
2112:American Academy of Ophthalmology
1921:American Academy of Ophthalmology
1777:Fuchs heterochromic iridocyclitis
1457:Royal College of Ophthalmologists
1446:
1430:and vitreoretinal ophthalmology.
1341:Irish College of Ophthalmologists
1126:
970:
741:
4250:
4240:
4230:
4220:
4211:
4210:
3268:. American College of Surgeons.
3153:"King Edward Medical University"
2842:Leffler CT, et al. (2017).
2511:British Journal of Ophthalmology
1485:
1025:
940:
681:or other neurological deficits.
261:
4251:
3401:from the original on 2021-04-21
3387:
3355:
3321:Müller, Andreas (1 June 2003).
3314:
3299:
3283:
3272:from the original on 2021-07-09
3253:
3242:from the original on 2014-01-06
3228:
3199:
3188:from the original on 2018-01-29
3170:
3145:
3134:from the original on 2017-07-12
3120:
3077:
2968:
2933:
2824:from the original on 2023-03-29
2807:
2779:. Dec. 6, 2023 (7): 1392–1393.
2736:
2695:
2670:
2584:
2541:
2530:from the original on 2015-12-04
2516:
2503:
2493:
2480:
2455:
2411:from the original on 2017-02-11
2380:from the original on 2017-07-24
2366:
2355:from the original on 2011-12-02
2341:
2330:from the original on 2018-03-19
2315:
2303:from the original on 2022-03-15
2279:
2268:from the original on 2022-10-06
2239:from the original on 2019-07-13
2209:from the original on 2022-07-22
2088:from the original on 2020-07-25
1926:European Board of Ophthalmology
1291:, medical and surgical retina,
1168:University of Hamburg-Eppendorf
1034:Early Ophthalmology instruments
977:Ophthalmology in medieval Islam
4108:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
3542:Oral and maxillofacial surgery
3022:. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
2848:Ophthalmology and Eye Diseases
2326:. News Medical Life Sciences.
2250:
2220:
2191:
2160:
2108:"Ophthalmology Subspecialists"
2106:Boyd, Kierstan (6 June 2016).
2099:
2070:
1979:
1437:
1432:King Edward Medical University
1006:On the Theory of Ophthalmology
220:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
104:neuro-ophthalmologic disorders
1:
3155:. Kemu.edu.pk. Archived from
2322:Smith, Yolanda (2017-01-17).
2169:"What is an Ophthalmologist?"
2011:"Definition of ophthalmology"
1972:
1245:
1072:Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus
985:Anatomy of the Eye, 1200 A.D.
700:, the outer structure of the
4088:Bachelor of Medical Sciences
3855:Neurosurgical anesthesiology
3467:
3368:Canada's Sports Hall of Fame
3296:, Chicago Press, 2002, p. 63
3213:. 2012-12-01. Archived from
3086:Journal of Medical Biography
2977:Journal of Medical Biography
2464:Encyclopedia of epidemiology
2082:American Medical Association
1657:(1821–1894), a great German
1575:, became popular during the
1510:continuing medical education
851:
845:
834:
579:degeneration, and glaucoma.
574:Optical coherence tomography
484:
338:disorders. A former term is
130:optical coherence tomography
106:(including disorders of the
84:eyelid and orbital disorders
7:
2814:Fuchs, Ernst (2001-01-01).
2600:University of Chicago Press
2404:Online Etymology Dictionary
2229:"What Causes Eye Problems?"
1896:
1643:(1862–1930) (Sweden) was a
1581:Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis
1401:
1184:Contributions by physicists
1131:In Berlin, ophthalmologist
481:(Canada) for Front of eye.
365:
10:
4298:
3340:10.1001/archopht.121.6.888
2942:Social History of Medicine
2785:10.1038/s41433-023-02874-5
2596:Science in the Middle Ages
2526:. Infinityfoundation.com.
2430:
2199:"History of Ophthalmology"
2049:"History of Ophthalmology"
1741:Ishihara Color Vision Test
1727:Vladimir Petrovich Filatov
1679:and in 1886 developed the
1489:
1338:
1334:
1227:
1160:Gerhard Meyer-Schwickerath
1158:. German ophthalmologist,
1105:St. Bartholomew's Hospital
1004:, divided into two parts,
974:
858:
795:(misalignment of the eyes)
727:
552:Dilated fundus examination
475:Macular degeneration (AMD)
4206:
4128:
4066:
3827:
3755:
3710:
3619:
3490:
3475:
3327:Archives of Ophthalmology
3306:Parisi, Antonino (1838).
2909:10.1017/s0025727300053138
2721:10.1007/s00417-014-2769-1
2488:Archives of Ophthalmology
1258:
1224:Australia and New Zealand
1204:Professional requirements
1117:University College London
236:
208:
203:
187:
175:
165:
160:
143:
135:
114:
52:
36:
24:
4042:Transplantation medicine
3933:Clinical neurophysiology
3850:Obstetric anesthesiology
3770:Interventional radiology
3530:Digestive system surgery
2989:10.1258/j.jmb.2007.06-63
2860:10.1177/1179172117721902
2462:Boslaugh, Sarah (2007).
1516:Notable ophthalmologists
1356:Health Service Executive
1322:
1310:
789:Paediatric ophthalmology
621:), inner retinal cells (
3913:Intensive care medicine
3887:Mass gathering medicine
3732:Maternal–fetal medicine
3098:10.1258/jmb.2008.008037
3051:Boyd, Benjamin (2010).
2446:A Greek–English Lexicon
1998:Oxford University Press
1536:Carl Ferdinand von Arlt
1428:pediatric ophthalmology
1113:Moorfields Eye Hospital
591:Fluorescein angiography
517:that enables diagnosis
504:Fluorescein angiography
382:(tear duct obstruction)
3505:Cardiothoracic surgery
2632:Clinical Ophthalmology
1837:José Ignacio Barraquer
1636:
1600:
1587:; he was nominated by
1501:
1152:University of Istanbul
1121:Sir Stewart Duke-Elder
1035:
986:
849:, "eye") and -λoγία (-
821:Vitreo-retinal surgery
725:
505:
497:
4156:Personalized medicine
4015:Reproductive medicine
3940:Occupational medicine
3894:Evolutionary medicine
2466:. SAGE. p. 547.
2437:Liddell, Henry George
1994:UK English Dictionary
1966:Eye care professional
1911:Chinese ophthalmology
1655:Hermann von Helmholtz
1634:
1598:
1499:
1358:-funded hospitals in
1281:vision rehabilitation
1208:Ophthalmologists are
1194:Hermann von Helmholtz
1033:
984:
723:
547:Slit lamp examination
503:
492:
459:Ruptured globe injury
94:and disorders of the
4282:Surgical specialties
4176:Traditional medicine
4136:Alternative medicine
4003:Addiction psychiatry
3817:Transfusion medicine
3812:Medical microbiology
3727:Gynecologic oncology
3579:Reproductive surgery
3018:Goes, Frank (2013).
2645:10.2147/OPTH.S100708
2144:. News-Medical.net.
1805:Wajid Ali Khan Burki
1558:, and physiological
1469:specialist registrar
916:The Greek physician
895:The Greek physician
784:Ophthalmic pathology
658:Visual field testing
537:Extraocular motility
532:intraocular pressure
473:(United States) for
422:Macular degeneration
407:Diabetic retinopathy
148:Glossary of medicine
68:diabetic retinopathy
4198:History of medicine
4181:Veterinary medicine
3988:Preventive medicine
3840:Adolescent medicine
3682:Infectious diseases
3290:Jan Ellen Goldstein
3260:Tarbet, Kristen J.
2954:10.1093/shm/9.3.313
2891:Wyman A.L. (1991).
2015:Oxford Dictionaries
1992:Oxford Dictionaries
1875:phacoemulsification
1861:Svyatoslav Fyodorov
1721:20th–21st centuries
1671:to remove metallic
1605:Albrecht von Graefe
1599:Albrecht von Graefe
1577:First French Empire
1524:18th–19th centuries
1301:neuro-ophthalmology
1133:Albrecht von Graefe
945:The Indian surgeon
768:Neuro-ophthalmology
599:Electroretinography
392:Thyroid eye disease
157:
70:and other types of
21:
4146:Molecular oncology
4103:Doctor of Medicine
4093:Master of Medicine
4010:Radiation oncology
3882:Emergency medicine
3835:Addiction medicine
3802:Clinical chemistry
3797:Clinical pathology
3589:Transplant surgery
3547:Orthopedic surgery
3525:Colorectal surgery
2562:10.1007/BF02569056
1637:
1601:
1585:Ponce Denis Lebrun
1552:Franciscus Donders
1502:
1459:(RCOphth) and the
1144:Joseph Igersheimer
1036:
987:
831:subspecialisation
799:Refractive surgery
726:
716:Ophthalmic surgery
686:Corneal topography
638:Electrooculography
506:
498:
427:Retinal detachment
355:residency training
215:Doctor of Medicine
210:Education required
155:
19:
4264:
4263:
4098:Master of Surgery
4062:
4061:
4047:Tropical medicine
3993:Prison healthcare
3908:Hospital medicine
3872:Disaster medicine
3862:Aviation medicine
3677:Hospital medicine
3584:Surgical oncology
3569:Pediatric surgery
3563:
3510:Endocrine surgery
2714:(10): 1525–1527.
2592:David C. Lindberg
2296:. November 2021.
1865:radial keratotomy
1831:Marshall M. Parks
1799:Sir Harold Ridley
1787:radial keratotomy
1759:Ignacio Barraquer
1665:Julius Hirschberg
1641:Allvar Gullstrand
1635:Allvar Gullstrand
1082:Georg Joseph Beer
1064:posterior chamber
1020:Gerard of Cremona
922:posterior chamber
829:posterior segment
780:and orbit surgery
675:pituitary disease
663:peripheral vision
649:and in recording
568:Specialized tests
437:Refractive errors
380:Excessive tearing
330:specialty within
254:
253:
153:
152:
126:visual field test
4289:
4254:
4253:
4244:
4234:
4233:
4224:
4223:
4214:
4213:
3918:Medical genetics
3903:General practice
3780:Nuclear medicine
3655:Gastroenterology
3611:Vascular surgery
3561:
3488:
3487:
3462:
3455:
3448:
3439:
3438:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3406:
3391:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3380:
3363:"Dr. Tom Pashby"
3359:
3353:
3352:
3342:
3318:
3312:
3311:
3303:
3297:
3287:
3281:
3280:
3278:
3277:
3257:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3232:
3226:
3225:
3223:
3222:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3193:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3164:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3139:
3124:
3118:
3117:
3081:
3075:
3074:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3015:
3009:
3008:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2920:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2871:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2829:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2772:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2759:
2750:. Archived from
2748:www.arts.rpi.edu
2740:
2734:
2733:
2723:
2699:
2693:
2692:
2674:
2668:
2667:
2657:
2647:
2623:
2614:
2613:
2588:
2582:
2581:
2556:(1–2): 159–167.
2545:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2520:
2514:
2507:
2501:
2497:
2491:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2459:
2453:
2433:
2432:
2426:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2395:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2360:
2345:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2335:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2302:
2291:
2283:
2277:
2276:
2274:
2273:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2137:
2128:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2064:
2055:. Archived from
2045:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2021:on July 17, 2012
2017:. Archived from
2008:
2006:
2005:
1983:
1855:Tadeusz Krwawicz
1811:Charles Schepens
1773:Fuchs' dystrophy
1737:Shinobu Ishihara
1690:Peter Adolph Gad
1573:cataract surgery
1297:Ocular pathology
1269:anterior segment
1156:Tufts University
992:Hunayn ibn Ishaq
961:cataract surgery
952:Sushruta Samhita
897:Rufus of Ephesus
854:
848:
751:Anterior segment
629:cells), and the
609:, including the
541:ocular alignment
528:Ocular tonometry
464:Orbital fracture
412:Dry eye syndrome
318:
314:
308:
307:
304:
303:
300:
297:
294:
291:
288:
285:
282:
279:
276:
273:
270:
267:
189:Activity sectors
158:
154:
118:
100:ocular neoplasms
56:
29:
22:
18:
4297:
4296:
4292:
4291:
4290:
4288:
4287:
4286:
4267:
4266:
4265:
4260:
4202:
4191:Chief physician
4124:
4069:
4058:
4052:Travel medicine
4037:Sports medicine
4020:Sexual medicine
3960:Palliative care
3955:Pain management
3899:Family medicine
3877:Diving medicine
3823:
3751:
3713:
3706:
3622:
3615:
3574:Plastic surgery
3520:General surgery
3500:Cardiac surgery
3481:
3479:
3471:
3466:
3419:
3414:
3413:
3404:
3402:
3393:
3392:
3388:
3378:
3376:
3361:
3360:
3356:
3319:
3315:
3304:
3300:
3288:
3284:
3275:
3273:
3262:"Ophthalmology"
3258:
3254:
3245:
3243:
3234:
3233:
3229:
3220:
3218:
3205:
3204:
3200:
3191:
3189:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3162:
3160:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3137:
3135:
3130:. Cpsp.edu.pk.
3126:
3125:
3121:
3082:
3078:
3063:
3049:
3045:
3030:
3016:
3012:
2973:
2969:
2938:
2934:
2897:Medical History
2889:
2885:
2840:
2836:
2827:
2825:
2812:
2808:
2773:
2766:
2757:
2755:
2742:
2741:
2737:
2700:
2696:
2689:
2675:
2671:
2638:(10): 649–662.
2624:
2617:
2610:
2589:
2585:
2546:
2542:
2533:
2531:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2508:
2504:
2498:
2494:
2490:, 22, page 553.
2485:
2481:
2474:
2460:
2456:
2451:Perseus Project
2427:
2423:
2414:
2412:
2399:"ophthalmology"
2397:
2396:
2392:
2383:
2381:
2372:
2371:
2367:
2358:
2356:
2347:
2346:
2342:
2333:
2331:
2320:
2316:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2294:The Pharma 1000
2289:
2285:
2284:
2280:
2271:
2269:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2242:
2240:
2225:
2221:
2212:
2210:
2203:eyewiki.aao.org
2197:
2196:
2192:
2182:
2180:
2165:
2161:
2151:
2149:
2142:"Ophthalmology"
2138:
2131:
2121:
2119:
2104:
2100:
2091:
2089:
2078:"Ophthalmology"
2076:
2075:
2071:
2062:
2060:
2047:
2046:
2035:
2024:
2022:
2009:
2003:
2001:
1987:"ophthalmology"
1985:
1984:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1899:
1745:Color blindness
1723:
1681:Hirschberg test
1569:Joseph Forlenze
1526:
1518:
1494:
1488:
1449:
1440:
1404:
1343:
1337:
1325:
1313:
1293:ocular oncology
1261:
1248:
1232:
1226:
1206:
1186:
1129:
1109:King George III
1097:
1028:
979:
973:
943:
866:
861:
837:
773:Ocular oncology
744:
733:
718:
709:Ultrasonography
694:medical imaging
570:
515:eye examination
511:
509:Eye examination
487:
432:Endophthalmitis
368:
347:ophthalmologist
316:
312:
264:
260:
241:
239:
228:
223:
218:
211:
190:
178:
177:Occupation type
170:
156:Ophthalmologist
139:Ophthalmologist
116:
80:corneal disease
64:retinal disease
54:
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4295:
4285:
4284:
4279:
4262:
4261:
4259:
4258:
4248:
4238:
4228:
4218:
4207:
4204:
4203:
4201:
4200:
4195:
4194:
4193:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4132:
4130:
4129:Related topics
4126:
4125:
4123:
4122:
4121:
4120:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4078:Medical school
4074:
4072:
4064:
4063:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4056:
4055:
4054:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4032:Sleep medicine
4029:
4028:
4027:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4006:
4005:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3979:
3974:
3973:
3972:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3936:
3935:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3896:
3891:
3890:
3889:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3858:
3857:
3852:
3845:Anesthesiology
3842:
3837:
3831:
3829:
3825:
3824:
3822:
3821:
3820:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3784:
3783:
3782:
3777:
3775:Neuroradiology
3772:
3761:
3759:
3753:
3752:
3750:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3718:
3716:
3712:Obstetrics and
3708:
3707:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3663:
3662:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3627:
3625:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3608:
3607:
3606:
3596:
3594:Trauma surgery
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3565:
3564:
3557:Otolaryngology
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3527:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3496:
3494:
3485:
3483:subspecialties
3473:
3472:
3465:
3464:
3457:
3450:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3418:
3417:External links
3415:
3412:
3411:
3395:"Hall of Fame"
3386:
3354:
3313:
3298:
3282:
3252:
3227:
3207:"PBO Officers"
3198:
3169:
3144:
3119:
3076:
3061:
3043:
3028:
3020:Eye in history
3010:
2983:(4): 227–234.
2967:
2948:(3): 313–333.
2932:
2883:
2834:
2806:
2764:
2735:
2694:
2687:
2669:
2615:
2608:
2602:. p. 21.
2583:
2540:
2515:
2513:, 59, page 171
2502:
2492:
2479:
2473:978-1412928168
2472:
2454:
2421:
2390:
2365:
2340:
2314:
2278:
2249:
2219:
2190:
2159:
2129:
2098:
2069:
2033:
1977:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1916:Copiale cipher
1913:
1908:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1893:
1890:
1884:
1878:
1871:Charles Kelman
1868:
1858:
1852:
1841:keratomileusis
1834:
1828:
1822:
1808:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1780:
1766:
1756:
1734:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1717:
1707:Herman Snellen
1704:
1693:
1687:
1683:for measuring
1673:foreign bodies
1662:
1652:
1629:
1628:
1617:L. L. Zamenhof
1613:
1612:
1593:
1592:
1566:
1549:
1546:Jacques Daviel
1543:
1533:
1525:
1522:
1517:
1514:
1487:
1484:
1453:United Kingdom
1448:
1447:United Kingdom
1445:
1439:
1436:
1403:
1400:
1336:
1333:
1324:
1321:
1312:
1309:
1260:
1257:
1247:
1244:
1225:
1222:
1205:
1202:
1198:ophthalmoscope
1185:
1182:
1128:
1127:Central Europe
1125:
1096:
1093:
1078:Jacques Daviel
1027:
1024:
975:Main article:
972:
971:Medieval Islam
969:
942:
939:
865:
862:
860:
857:
836:
833:
825:
824:
818:
812:
807:
804:Medical retina
801:
796:
786:
781:
775:
770:
765:
760:
754:
743:
742:Subspecialties
740:
717:
714:
631:ganglion cells
611:photoreceptors
569:
566:
565:
564:
559:
554:
549:
544:
534:
525:
510:
507:
495:ophthalmoscopy
486:
483:
477:treatment and
467:
466:
461:
456:
450:
445:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
383:
377:
367:
364:
351:medical degree
252:
251:
242:
237:
234:
233:
212:
209:
206:
205:
201:
200:
191:
188:
185:
184:
179:
176:
173:
172:
167:
163:
162:
151:
150:
145:
141:
140:
137:
133:
132:
122:Ophthalmoscopy
119:
112:
111:
96:ocular muscles
57:
50:
49:
38:
34:
33:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4294:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4277:Ophthalmology
4275:
4274:
4272:
4257:
4249:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4237:
4229:
4227:
4219:
4217:
4209:
4208:
4205:
4199:
4196:
4192:
4189:
4188:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4161:Public health
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4141:Allied health
4139:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4131:
4127:
4119:
4116:
4115:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4073:
4071:
4065:
4053:
4050:
4049:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4008:
4004:
4001:
4000:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3971:
3968:
3967:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3950:Oral medicine
3948:
3946:
3945:Ophthalmology
3943:
3941:
3938:
3934:
3931:
3930:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3888:
3885:
3884:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3847:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3830:
3826:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3807:Cytopathology
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3788:
3785:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3754:
3748:
3747:Urogynecology
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3709:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3650:Endocrinology
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3632:
3629:
3628:
3626:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3609:
3605:
3602:
3601:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3560:
3559:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3522:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3497:
3495:
3493:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3463:
3458:
3456:
3451:
3449:
3444:
3443:
3440:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3400:
3396:
3390:
3374:
3370:
3369:
3364:
3358:
3350:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3333:(6): 888–91.
3332:
3328:
3324:
3317:
3309:
3302:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3256:
3241:
3237:
3231:
3217:on 2013-03-02
3216:
3212:
3208:
3202:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3173:
3159:on 2015-07-08
3158:
3154:
3148:
3133:
3129:
3123:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3080:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3062:9789962678168
3058:
3054:
3047:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3029:9789350902745
3025:
3021:
3014:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2971:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2936:
2928:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
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2879:
2875:
2870:
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2857:
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2849:
2845:
2838:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2810:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2771:
2769:
2754:on 2019-12-16
2753:
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2722:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2698:
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2673:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2622:
2620:
2611:
2609:0-226-48233-2
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
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2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
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2529:
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2519:
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2506:
2496:
2489:
2483:
2475:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2452:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2441:Scott, Robert
2438:
2434:
2425:
2410:
2406:
2405:
2400:
2394:
2379:
2375:
2369:
2354:
2350:
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2329:
2325:
2318:
2299:
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2267:
2263:
2259:
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2208:
2204:
2200:
2194:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2163:
2147:
2143:
2136:
2134:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2102:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2073:
2059:on 2017-08-08
2058:
2054:
2050:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2020:
2016:
2012:
1999:
1995:
1993:
1988:
1982:
1978:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
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1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
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1902:
1901:
1891:
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1885:
1882:
1879:
1876:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1846:
1845:microkeratome
1842:
1838:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1819:Massachusetts
1816:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1784:
1781:
1778:
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1770:
1767:
1764:
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1757:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1716:
1715:visual acuity
1712:
1711:Snellen chart
1708:
1705:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1669:electromagnet
1666:
1663:
1660:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1633:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1597:
1590:
1586:
1583:and the poet
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1530:Theodor Leber
1528:
1527:
1521:
1513:
1511:
1506:
1498:
1493:
1486:United States
1483:
1481:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1465:Royal College
1462:
1458:
1454:
1444:
1435:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1415:
1411:
1409:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1342:
1332:
1330:
1320:
1318:
1308:
1306:
1305:Royal College
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1289:oculoplastics
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1256:
1253:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1231:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1175:Adam Zamenhof
1171:
1169:
1163:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1140:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1042:were used by
1041:
1032:
1026:Modern period
1023:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
993:
983:
978:
968:
966:
962:
958:
954:
953:
948:
941:Ancient India
938:
936:
931:
927:
923:
919:
914:
912:
908:
904:
902:
898:
893:
890:
886:
882:
878:
873:
871:
870:Ebers Papyrus
856:
853:
847:
842:
832:
830:
822:
819:
816:
813:
811:
808:
805:
802:
800:
797:
794:
790:
787:
785:
782:
779:
778:Oculoplastics
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
758:
755:
752:
749:
748:
747:
739:
737:
731:
722:
713:
711:
710:
705:
703:
699:
695:
692:
688:
687:
682:
680:
679:brain tumours
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
659:
654:
652:
651:eye movements
648:
644:
640:
639:
634:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
601:
600:
595:
593:
592:
587:
585:
580:
577:
575:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
542:
538:
535:
533:
530:to determine
529:
526:
523:
522:Visual acuity
520:
519:
518:
516:
502:
496:
491:
482:
480:
479:Bausch Health
476:
472:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
451:
449:
446:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
388:(bulged eyes)
387:
384:
381:
378:
376:
373:
372:
371:
363:
359:
356:
352:
348:
343:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
320:
306:
258:
257:Ophthalmology
250:
246:
243:
235:
231:
226:
221:
216:
213:
207:
202:
199:
195:
192:
186:
183:
180:
174:
168:
164:
159:
149:
146:
142:
138:
134:
131:
127:
123:
120:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
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3537:Neurosurgery
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2053:mrcophth.com
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2025:September 1,
2023:. Retrieved
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1847:and corneal
1783:Tsutomu Sato
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3970:Neonatology
3867:Dermatology
3722:Gynaecology
3714:gynaecology
3697:Pulmonology
3515:Eye surgery
3477:Specialties
3379:October 26,
2307:29 December
2262:eyewiki.org
2205:. EyeWiki.
1951:Eye surgery
1941:Eye disease
1793:Jules Gonin
1789:for myopia.
1769:Ernst Fuchs
1645:Nobel Prize
1564:astigmatism
1540:Arlt's line
1438:Philippines
1240:New Zealand
1135:introduced
1068:Leeuwenhoek
1052:Leeuwenhoek
1048:microscopes
1040:hand lenses
901:conjunctiva
877:Hippocrates
736:Eye surgery
730:eye surgery
204:Description
108:optic nerve
72:retinopathy
66:(including
4271:Categories
3998:Psychiatry
3984:(PM&R)
3977:Phlebology
3965:Pediatrics
3792:Anatomical
3757:Diagnostic
3737:Obstetrics
3687:Nephrology
3672:Hematology
3667:Geriatrics
3660:Hepatology
3645:Cardiology
3635:Immunology
3433:Aaojournal
3405:2021-03-30
3276:2021-07-07
3246:2013-03-11
3221:2013-03-11
3211:PAO.org.ph
3192:2012-05-27
3182:PAO.org.ph
3163:2012-05-27
3138:2012-05-27
2828:2013-03-11
2758:2018-03-27
2688:0792340663
2534:2008-11-04
2415:2013-05-24
2384:2012-05-27
2374:"Ecvo.org"
2359:2012-05-27
2349:"Acvo.com"
2334:2018-03-18
2272:2022-07-22
2243:2018-03-18
2213:2022-07-22
2092:2020-03-28
2063:2013-08-31
2004:2015-09-14
1973:References
1961:Orthoptics
1849:microlathe
1825:Tom Pashby
1685:strabismus
1490:See also:
1384:consultant
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1252:Bangladesh
1246:Bangladesh
1228:See also:
1210:physicians
1190:Ernst Abbe
1137:iridectomy
1101:John Freke
949:wrote the
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881:empiricism
846:ophthalmos
815:Veterinary
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562:Refraction
557:Gonioscopy
543:assessment
524:assessment
442:Strabismus
397:Eye tumors
240:employment
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136:Specialist
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4186:Physician
4070:education
3928:Neurology
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3787:Pathology
3765:Radiology
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3604:Andrology
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3038:813930522
2801:266051586
2258:"EyeWiki"
1956:Optometry
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1713:to study
1675:from the
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889:Aristotle
885:Alcamaeon
875:Prior to
835:Etymology
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238:Fields of
182:Specialty
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3621:Internal
3469:Medicine
3399:Archived
3373:Archived
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3349:12796263
3270:Archived
3266:facs.org
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2177:Archived
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2122:18 March
2116:Archived
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1659:polymath
1589:Napoleon
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1480:pro rata
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1016:Avicenna
965:couching
957:Sanskrit
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911:couching
763:Glaucoma
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366:Diseases
332:medicine
328:surgical
324:clinical
194:Medicine
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