One-child policy - Knowledge

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employment opportunities for their children, others experienced significant negative effects, including gender-based discrimination, psychological distress, and social stigma as a byproduct of the policy. One study by Greenhalgh et al. (2005) found that many urban women in China perceived the one-child policy as positive, as it allowed them to have greater control over their reproductive health and career trajectories. These women also valued the educational and economic opportunities afforded to their single child, which were seen as providing a pathway out of poverty and towards upward mobility. However, the same study also found that women's perceptions of the one-child policy were heavily influenced by their social and economic circumstances. For example, women who were unable to afford the fines associated with violating the policy were more likely to form negative perceptions, as were women who faced pressure from their families to have a male child. Another study by Poston and Glover (2005) found that women in rural China were more likely to view the policy as negative. These women reported experiencing significant pressure to have a male child, and those who were unable to do so faced social stigma and discrimination. The distress and pressure to bear a son inflicted on women through marriage, family, and career expectations made Chinese women more likely than men to be diagnosed with schizophrenia and to commit suicide, contrary to the rates observed in Western countries addition, women who violated the policy by having a second child were subject to fines, job loss, and other penalties, which could have significant economic and social consequences. A study by Mosher (2012) found that women who underwent forced abortions or sterilizations as a result of the one-child policy experienced significant psychological distress, including depression, anxiety, and trauma. These women reported feeling violated and traumatized by the forced abortions and sterilizations that occurred as a byproduct of the one-child policy. Such experiences could have long-lasting effects on their mental health and wellbeing. Taken together, these studies suggest that women's diverse perceptions of the one-child policy were based on their individual experiences with it. These experiences were heavily dependent on women's social and economic circumstances, which led to varied perceptions and attitudes on the policy. While some women perceived it as positive, particularly in urban areas, others experienced significant negative effects, including psychological distress and social stigma. The divorce risk was 43% higher for one-girl couples than one-boy couples in rural China during the 2000s, a disparity not found among urban couples who were under less extreme pressure to bear a son. Parents, especially mothers, had to hide pregnancy and birth under great duress, often fleeing from one village to another or from the country to towns. Mothers during both pregnancy and delivery had to stay away from public facilities of maternal and infant health care.

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one-child policy was the liberation of women from the significant duties of taking care of many children and the family in the past; instead, women have had more time for themselves to pursue their career or hobbies. The other major side effect of the policy was that the traditional concepts of gender roles between men and women have weakened. Being one and the only "chance" the parents have, women have been expected to compete with peer men for better educational resources or career opportunities. Especially in cities where the one-child policy was much more regulated and enforced, expectations for women to succeed in life are no less than for men. Recent data has shown that the proportion of women attending college is higher than that of men. The policy also had a positive effect at 10 to 19 years of age on the likelihood of completing senior high school in women of Han ethnicity. At the same time, the one-child policy reduced the economic burden for each family. The average conditions for each family improved. As a result, women also have had much more freedom within the family. They have been supported by family to pursue life achievements. Mothers who complied with the policy were able to have longer maternity leave periods as long as they were older than 24. The government encouraged couples to start family planning at an older age. Since many of these women were employed, the incentive to have later births was to provide paid leave as long as they followed the expectation of having one child. However, if they happened to have a second pregnancy they were stripped of their privileges and were not given the same resources compared to their first birth. During this time period, another shift in attitude towards women was the harsh punishment they would receive if they acted against the newly established policy. In areas such as Shanghai, women faced similar punishments as men, while before the

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example, Feng argued in 2010 that the Chinese government had increased efforts to build residential elder care services by actively promoting the construction of senior housing, homes for the aged, and nursing homes. This included government-sponsored subsidies to spur construction and operation of new facilities. The Virtual Elder Care Home has gained popularity, which features home-care agencies providing a wide range of personal care and homemaker services in elders' homes. Services are initiated by phone calls to a local government-sponsored information and service center, which then directs a qualified service provider to the elder's home. Participating providers contract with the local government and are reimbursed for services purchased by the government on behalf of eligible care recipients. While these programs are mainly centered in urban areas, current policy directives in rural areas favor institutions by encouraging "centralized support and care" in rural homes that are run and subsidized by the local government. For rural elders who do not have the option to turn to residential facilities, many have resorted to signing a "family support agreement" contract with adult children to ensure needed support and care.

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Feng suggests that the implementation of the one-child policy and the resulting numbers of one-child families have greatly reduced the multigenerational family form and has weakened the central position of elders in the family. Feng also suggests that the one-child policy has caused parents to spend less leisure time alone, and more leisure time with their children. Feng writes, "he children tend to rely more so on their parents as companions and to participate together in recreational activities." He continues, "his has promoted an equality in the parent-child relationship and has restricted to a certain extent the interactions of children with others." In the one-child family, the core is the parent-child relationship and research suggests that the husband-wife relationship has been less emphasized and cultivated as a result. In China, the one-child policy has been associated with the term "little emperor," which describes the perceived effects of parents focusing their attention exclusively on their only child. The term gained popularity as a way to suggest that only children may become "spoiled brats" due to the excess attention they receive from their parents.

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as families would abandon them in favor of having a male child. Many families also kept their illegal children hidden so that they would not be punished by the government. In fact, "out adoption" was not uncommon in China even before birth planning. In the 1980s, adoptions of daughters accounted for slightly above half of the so-called "missing girls", as out-adopted daughters often went unreported in censuses and surveys, while adoptive parents were not penalized for violating the birth quota. However, in 1991, a central decree attempted to close off this loophole by raising penalties and levying them on any household that had an "unauthorized" child, including those which had adopted children. This closing of the adoption loophole resulted in the abandonment of some two million Chinese children, most of whom were daughters; many of these children ended up in orphanages, with approximately 120,000 of them being adopted by parents from abroad.

1523:. The finding concluded that as many as 10 to 15 million missing women had not been properly registered at birth since 1982. The study found that the sex ratios of age groups during the one-child policy were similar to those born in the period without the single-child policy. The study also found significant amounts of females appear after the age of ten due to late registration across different age groups. The reason for under-reporting was attributed to families trying to avoid penalties when girls are born and local government concealing the lack of enforcement from the central government. This implied that the sex disparity of the Chinese newborns was likely exaggerated significantly in previous analyses. Though the degree of data discrepancy, the challenge in relation to the sex-ratio imbalance in China is still disputed among scholars. 455:'s ambivalent attitude toward the population issue, population studies were abolished in the late 1950s. After Mao's death, family planning became a critical component and premise for reaching China's national goal: that is, to achieve "China's socialist modernization," which includes modernizing industry, agriculture, national defence, and technology. Therefore, at this point, population science was closely related and tied with state politics. There was a perceived need to redefine population as a domain of science, identify the population problem in China, and propose a solution to it. Such efforts included many groups of people with diverse backgrounds. Among these experts, two groups held the most influence in defining the population problem and providing a solution to it. They were a group of scientists led by 972:) that were popular among the people. Traditionally, these prints employ visual symbols to convey good wishes for the coming new year. In the prints, young children often have been portrayed with pink, chubby cheeks to symbolize the success of family reproduction and a hopeful future. Even without slogans, these pictures were effective in establishing a link between luck and prosperity associated with the New Year and the one-child policy. Traditional elements like chubby, healthy-looking babies resonated with people – making them believe that compliance with the policy would yield luck, good fortune, and healthy offspring. As the one-child campaign progressed, the policy was linked to national development and wealth. It was considered directly linked to the success of the policy of modernization and reform. 1424:, "the one-child policy accelerated the already-occurring drop in fertility for a few years, but in the longer term, economic development played a more fundamental role in leading to and maintaining China's low fertility level". However, a more recent study found that China's fertility decline to very low levels by the mid-1990s was far more impressive given its lower level of socio-economic development at that time; even after taking rapid economic development into account, China's fertility restrictions likely averted over 500 million births between 1970 and 2015, with the portion caused by one-child restrictions possibly totaling 400 million. Fertility restrictions also had unintended consequences such as a deficit of 40 million female babies, most of which was due to 945:

this responsibility themselves. A common technique was placing an emphasis on family bonds and how having one child per family would increase emotional ties in parent-offspring relationships as well as extended family giving all their attention to fewer children. While the message of population reduction was urgent and required immediate attention, it was more important for the government to stop conception and new pregnancies. The Family Planning Commission spread propaganda by placing pictures and images on everyday items. Aside from signs and posters on billboards, advertisements were placed on postage stamps, milk cartons, food products and many other household items to promote the benefits of having one child.

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it was a boy or a girl. If the first child was a girl, and they were able to have a second child, then a couple may have taken extraordinary steps to assure that the second child was a boy. If a couple already had two or more boys, the sex ratio of higher parity births swung decidedly in a feminine direction. This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly valued having male offspring, a secondary norm of having a girl or having some balance in the sexes of children often came into play. Yi Zeng (1993) reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex ratios of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for births in families that already had two or more boys. A study by

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families in order to contribute to agricultural production. But the cadres came on the way in conflict with them. Many cadres were middle-aged women who went through the collective period when childbearing was encouraged. They experienced continuous childbearing, and so were strongly supportive of the one-child policy. When these two distinct groups disapproved of each other, conflicts came. More than that, rural families that were desperate to have a son would abuse women who could not give birth to one. They also abandoned infant girls and even engaged in infanticide. As a result, societal relationships were tense within families and also between the cadres and people.

1058:: "The reason China is doing this right now is because they have too many men, too many old people, and too few young people. They have this huge crushing demographic crisis as a result of the one-child policy. And if people don't start having more children, they're going to have a vastly diminished workforce to support a huge aging population." China's ratio is about five working adults to one retiree; the huge retiree community must be supported, and that will dampen future growth, according to Fong. Since the citizens of China are living longer and having fewer children, the growth of the population imbalance is expected to continue. A 782:. As directed, the IUD was medically implanted into women in their child-bearing years to prevent pregnancies, thus out of order births. In the 1980s, women either had to receive an IUD after giving birth to their first child, or the husband would have to undergo a vasectomy. Between 1980 and 2014, 324 million Chinese women received IUDs and 108 million were sterilized. By law, the IUD was placed four months after the delivery of the first child. It was only medically removed after permission to conceive is granted by the community based upon various laws and policies on childbirth quotas. Despite this, some 1652:

dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support. If not for personal savings, pensions or state welfare, most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbours for assistance. If for any reason, the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response to such an issue, by 2007, all provinces in the nation except Henan had adopted a new policy allowing couples to have two children if both parents were only children themselves; Henan followed in 2011.

507:), prioritized the Marxist formulation of the population problem. They saw the problem as an "imbalance between economic and demographic growth," and wished to design a reasonable policy that considered the social consequences. These scientists came from the fields of social science, statistics, genetics, history, and many others. However, they had limited access to resources compared to the natural scientists who became involved in population policy making in 1978. Since population studies were forbidden from the 1950s until 1979, population science had made no progress between these two decades. 545:. Compared to the social scientists, this group of natural scientists had numerous advantages. They were politically protected during the Maoist period due to their importance in national defense and technology. They also had access to Western science. Eventually, they took an important role in examining the population model as well as designing the details of one-child policies. After quantitative research and analysis, they showed the top state leaders that the only solution would be a policy "to encourage all couples to have only one child, regardless of the costs to individuals and society". 832:

children, the cost of raising a child, the fines for having multiple children, birth control policies, and the accessibility of contraceptives. In addition, those who violated the one-child policy could lose their jobs, their titles, a portion of medical insurance, and opportunities for higher education for the second child; they could also face sterilization and the labeling of the second child as a "black child". All of the variables played an important role in couples' decisions on when to conceive, placing their social and economic situation above the desire to bear additional children.

2181: 1010:(CCP), China announced the decision to relax the one-child policy. Under the new policy, families could have two children if one parent, rather than both parents, was an only child. This mainly applied to urban couples, since there were very few rural, only children due to long-standing exceptions to the policy for rural couples. Zhejiang, one of the most affluent provinces, became the first area to implement this "relaxed policy" in January 2014, and 29 out of the 31 provinces had implemented it by July 2014, with the exceptions of Xinjiang and Tibet. Under this policy, approximately 11 1544: 1580:. That same year, 206 children were adopted to the United States, according to the U.S. State Department. Since then, the demand for healthy infant girls increased and transnational adoption increased rapidly. In accordance with this high demand, China began defining more restrictions on foreign adoption, including limitations on applicant's age, marital status, mental and physical health, income, family size, and education. According to the U.S. State Department, there have been over 80,000 international adoptions from China since international adoptions were implemented. 919:) and was emblematic of China's national campaign of mandatory birth planning. The Chinese government aimed to reduce population growth by promoting guidelines for birth control and family planning. The government believed that having fewer children and spacing births more adequately would allow families to allocate more resources per child, resulting in better health and education outcomes for children. The policy aimed to achieve this by allowing parents more time and resources to invest in each child's health and education, as they would have fewer children to care for. 616: 847:. The morning-after pill has made up 70 percent of oral contraceptives in the Chinese market. Only seven percent of Chinese women had shared that they use the pill and condom in combination. The Chinese government promoted the use of IUDs and sterilization over the combined pill and condom because PRC authorities questioned the voluntary commitment of the public. The Chinese government has distributed free condoms at medical clinics and health centers to adults with proof that they are 18 years of age or older. Additionally, the rate and highly debated 1644: 1437: 20: 873:('later, longer, and fewer'), which was first enacted in 1973 and was in effect until 1979. This national idea encouraged later marriages and having fewer children. However, this policy was not effective at enforcing the developing ideal of having fewer children since it was such a new concept that had never been seen in other regions of the world. The various problems that arose during its introduction were slowly addressed and it became progressively more targeted to corner women into limited control over their own bodies. 1752:

differences in desirable social behaviors like trust and altruism. The study found that only children in China were more likely to exhibit narcissistic and selfish behavior compared to those with siblings. The study also found that only children had higher levels of academic achievement, but lower levels of social competence and empathy. Overall, these findings suggest that the one-child policy had unintended social and psychological consequences that may have lasting effects on Chinese society as a whole.

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support networks began with the establishment of work units in the socialist period. These collectives were meant to offer healthcare and housing to their workers. With the economic reforms of the 1980s and 1990s, many of the work units dissolved, leaving many elderly workers without the social support they once had. This was exacerbated by the one-child policy because many families now only had one child to care for elderly parents, leading to increased pressure and responsibility for the sole caregiver.

205: 36: 14013: 555:), a leading internal critic of one-child restrictions and an eye-witness at the discussions in Chengdu. In the words of Wang et al., "the idea of the one-child policy came from leaders within the Party, not from scientists who offered evidence to support it." Central officials had already decided in 1979 to advocate for one-child restrictions before knowing of Song's work and, upon learning of his work in 1980, already seemed sympathetic to his position. 3005: 1374: 1886: 755: 443:

industrialized countries such as the United States, Japan, and France. Under such a comparison, China's relatively low income per capita was attributed directly to population growth and no other factors. Though the data is truthful, its arrangement and presentation to readers gave a single message determined by the state: that the population problem is a national catastrophe and immediate remedy is desperately needed.

2993: 1864:, which translates to 'rear a son for your old age'. After the initial forced sterilization and abortion campaign in 1983, citizens of urban areas in China disagreed with the standards being placed on them by the government and having complete disregard for basic human rights. This led to the Chinese government straying away from the forced sterilization processes in attempts to encourage civilian compliance. 14001: 1635:

free contraception and prenatal classes that contributed to the policy's success in two respects. First, the average Chinese household has expended fewer resources, both in terms of time and money, on children, giving many more money to invest. Second, since Chinese adults would no longer rely on children to care for them in their old age, there has been an impetus to save money for the future.

220:'s leadership in China, the birth rate fell from 37 per thousand to 20 per thousand. Infant mortality declined from 227 per thousand births in 1949 to 53 per thousand in 1981, and life expectancy dramatically increased from around 35 years in 1948 to 66 years in 1976. Until the 1960s, the government mostly encouraged families to have as many children as possible, especially during the 955:(1981), which emphasized the importance of family planning and birth control measures that would ensure the stability of the nation. Younger generations became the main target audience for much of the propaganda as the one-child policy continued, since they made up a large portion of the population that would contribute to continued growth if no policy was put in place. 1107:

think it would be enough. Many called for the government to remove the limit altogether, though most women and couples already had adopted the idea that one child is enough and to have more is not in their best interest. Because of this new belief, the population would be likely to keep declining, which could have tragic repercussions for China in the coming decades.

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since the 1970s. China outlawed sex selective abortions in 2005, but the law is tough to enforce because of the difficulty of proving why a couple decided to have an abortion. The abandonment, and killing, of baby girls has also been reported, though recent research studies say it has become rare, in part due to strict criminal prohibitions.

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China's younger generations see smaller family sizes as ideal." The CNN reporter added that China's new prosperity was also a factor in the declining birth rate, saying, "Couples naturally decide to have fewer children as they move from the fields into the cities, become more educated, and when women establish careers outside the home."

1475:. The estimate of 30 million cited for the sex disparity, however, may have been very exaggerated, as birth statistics have been skewed by late registrations and unreported births: for instance, researchers have found that census statistics for women in later stages of life do not match the birth statistics. 931:

ration coupons, schooling, and other essential benefits that depended upon registration. In rural areas, women who gave birth to a third child were pressured to get sterilized or have IUDs inserted, while urban women were trusted to continue using effective contraception until they were no longer fertile.

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But heavy fines and exposures seemed to hardly stop the celebrities and rich people, as there are still many people, who can afford the heavy penalties, insist on having multiple kids, the Hunan commission spokesman said ... Three officials ... who were all found to have kept extramarital mistresses,

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Some of the offending officials did not face penalties, although the government did respond by raising fines and calling on local officials to "expose the celebrities and high-income people who violate the family planning policy and have more than one child". Also, people who lived in the rural areas

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million). For example, between 2000 and 2005, as many as 1,968 officials in Hunan province were found to be violating the policy, according to the provincial family planning commission; also exposed by the commission were 21 national and local lawmakers, 24 political advisors, 112 entrepreneurs and 6

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are illegal in China. It is often argued as one of the key factors in the imbalanced sex ratio in China, as excess female infant mortality and under-reporting of female births cannot solely explain this gender disparity. Researchers found that the gender of the firstborn child in rural parts of China

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Toni Falbo, a professor of educational psychology and sociology at the University of Texas at Austin came to the conclusion that no measurable differences exist in terms of sociability and characterization between singleton children and multi-sibling children except that single children scored higher

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According to a study by Gustafson (2014), the one-child policy has led to a significant decrease in the availability of family caregivers for the elderly in China. So, tens of millions of retirees now only have one child to rely on for care. This has led to an "inverted pyramid," in which two sets of

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The one-child policy prompted the growth of orphanages in the 1980s. For parents who had "unauthorized" births, or who wanted a son but had a daughter, giving up their child for adoption was a strategy to avoid penalties under one-child restrictions. Many orphanages witnessed an influx of baby girls,

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The disparity in the gender ratio at birth increased dramatically after the first birth, for which the ratios remained steadily within the natural baseline over the 20-year interval between 1980 and 1999. Thus, a large majority of couples appeared to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy, whether

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By promoting the one-child policy on a daily basis, the government was able to convince the people that it was their duty to fulfill this nationalistic pride. Once the idea and initial steps of this policy were introduced into society, it was regulated by local policy enforcers until finally becoming

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Official statistics show that birth control operations, including abortions, IUD insertions, and sterilizations, increased sharply during the 1970s in association with the campaign to enforce birth limits. These drastic increases in birth-control operations suggest that highly coercive birth planning

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Women who became pregnant without permission were harassed to get an abortion, with pressure also put on their husbands and other family members. Families were threatened that, if they persisted in having an over-quota birth, the baby would be denied household registration, which would mean denial of

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The Family Planning Policy was enforced through a financial penalty in the form of the "social child-raising fee," sometimes called a "family planning fine" in the West, which was collected as a fraction of either the annual disposable income of city dwellers or of the annual cash income of peasants,

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and says that it prevented 400 million births, although some scholars dispute that estimate. Some have also questioned whether the drop in birth rate was caused more by other factors unrelated to the policy. In the West, the policy has been widely criticized for perceived human rights violations

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Chinese citizens to visit for 14 days without requiring a visa. As of 2012, the Northern Mariana Islands were experiencing an increase in births by Chinese citizens because birth tourism there had become cheaper than in Hong Kong. This option is used by relatively affluent Chinese who may want their

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A study by Cameron and colleagues explored this phenomenon, finding that the one-child policy had behavioral impacts on only children. The authors tested Beijing youths born in several birth cohorts just before and just after the launch of the one-child policy using economic games designed to detect

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In urban areas especially, a byproduct of the one-child policy has been changing family dynamics. Traditionally, grandparents had been the focal point of the family in China: they were adored by all family members, and were the ones who exercised decision-making in the day-to-day life of the family.

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China's one-child policy had significant implications for many aspects of Chinese society, including care for elderly populations. In "Gender and elder care in China: the influence of filial piety and structural constraints," authors Zhan and Montgomery suggest that the decline of traditional family

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It is reported that the focus of China on population planning has helped to provide better healthcare for women and a reduction in the risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy. Women and children were eligible for preferential hospital treatment. At family planning offices, women received

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As the flow of foreigners adopting from China increased, so did illicit adoption practices. Families in China that did not or could not keep their child would often be subject to abandonment or infanticide. Abandoned babies often found themselves in orphanages, ready to be adopted. This also made it

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on 30 October 2015, Adam Pertman, president and CEO of the National Center on Adoption and Permanency, indicated that "the infant girls of yesteryear have not been available, if you will, for five, seven years. China has been ... trying to keep the girls within the country ... And the consequence is

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Coercive enforcement measures were taken, and included abortions of "over-quota" pregnancies, and sterilization of women. This led to a series of physical conflicts with the government cadres who were assigned to enforce the policy in a specific rural area. Rural families wished to add sons to their

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million couples in China were allowed to have a second child; however, only "nearly one million" couples applied to have a second child in 2014, less than half the expected number of 2 million per year. By May 2014, 241,000 out of 271,000 applications had been approved. Officials of China's National

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by consolidating the combined inherited wealth of the two previous generations into the investment and success of one child instead of having these resources spread thinly across multiple children. This theoretically allowed for a "demographic dividend" to be realized, increasing economic growth and

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inspection work. The fine was a so-called "social maintenance fee", the punishment for the families who had more than one child. According to the policy, families who violated the law created a burden on society. Therefore, social maintenance fees were to be used for the operation of the government.

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Arguments started to come out in 1979 suggesting that the excessively rapid population growth was sabotaging the economy and destroying the environment, and essentially preventing China from being a rightful member of the global world. Skillful and deliberate comparisons were made with developed and

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In China, male children have always been favored over female children. With the one-child policy in place, many parents often chose abortions to meet the one-child standard as well as for the satisfaction of having a male son. Male offspring were preferred in rural areas to ensure parents' security

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The one-child policy's limit on the number of children resulted in new mothers having more resources to start investing money in their own well-being. As a result of being an only child, women had increased opportunities to receive an education and support to get better jobs. One side effect of the

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report, the number of twins born per year was estimated to have doubled. A 2016 study concluded that the increase in the policy fine of one year's income is associated with an increase in twin births by approximately 0.07 per 1,000 births, indicating that at least one-third of the increase in twins

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As the gender gap became more prominent due to the preference of male children over female offspring, policy enforcers shifted their attention to promoting the benefits that came with having daughters. In rural, isolated regions of China, the government provided families with a daughter more access

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In addition to stories of resistance to the policy and official reasons for support such as strengthening China, academic Sarah Mellors Rodriguez describes a surprising number of accounts from her fieldwork in which interviewees fully supported the mandate for personal reasons. According to Mellors

814:(PRC) warned against abortion as a means of family planning and as a contraceptive. Should an abortion be required, the woman was to have a safe procedure done by a registered physician. Despite this, some women even in the 2000s chose or were encouraged to use traditional abortive products such as 2156:

Multiple research studies have also found that sex-selective abortion – where a woman undergoes an ultrasound to determine the sex of her baby, and then aborts it if it's a girl – was widespread for years, particularly for second or subsequent children. Millions of female fetuses have been aborted

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in one year due to reported disregard of the one-child policy. According to the article local officials were being pressured into purchasing portable ultrasound devices to identify abortion candidates in remote villages. The article also reported that women as far along as 8.5 months pregnant were

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million estimate referred not just to the one-child policy, but includes births prevented by predecessor policies implemented one decade before, stating that "there are many different numbers out there but it doesn't change the basic fact that the policy prevented a really large number of births".

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Women's experiences of the one-child policy shaped their perceptions of it, both of which have been studied extensively by researchers. These studies have revealed a variety of perspectives. While some women viewed the policy as beneficial, particularly in terms of providing better educational and

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births in families that had already borne two or more boys. This tendency to favour girls in high-parity births to couples who had already borne sons was later also noted by Coale and Banister, who suggested as well that once a couple had achieved its goal for the number of males, it was also much

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In her fieldwork interviews, Mellors Rodriguez found that middle income urbanites were more receptive to the limitations of the policy because they generally believed that having one child and providing them with all possible opportunities was more important than having additional heirs. Long-term

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On 31 May 2021, China's government relaxed restrictions even more, allowing women up to three children. This change was brought about mainly due to the declining birth rate and population growth. Although the Chinese government was trying to spark new growth in the population, some experts did not

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The one-child campaign extensively used propaganda posters. The aim of the posters was to promote the policy, encourage compliance, and emphasize the benefits of having fewer children. Many of the posters were educational in nature, paying attention to reproduction, sexuality, and conception. They

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Many of the tactics used by the government were reflected in the day-to-day life of the average Chinese citizen. Since the Chinese government could not outright force its inhabitants to follow strict policy orders, the government developed strategies to encourage and promote individuals to take on

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services situated themselves in every community. Cash payments or other material rewards and fines acted as incentives, increasing the number of participants. Socially willing participants were considered role models in the community. In 1983 mandatory sterilization occurred after the birth of the

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China's attitude towards population control on the global stage in international forums evidenced an ambiguous stance on the nature of the crisis. In the mid-1960s, when global movements for birth control emerged, Chinese delegates expressed their opposition toward population control. In the first

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in the 1970s, and officials raised the age of marriage and called for fewer and more broadly spaced births. A near-universal one-child limit was imposed in 1980 and written into the country's constitution in 1982. Numerous exceptions were established over time, and by 1984, only about 35.4% of the

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in March 2007 to abolish the one-child rule, citing "social problems and personality disorders in young people". One statement read, "It is not healthy for children to play only with their parents and be spoiled by them: it is not right to limit the number to two children per family, either." The

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One study found that the one-child policy has led to a decline in filial piety in China, as fewer children are responsible for caring for their elderly parents. The study also found that the one-child policy has led to a shift in the responsibility for elder care from the family to the state. For

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Research shows that a stricter fertility policy would induce higher female educational achievement. Prior to the one-child policy, roughly 30% of women attended higher education, whereas between 1990 and 1992, 50 percent of students in higher education were women. The higher participation rate of

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million more males than would be expected naturally, and this led to social problems. "Because of a traditional preference for baby boys over girls, the one-child policy is often cited as the cause of China's skewed sex ratio Even the government acknowledges the problem and has expressed concern

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The rural population was more resistant to the policy and variations upon the policy were permitted. Mothers of a daughter in several rural provinces were allowed to have a single additional child (a "1.5-child" policy) and families in remote areas a second or third child. After collective co-ops

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Propaganda took many forms throughout the one-child policy era and was able to target a wide range of age demographics. Children born in this time period spent most of their lives being exposed to the new expectations placed on them by society. Educational programs were also encouraged to promote

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Beginning in 1980, the official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allow second children in the case of "practical difficulties" (such as cases in which the father was a disabled serviceman) or when both parents were single children, and some provinces had other

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A long-term experiment in a county in Shanxi, in which the family planning law was suspended, suggested that families would not have many more children even if the law were abolished. A 2003 review of the policy-making process behind the adoption of the one-child policy shows that less intrusive

1402:

in China continued its fall from 2.8 births per woman in 1979 (already a sharp reduction from more than five births per woman in the early 1970s) to 1.5 by the mid-1990s. Some scholars claim that this decline is similar to that observed in other places that had no one-child restrictions, such as

926:

During the campaign, the state bureaucracy was in charge of enforcing birth control and oversaw birth-planning workers in every village, urban work unit, and neighborhood. These workers kept detailed records on women of child-bearing age, including past births, contraceptive usage, and menstrual

831:

The priorities of individual families also played a role in the birth rate. Families debated the social and economic stability of the household prior to conception. Some families chose to follow the single-child limit due to varying social and economic factors such as marrying later, spacing out

414:

Despite the legitimate ongoing rapid growth of China's population and the evident effects it brought to society, using the term "population crisis" to describe the situation is disputed. Scholars including Susan Greenhalgh argue that the state intentionally created a virtual population crisis in

1755:

Other scholarship supports that the "little emperor" phenomenon does exist. Jiao and colleagues compared children between the ages of four and ten from urban and suburban areas of Beijing using peer ratings of cooperativeness, leadership, and other desirable traits. When they analyzed a matched

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Furthermore, another study found that the one-child policy has had a significant impact on the quality of elder care in China, with many elderly parents reporting feeling neglected and abandoned by their adult children. This is due to a lack of resources and support from the younger generation.

1668:

The one-child policy in China has had a significant impact on filial piety and elder care. Filial piety is a traditional Confucian value that emphasizes respect, obedience, and care for one's parents and elders. However, the one-child policy has led to a smaller pool of potential caregivers for

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reached 117:100, and stabilized between 2000 and 2013, about 10% higher than the baseline, which ranges between 103:100 and 107:100. It had risen from 108:100 in 1981—at the boundary of the natural baseline—to 111:100 in 1990. According to a report by the National Population and Family Planning

1098:

analysis indicated: "Repealing the one-child policy may not spur a huge baby boom, however, in part because fertility rates are believed to be declining even without the policy's enforcement. Previous easings of the one-child policy have spurred fewer births than expected, and many people among

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an internal obligation the community accepted for the greater good of maintaining a nation. In many cases, health centers encouraged the idea of reducing the risks of pregnancy by distributing various forms of contraceptives at no cost, which made protected sex more common than unprotected sex.

809:

In the early years of the sterilization campaigns, abortion was a method of birth control highly encouraged by family planning. With 55 percent of abortion recipients as repeat customers and the procedure easily accessible, women had chosen to abort and had been forced to abort because of laws,

563:

The one-child policy was originally designed to be a "One-Generation Policy". It was enforced at the provincial level and enforcement varied; some provinces had more relaxed restrictions. The one-child limit was most strictly enforced in densely populated urban areas. When this policy was first

438:

that presents the urgency of the population problem as well as justifies the necessity of mandatory birth control across the nation. Due to the previous traumas of the Cultural Revolution, public and top state leaders turned to the charisma of science, and sometimes blindly worshipped it as the

650:

ethnic groups were subject to different laws and were usually allowed to have two children in urban areas, and three or four in rural areas. Han Chinese living in rural towns were also permitted to have two children. Because of couples such as these, as well as those who simply paid a fine (or

1651:

As the first generation of legally enforced only-children came of age to become parents themselves, one adult child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the "4-2-1 Problem", this leaves the older generations with increased chances of

631:, a new exception to the regulations was announced in Sichuan for parents who had lost children in the earthquake. Similar exceptions had previously been made for parents of severely disabled or deceased children. People have also tried to evade the policy by giving birth to a second child in 692:

The policy was enforced at the provincial level through contraception, abortion, and fines that were imposed based on the income of the family and other factors. Population and Family Planning Commissions existed at every level of government to raise awareness and carry out registration and

1759:

However, researchers Chen and Jin outline some of the arguably positive byproducts of this "little emperor" phenomenon. They suggest that, since only children receive more attention and resources from their parents, it can lead to improved academic performance and overall success in life.

1140:

China's urban population generally accepted the policy, given the already crowded circumstances and shortage of housing in cities. Incentives offered by the state also were effective to make the urban population compliant with the newly introduced family planning. Families that signed the

1110:

All restrictions were lifted on 26 July 2021, thus allowing Chinese couples to have any number of children. In 2022, the number of births in China hit another record low of 9.56 million births, the first time the number had dipped below 10 million since the late 1940s according to

806:

second or third child. As the restrictions tightened a few years later, if a woman gave birth to two children, legally she had to be sterilized. Alternatively, in some cases her husband could be sterilized in her place. In other cases, sterilization of surplus children occurred.

1115:. 9.02 million births took place in 2023. Falling numbers of women of childbearing age and reluctance of young women to have children had reduced the China's fertility rate to close to 1.0 by 2024 (a fertility rate of 2.1 is needed for a stable population). A study by the 1090:

said, "It was not a sign that the party will suddenly start respecting personal freedoms more than it has in the past. No, this is a case of the party adjusting policy to conditions. The new policy, raising the limit to two children per couple, preserves the state's role."

397:

million, and that a universal one-child policy for all would be required to meet that goal. If fertility rates remained constant at 3 births per woman, China's population would surpass 3 billion by 2060 and 4 billion by 2080. In spite of some criticism inside the CCP, the

1780:, who suggested that the government at least restore the previous rule that allowed couples to have up to two children. According to a scholar, "The one-child limit is too extreme. It violates nature's law and, in the long run, this will lead to mother nature's revenge." 1955:

at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Wang argues that "Thailand and China have had almost identical fertility trajectories since the mid 1980s", and "Thailand does not have a one-child policy". China's Health Ministry has also disclosed that at least

711:

in the year of the child's birth. For instance, in Guangdong, the fee was between three and six annual incomes for incomes below the district's per capita income, plus one to two times the annual income exceeding the average. Families were required to pay the fine.

224:, because of Mao's belief that population growth empowered the country, preventing the emergence of family planning programs earlier in China's development. The state tried to incentivize more childbirths during that time with a variety of policies, such as the " 8432: 922:

The "later, longer, fewer" campaign was later replaced by the one-child policy. According to Whyte and colleagues, many of the coercive techniques that became notorious after the one-child policy was launched actually date from this campaign in the 1970s.

607:

As of 2007, only 36% of the population were subjected to a strict one-child limit. 53% were permitted to have a second child if their first was a daughter; 9.6% of Chinese couples were permitted two children regardless of their gender; and 1.6% – mainly

2064:, a villager from Shaanxi province, was forced into an abortion by local officials after her family refused to pay the fine for having a second child. Chinese authorities later apologized and two officials were fired, while five others were sanctioned. 212:

Since the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, socialist construction was the utmost mission the state needed to accomplish. Top state leaders believed that having more population would effectively contribute to the national effort.

1162:

nature of marriage, it was expected that daughters would leave their parents and contribute labor to their husbands' households. The consequent preference for sons came into conflict with the one-child policy and government enforcement of this policy.

1141:

single-child pledge and met the requirements of having only one child were given access to housing and daycare, while non-compliant ones would receive penalties. Examples are obstructing the parents' careers and delaying the payment of their salaries.

568:

exemptions worked into their policies as well. In most areas, families were allowed to apply to have a second child if their first-born was a daughter. By 1984, only approximately 35.4% of the population fell within the policy's original restriction.

1584:

easy for governments to engage in the trafficking of children. In the years between 2002 and 2005, officials in Hunan and Guangdong provinces profited from the buying and trafficking of approximately 1,000 abducted babies for international adoption.

603:

In 1991, the central government made local governments directly responsible for family planning goals. Also in the early 1990s, experts from leading population-research institutes began appealing to policymakers to relax or end the one-child policy.

2026:

to determine the size of one's own proper family. According to a 1968 proclamation of the International Conference on Human Rights, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children."

415:

order to serve political ends. According to state promotions, the looming overpopulation crisis would ruin the national agenda of achieving "China's socialist modernization", which includes industry, agriculture, national defense, and technology.

325:). Men were encouraged to marry at age 25 or later, and women were encouraged to marry at age 23 or later.The authorities began encouraging one-child families in 1978, and in 1979 announced that they intended to advocate for one-child families. 268:. The fertility rate dropped from 5.9 in the 1950s to 4.0 in the 1970s. Yet, the population still grew at a significant rate. There were approximately 541,670,000 people in China in the year 1949. The number then went up to 806,710,000 in 1969. 1853:

for their second pregnancy, versus 70% of women with firstborn daughters. This represented a desire for women to have a son if one had not yet been born. In response to this, the Chinese government made sex-selective abortions illegal in 2005.

1535:

women in education could be attributed to the lack of male siblings. As a result, families invested in their single female child. Several studies conclude that girls on average received more years of schooling thanks to the one child policy.

1002:

said that "China's population will not grow substantially in the short term." A survey by the commission found that only about half of eligible couples wish to have two children, mostly because of the cost of living impact of a second child.

1500:

about the tens of millions of young men who won't be able to find brides and may turn to kidnapping women, sex trafficking, other forms of crime or social unrest." The situation was not expected improve in the near future. According to the

1066:

million working-age people by 2030, while simultaneously doubling the number of elderly. That could put immense pressure on the economy and government resources." The longer-term outlook is also pessimistic, based on an estimate by the

548:

Although Greenhalgh claims that Song Jian was the central architect of the one-child policy and that he "hijacked" the population policy making process, that claim has been refuted by several leading scholars, including Liang Zhongtang

337:

Comrade Xiannian proposed to me planning "better one, at most two". I'd say be stricter, stipulating that "only one is allowed". Prepare to be criticized by others for cutting off the offspring. But if we don't do it, the future looks

1763:

With the first generation of children born under the policy (which initially became a requirement for most couples with first children born starting in 1979 and extending into the 1980s) reaching adulthood, such worries were reduced.

1665:

elderly parents must rely on a single married couple of two adult children (each of whom is an only child with no siblings), who in turn have produced a single child on whom the family must eventually rely on in the next generation.

882:

slogan emerged during the 1970s as a response to China's rapid population growth, which was viewed as a major obstacle to the country's economic and social development. This slogan encapsulated three key principles: marrying later

1102:

The Chinese government had expected the abolition of the one-child rule would lead to an increase in births to about 21.9 million births in 2018. The actual number of births was 15.2 million – the lowest birth rate since 1961.

255:

Although China's fertility rate plummeted faster than anywhere else in the world during the 1970s under these restrictions, the Chinese government thought it was still too high, influenced by the global debate over a possible

81:. The program had wide-ranging social, cultural, economic, and demographic effects, although the contribution of one-child restrictions to the broader program has been the subject of controversy. Its efficacy in reducing 1559:

The peak wave of abandonment occurred in the 1990s, with a smaller wave after 2000. Around the same time, poor care and high mortality rates in some state orphanages generated intense international pressure for reform.

927:

cycles, often becoming "menstrual monitors" to detect out-of-quota pregnancies. In some factories, there were quotas for reproduction, and women who did not receive a birth allotment were not supposed to get pregnant.

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in China. Furthermore, in 2003, China revised its marriage registration regulations and couples no longer have to submit to a premarital physical or genetic examination before being granted a marriage license.

599:

allowed exemptions for couples of certain backgrounds. By one estimate there were at least 22 ways in which parents could qualify for exceptions to the law towards the end of the one-child policy's existence.

2075:, which compels the nation to significantly reform its genetic testing laws. Recent research has also emphasized the necessity of understanding a myriad of complex social relations that affect the meaning of 14761: 14606: 402:, was formally implemented as a temporary measure on 18 September 1980. The plan called for families to have one child each in order to curb a then-surging population and alleviate social, economic, and 6791: 1942:

million births were prevented by the one-child policy as of 2011, while some demographers challenge that number, putting the figure at perhaps half that level, according to CNN. Zhai clarified that the

1568:

that, today, rather than those young girls who used to be available – primarily girls – today, it's older children, children with special needs, children in sibling groups. It's very, very different."

1995:

Corrupted government officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to violate the policy in spite of fines. Filmmaker Zhang Yimou had three children and was subsequently fined 7.48

14719: 14514: 11100: 1930:

The policy was controversial outside China for many reasons, including accusations of human rights abuses in the implementation of the policy, as well as concerns about negative social consequences.

564:

introduced, 6.1 million families that had already given birth to a child were given "One Child Honorary Certificates". This was a pledge they had to make to ensure they would not have more children.

8046: 2107:

resumed U.S. government financial support for the UNFPA shortly after taking office in 2009, intending to "work collaboratively to reduce poverty, improve the health of women and children, prevent

1576:

In April 1992, China implemented laws that enabled foreigners to adopt their orphan children, with the number of children each orphanage could offer for international adoption being limited by the

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Nie, Jing-Bao (7 November 2016). "Erosion of Eldercare in China: a Socio-Ethical Inquiry in Aging, Elderly Suicide and the Government's Responsibilities in the Context of the One-Child Policy".

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After 2005, the number of international adoptions declined, due both to falling birth rates and the related increase in demand for adoptions by Chinese parents themselves. In an interview with

734:, a legal registration document that was required in order to marry, attend state-funded schools, or to receive health care. Many who were unable to pay the fee never attempted to obtain their 1174:

attributes this decrease to greater acceptance of family planning among the new generation of parents, as well as their increased prioritization of material comforts and individual happiness.

4650: 1967:

seemed to suggest that market-based incentives or increasing voluntariness is not morally better but that it is, in the end, more effective. In 1988, Zeng Yi and Professor T. Paul Schultz of

935:

enforcement was already prevalent in both rural and urban areas, preceding the launch of the one-child policy. However, during the 1970s, the Chinese government was still concerned that the

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policy would not reduce the growing population sufficiently. They felt the population would grow too fast to be supported, and a one-child policy for all families was introduced in 1979.

431:

and a country's well-being. Yet, in the domestic setting the state leaders were already wary of the perceived "population crisis" that was thought to endanger the modernization of China.

2931: 8783: 4758: 14171: 14397: 786:

illegally removed the device from their patients. This led to IUD inspections, ensuring that the IUD remained in place. Permanent legal removal of IUDs happens once a woman reaches

439:

solution to every problem. As a result, any proposal that was veiled and decorated by the so-called scientific back-ups would be highly considered by both the people and the state.

2060:

correspondent John Taylor, China outlawed the use of physical force to make a woman submit to an abortion or sterilization in 2002 but ineffectively enforced the measure. In 2012,

14756: 14673: 8817: 4687: 14808: 14793: 14611: 14504: 12019: 1824: 1733:". In this respect they do not legally exist and as a result cannot access most public services, such as education and health care, and do not receive protection under the law. 2706: 1158:

took place, children became more valued by their parents, as a source of agricultural production, and as a source of the care required by ageing parents. Due to the inherently

740:

for fear that the government would force extra fees upon them. Although some provinces had declared that payment of the "social child-raising fee" was not required to obtain a

127:

to promote the program and encourage compliance. The strictness with which it was enforced varied by period, region, and social status. In some cases, women were forced to use

8967: 12066: 1611:

The increase in the number of only-child girls resulted in gradual changes in social norms regarding gender, including a decrease in the inequalities between women and men.

1491:

The long-term disparity led to a significant gender imbalance or skewing of the sex ratio. As reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in 2015, China had between 32

1071:, revealed by Cai Fang, deputy director. "By 2050, one-third of the country will be aged 60 years or older, and there will be fewer workers supporting each retired person." 3788:, Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Lithuania; Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, August 1995, Section III paragraph 2, 100:

population was subject to the original restriction of the policy. In the mid-1980s, rural parents were allowed to have a second child if the first was a daughter. It also

8289: 859:

Some couples paid fines to have a second or third child, and others would attempt to circumvent the policy by having non-pregnant friends take the mandatory blood tests.

14100: 11886: 11347: 1086:, or government control over birth permits. Others had also stated that the abolition was not a sign of the relaxation of authoritarian control in China. A reporter for 6692: 14591: 13386: 1964: 1800:

by providing additional advantages. Recently though, the Hong Kong government has drastically reduced the quota of births set for non-local women in public hospitals.

1983:

of having many children. By the late 1980s, economic costs and incentives created by the contract system were already reducing the number of children farmers wanted.

1508:

to education and other resources such as job opportunities to parents in order to encourage the idea that having a daughter also has a positive impact on the family.

14243: 14042: 12398: 6662: 4644: 2053:

reported that women in their ninth month of pregnancy, or already in labour, were having their children killed whilst in the birth canal or immediately after birth.

427:

in 1969, they claimed that it was an imperialist agenda that Western countries imposed on Third World countries, and that population was not a determining factor of

5462:

China's Longest Campaign: Birth Planning in the People's Republic," Supplement: The New Politics of Population: conflict and Consensus in Family Planning, 1949-2005

5105: 1756:

sample of only children and children with siblings from similar backgrounds, they reported constant patterns in which the only children were rated less positively.

14621: 14581: 14336: 8369: 1037:, citing a communiqué issued by the CCP "to improve the balanced development of population" – an apparent reference to the country's female-to-male 828:. The efficacy of these products has been very low with a high mortality rate. The medical community and PRC have warned against use of these traditional methods. 3972: 12585: 12393: 10717: 4430: 1042: 682: 11235: 6718: 13905: 12009: 6781: 6373: 4494: 1015:

Health and Family Planning Commission claimed that this outcome was expected, and that the "second-child policy" would continue progressing with a good start.

663: 14690: 12035: 6230: 2072: 1894: 1772: 1007: 11288: 11092: 8350: 6321: 14035: 6573: 3181: 2760: 592: 10965: 8038: 4006: 14586: 14450: 14440: 14058: 12880: 10565: 1963:

According to a report by the US embassy, scholarship published by Chinese scholars and their presentations at the October 1997 Beijing conference of the

10086: 6927: 6252: 2665: 14696: 14181: 11910: 11639: 9316: 4868: 4333: 2577: 1515:

reported that the sex disparity in China was likely exaggerated due to administrative under-reporting and delayed registration of females, rather than

659: 120: 11187: 5494:

Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China To the United Nations Office At Geneva and Other International Organizations in Switzerland (1995)

4426: 2008:

of China were allowed to have two children without punishment, although the family is required to wait a couple of years before having another child.

824:. Women would ingest the toxins orally or by means of douching with the hopes of inducing abortion. An overdose could lead to death of the mother and 12403: 8626: 7647: 7234: 3336: 2957: 2145:

million girls 'missing' from the populations of China (and other developing countries) as a result of female infanticide, abandonment, and neglect".

1193:). The first two censuses date back to the 1950s and 1960s, and the last one in the 1980s. They were conducted in 1953, 1964, and 1982 respectively. 10936: 8847: 8755: 7875:

Goodkind, Daniel (2015). "The claim that China's fertility restrictions contributed to the use of prenatal sex selection: A sceptical reappraisal".

6821: 1975:

in agriculture during the early 1980s weakened family planning controls during that period. Zeng contended that the "big cooking pot" system of the

1415:, a claim designed to support the argument that China's fertility might have fallen to such levels anyway without draconian fertility restrictions. 14684: 14083: 14078: 6425: 2242: 1793: 6853: 6343: 14576: 14161: 11879: 10846: 10228: 10205: 8541: 1820: 1596:, it was believed that an increasing number of couples were turning to fertility medicine to induce the conception of twins. According to a 2006 702:

portrayed the experiences of enforcement, primarily focusing on rural China. Enforcement of the one-child policy was more uneven in rural China.

10626: 9720: 9343:[Spokesperson of the one-child policy committee: 11% or more of the population may have two children] (in Chinese). Sina. 10 July 2007. 6756: 6456: 6404: 4526: 3921: 793:

The most widely used alternative to IUDs has been sterilization. As the leading form of contraception in China, sterilization has included both

14724: 14678: 14196: 14191: 14145: 14128: 12545: 11914: 3159: 999: 790:. In 2016 as means of loosening restrictions and abolishing the one-child policy, the Chinese government now covers the price of IUD removals. 686: 12339: 10673: 4923: 4622: 3036: 2921: 1938:

The Chinese government, quoting Zhai Zhenwu, director of Renmin University's School of Sociology and Population in Beijing, estimates that 400

14596: 14479: 14445: 14435: 14341: 9156:

Zhang J, Sun L, Liu Y, Zhang J. 2014. The change in suicide rates between 2002 and 2011 in China. Suicide Life Threat. Behav. 44:5560–68 . In

8777: 7673: 4750: 116:. In July 2021, it removed all limits, shortly after implementing financial incentives to encourage individuals to have additional children. 11209: 7611: 4841: 3449: 3422: 3393: 3309: 2071:

as part of its population-planning policies, but the government backed away from such policies, as evidenced by China's ratification of the

14751: 14425: 10152: 7096: 5547: 3366: 178: 7983: 6622: 6540: 5248: 4997: 14803: 14798: 14362: 13930: 13449: 13434: 12713: 12578: 12436: 11446:

Alpermann, Björn; Zhan, Shaohua (2019). "Population Planning after the One-Child Policy: Shifting Modes of Political Steering in China".

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Anderson, Barbara A; Silver, Brian D (1995), "Ethnic Differences in Fertility and Sex Ratios at Birth in China: Evidence from Xinjiang",

6878: 4412: 2137: 1808: 420: 4679: 1987:

options, including those that emphasized delay and spacing of births, were known but not fully considered by China's political leaders.

681:

The one-child policy was managed by the National Population and Family Planning Commission under the central government since 1981. The

623:

25,000 in social compensation fees were owed in 2005. Thus far 11,500 RMB had been collected, so another 13,500 RMB had to be collected.

14484: 14430: 14372: 13843: 13287: 12423: 11872: 4901: 4789: 2784: 1132:

Rodriguez, for some couples the policy affirmed their own personal beliefs that having smaller families was wiser and more economical.

10987:

Sleeboom-Faulkner, Margaret Elizabeth (1 June 2011). "Genetic testing, governance, and the family in the People's Republic of China".

9216:

Hvistendahl M. 2011. Unnatural Selection: Choosing Boys Over Girls, and the Consequences of a World Full of Men New York: Public Aff.

8809: 3789: 2096: 1714:) or 'black child' is a term denoting children born outside the one-child policy, or generally children who are not registered in the 851:

have increased awareness of sex and contraceptive measures among groups of China's young population, further lowering the birth rate.

14886: 14534: 14460: 14133: 13213: 12104: 10910: 10755: 9507:"A Cross-Cultural Study of Filial Piety and Palliative Care Knowledge: Moderating Effect of Culture and Universality of Filial Piety" 9344: 9256: 2696: 11127: 14901: 14741: 14455: 14402: 14346: 14318: 14176: 14140: 14123: 13875: 13566: 13376: 12410: 12334: 10174: 8433:"Missing Girls or Hidden Girls? A Comment on Shi and Kennedy's "Delayed Registration and Identifying the 'Missing Girls' in China"" 7125: 5121: 2613: 2087:'s (UNFPA) support for family planning in China, which had been associated in the United States with the one-child policy, led the 1899: 9374: 365:, saying that "we encourage one child per couple. We give economic rewards to those who promise to give birth to only one child." 14813: 14529: 14313: 14308: 14303: 14298: 14293: 14288: 14283: 14278: 14273: 14268: 14263: 14258: 14217: 14108: 13399: 12873: 12821: 10697:

were all convicted for charges such as embezzlement and taking bribes, but they were not punished for having more than one child.

6292: 5165:

Hesketh, Therese; Zhou, Xudong; Wang, Yun (22 December 2015). "The End of the One-Child Policy: Lasting Implications for China".

329:, a founder of China's population planning theory, was also an intellectual architect of the policy. In the late spring of 1979, 6598: 4983: 1647:

A government sign in Tangshan Township: "For a prosperous, powerful nation and a happy family, please practice family planning."

14823: 14818: 14701: 13411: 12571: 11033: 8281: 1858:

in their old age since daughters were expected to marry and support their husbands' family. A common saying in rural areas was

635:, but at least for Guangdong residents, the one-child policy was also enforced if the birth took place in Hong Kong or abroad. 11343: 9207:

Ma L, Rizzi E, Turunen J. 2019. Childlessness, sex composition of children, and divorce risks in China. Demogr. Res. 41:753–79

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impacted whether or not the mother would seek an ultrasound for the second child. 40% of women with a firstborn son sought an

529:), was a control theorist at the Ministry of Aerospace Industry. He was known for his career in missile science. Yu Jingyuan ( 14553: 14494: 14382: 14377: 14367: 14118: 11670: 11614: 11505: 11059: 10893: 10108:

Falbo, T.; Polit, D.F. (1986). "Quantitative review of the only child literature: Research evidence and theory development".

9452:"Elderly Care and the One-Child Policy: Concerns, Expectations and Preparations for Elderly Life in a Rural Chinese Township" 9135: 8950: 8699: 8586: 5673: 5469: 4591: 4469: 3264: 2539: 2100: 1483:

found a similar pattern among both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province: a strong preference for girls in high

1041: – and to deal with an aging population. The new law took effect on 1 January 2016 after it was passed in the 962:

To convey the idea that couples should only have one child, the one-child campaign utilized traditional visual elements from

11682:

A Heart for Freedom: The Remarkable Journey of a Young Dissident, Her Daring Escape, and Her Quest to Free China's Daughters

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Zeng, Yi; et al. (1993), "Causes and Implications of the Recent Increase in the Reported Sex Ratio at Birth in China",

7205: 6684: 4559: 2135:, and the human rights organization Amnesty International have all declared that infanticide still exists. A writer for the 801:. Starting in the early 1970s, massive sterilization campaigns swept across the country. Urban and rural birth planning and 166:. However, the policy also resulted in greater workforce participation by women who would otherwise have been occupied with 14783: 14736: 14631: 14420: 14253: 14166: 13533: 13406: 12528: 12512: 11258: 7030:

Greenhalgh, Susan (2001). "Fresh Winds in Beijing: Chinese Feminists Speak Out on the One-child Policy and Women's Lives".

6524: 3767: 6136: 4654: 2284: 393:, while visiting Europe in 1980. Along with several associates, Song determined that the ideal population of China was 700 14392: 13935: 13249: 12651: 12355: 12294: 12174: 9782: 6652: 2057: 1116: 1951:

This claim is disputed by Wang Feng, director of the Brookings-Tsinghua Center for Public Policy, and Cai Yong from the

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Klára, Dubravčíková (2023). "Living Standards and Social Issues". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.).

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were produced by various government departments, ranging from ministries of health to local population policy centers.

10709: 9630:"Filial Piety by Contract? The Emergence, Implementation, and Implications of the "Family Support Agreement" in China" 7260: 475:). Liu's group mainly came from a social science background, while Song's group came from natural science background. 14788: 14616: 14601: 13827: 13143: 12718: 12669: 12507: 12431: 12181: 11928: 11895: 11436: 11227: 7826:"The Astonishing Population Averted by China's Birth Restrictions: Estimates, Nightmares, and Reprogrammed Ambitions" 7681: 7419: 7330: 6726: 5293: 5007: 4733: 4486: 4406: 4375: 4314: 4237: 4187: 4135: 4101: 3461: 3432: 3405: 3376: 3346: 3319: 3225: 2740: 2406: 2128: 191: 92: 11369:

Lubman, Sarah (15 March 2000). "Experts Allege Infanticide In China — 'Missing' Girls Killed, Abandoned, Pair Say".

4957: 1971:

discussed the effect of the transformation to the market on Chinese fertility, arguing that the introduction of the

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In the early 1970s, the state introduced a set of birth planning policies. It mainly called for later childbearing (

13581: 13391: 13080: 13065: 12641: 12415: 12380: 12219: 11231: 7729: 6222: 5144: 3816: 2132: 1577: 1420: 10958:"Implications of China's Ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities" 9760: 6313: 5209: 1024: 619:

The Danshan, Sichuan Province Nongchang Village people Public Affairs Bulletin Board in September 2005 noted that

381:

was a participant at the Chengdu meeting. He had previously read two influential books about population concerns,

14871: 14543: 14524: 14387: 13976: 13910: 12646: 12621: 12252: 12224: 11988: 11393: 11280: 11276: 9005: 5926: 3590: 2764: 2166: 2095:'s presidency, citing human rights abuses and stating that the right to "found a family" was protected under the 2061: 1972: 1123:, Melbourne, Australia forecast China's population would be 525 million in 2100 compared to 1.4 billion in 2024. 1120: 778:

has been one of the most widely promoted and practiced forms of contraception. It was the primary alternative to

726:

If the family was not able to pay the "social child-raising fee", then their child would not be able to obtain a

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Coale shows detailed birth and death data up to 1979, and gives a cultural environment to the famine in 1959–61.

3189: 1811:, all children born in the US automatically have US citizenship at birth. The closest US location from China is 14911: 14837: 14663: 14548: 13925: 13333: 13115: 12889: 12186: 10509: 10391: 9289:[Are 'four-two-one' families really a problem?] (in Chinese). 中国人口学会网 . 10 October 2010. Archived from 8259: 8197: 5291:

White, Tyrene (1994). "Two Kinds of Production: The Evolution of China's Family Planning Policy in the 1980s".

4277: 3994: 2169:

and Chinese researcher Yuan Jianhua have claimed that infanticide was fairly common in China before the 1990s.

2084: 643: 591:(usually three or four years). Children born overseas were not counted under the policy if they did not obtain 9682:"Does the one-child policy improve children's human capital in urban China? A regression discontinuity design" 7152: 14876: 14539: 14186: 12134: 12097: 10518: 10400: 9312: 6685:"China officially ends one-child policy, signing into law bill allowing married couples to have two children" 5512: 1697: 1463: 811: 308: 290: 272: 248:

million in 1976. Beginning in 1970, citizens were encouraged to marry at later ages and many were limited to

11650: 11412: 7179: 5510:

Sommer, Matthew H (2010). "Abortion in Late Imperial China: Routine Birth Control or Crisis Intervention?".

4864: 4306: 2567: 14778: 14773: 13313: 13198: 13188: 12765: 12209: 11180: 6657: 5400: 4434: 689:, took over national health and family planning policies in 2013. The agency reports to the State Council. 8616: 7640: 6365: 2968: 685:

and the National Population and Family Planning Commission were made defunct and a new single agency, the

14896: 14891: 14881: 13950: 13940: 13853: 13759: 13381: 13323: 12692: 12482: 12472: 12344: 12149: 12045: 12014: 11694: 8839: 8747: 8622: 8351:"It's a myth that China has 30 million "missing girls" because of the one-child policy, a new study says" 8069: 6985: 6813: 5274: 2195: 639: 155: 101: 10078: 8816:. Brandeis University, Schuster Institute for Investigative Journalism. 22 February 2011. Archived from 6847: 6433: 5419:"Review of China's Longest Campaign: Birth Planning in the People's Republic, 1949-2005 by Tyrene White" 2141:

wrote, "The 'one-child' policy has also led to what Amartya Sen first called 'Missing Women', or the 100

1471:

million more men than women in 2020, potentially leading to social instability, and courtship-motivated

74: 14648: 14519: 14248: 14113: 13822: 13282: 12930: 12806: 12636: 12540: 12388: 12367: 12289: 12169: 12144: 12139: 11918: 11712:

Scharping, Thomas (2019). "Abolishing the One-Child Policy: Stages, Issues and the Political Process".

11497: 10452: 8578: 8015: 7920: 6928:"China's birth rate falls again, with 2018 producing the fewest babies since 1961, official data shows" 6351: 3759: 3028: 2531: 1952: 1187:

Below are the results of the first three National Population Census of the People's Republic of China (

516: 105: 10236: 10213: 8471: 14866: 14090: 13732: 13556: 12963: 12925: 12920: 12811: 12314: 12159: 11606: 10649: 10358:

Junhong, Chu (2001). "Prenatal Sex Determination and Sex-Selective Abortion in Rural Central China".

10265:

Junhong, Chu (2001). "Prenatal Sex Determination and Sex-Selective Abortion in Rural Central China".

9728: 7293: 6750: 6464: 6398: 5487: 4585: 4398: 3890: 2237: 1034: 346: 249: 66: 4516: 3149: 2697:"One Child Nation Is a Haunting Documentary About a Country's Attempts to Justify the Unjustifiable" 1033:

announced the government's plans to abolish the one-child policy, now allowing all families to have

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It is also suggested that mathematical terms, graphs, and tables were utilized to form a convincing

13737: 13526: 13366: 13055: 12910: 12831: 12801: 12796: 12791: 12745: 12361: 12257: 12090: 11864: 10683: 8546: 4933: 4614: 2670: 2148:

The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation offered the following summary as to the long-term effects of

1841: 1816: 1788:

Reports surfaced of Chinese women giving birth to their second child overseas, a practice known as

1531:

The one-child policy has been a factor in China's rapid increase in higher educational attainment.

779: 389: 136: 7706: 3060:"A review of population theoretical research since the founding of the People's Republic of China" 714:

The one-child policy was a tool for China to not only address overpopulation, but to also address

14746: 14658: 14558: 13679: 13444: 13371: 13297: 13088: 12981: 12750: 12687: 12164: 12040: 11494:

Better 10 Graves Than One Extra Birth: China's Systemic Use of Coercion To Meet Population Quotas

11213: 7622: 7411: 7322: 4833: 4717: 4453: 2860: 1845: 1837: 628: 584: 195: 174: 151: 10138: 9261:['Four-two-one families', where is the road going?] (in Chinese). 云南日报网 . Archived from 7435: 6782:"China ends one-child policy — but critics warn new two-child policy won't end forced abortions" 1276:

Below are the results of population investigation after the implementation of one-child policy.

333:

became the first senior leader to propose the one-child policy. On 1 June 1979, Chen said that:

14212: 14062: 13848: 13806: 13801: 13684: 13561: 13093: 13075: 13030: 12915: 12786: 12740: 12677: 12662: 12502: 12304: 12247: 12050: 11983: 11742: 8648:

Johansson, Sten; Nygren, Olga (1991). "The missing girls of China: a new demographic account".

6630: 6548: 3614: 2149: 2088: 1730: 1453: 1425: 1393: 1074:

Although many critics of China's reproductive restrictions approved of the policy's abolition,

163: 14027: 11320: 10599: 8715: 6874: 5085: 5073: 4392: 1145:

urban residents also reported that supporting multiple children was expensive and burdensome.

14711: 13915: 13779: 13618: 13272: 13259: 12935: 12781: 12682: 12492: 12452: 12329: 12004: 11371: 7784: 5336: 4891: 4781: 2227: 2046: 2017: 1910: 1564: 1389: 1382: 1079: 1075: 759: 8618:

China's hidden children: Abandonment, adoption, and the human costs of the one- child policy

4811: 4291:

Mara, Hvistendahl (2010). "Has China outgrown the one-child policy?". No. 329. Science.

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China was deprived of data, skills, and state support to conduct population studies. Due to

13945: 13900: 13868: 13863: 13789: 13764: 13720: 13493: 13338: 13173: 12905: 12843: 12836: 12826: 12816: 12467: 12462: 12272: 11691:

China's Hidden Children: Abandonment, Adoption, and the Human Costs of the One-Child Policy

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and at the provincial and local level by specialized commissions. Officials used pervasive

96: 10914: 10794: 9403:"Gender and elder care in China: the influence of filial piety and structural constraints" 9338: 9262: 7918:

Li, Shiyu; Lin, Shuanglin (2016). "Population aging and China's social security reforms".

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China's Hidden Children, Abandonment, Adoption, and the Human Cost of the One-Child Policy

3861: 8: 14768: 14016: 13794: 13625: 13576: 13519: 13193: 13133: 13050: 12897: 12319: 11967: 11123: 9407: 8972: 5382: 5333:

The Spiral Road, Change in a Chinese Village through the Eyes of a Communist Party Leader

4725: 3756:

Radical Environmentalists, Criminal Pseudo-Scientists, and the Fatal Cult of Antihumanism

3029:"The Physics of Revenge: When Dr. Lu Gang's American Dream Died, Six People Died With It" 2958:"Population Growth in China: The Basic Characteristics of China's Demographic Transition" 2200: 2032: 1976: 1906: 1872:

The one-child policy has been a factor behind China's high urban household savings rate.

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social pressure, discovery of secret pregnancy, and community birth quotas. In 1995, the

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to discuss the speed and scope of one-child restrictions. The notable aerospace engineer

124: 10182: 9982: 5776: 5548:"This is how thousands of Chinese women defied the one-child policy to give birth twice" 5117: 2367: 2302: 1736: 14499: 14328: 13920: 13858: 13646: 13635: 13613: 13608: 13597: 13439: 13328: 13234: 13035: 12958: 12760: 12733: 12594: 12477: 11946: 11848: 11821: 11761: 11729: 11589: 11546: 11481: 11425: 11407: 10851: 10778: 10546: 10538: 10477: 10428: 10420: 10337: 10254:. Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America. Los Angeles. pp. 23–25. 10059: 10012: 9944: 9838: 9813: 9541: 9506: 9487: 9432: 9366: 9228: 9093: 9046: 9030: 8916: 8908: 8691: 8684: 8665: 8517: 8490: 8452: 8331: 8251: 8235: 8189: 8173: 8104: 7964: 7900: 7857: 7806: 7383: 7375: 7101: 7063: 7047: 7007: 6980: 6957: 6626: 6544: 6282: 6198: 6165: 6092: 6053: 6011: 5972: 5908: 5856: 5804: 5736: 5641: 5594: 5442: 5434: 5310: 5054: 4896: 4646:

29th session of the standing committee of the 8th People's Congress of Sichuan Province

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Greenhalgh, Susan. ""Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's One-Child Policy"".

3913: 3838: 3811: 3726: 3674: 3641: 3561: 3514: 3506: 3123: 3098: 2891: 2456: 2423: 2262:

Some demographers challenge that number, putting the figure at perhaps half that level.

2210: 2162: 1436: 1378: 1155: 836: 587:

were allowed to have more children. However, second children were sometimes subject to

221: 147: 113: 31:

with a single child. The text reads "Planned child birth is everyone's responsibility."

11533: 11516: 10505:"The "Missing Girls" of China and the Unintended Consequences of the One Child Policy" 10387:"The "Missing Girls" of China and the Unintended Consequences of the One Child Policy" 9115: 8575:

China's grandmothers: gender, family, and aging from late Qing to twenty-first century

7674:"China's Below-Replacement Fertility: Government Policy or Socioeconomic Development?" 7348:"The "Missing Girls" of China and the Unintended Consequences of the One Child Policy" 6110: 2813: 1631:

The one-child policy contributed to China's decrease in maternal and child mortality.

746:, most provinces still required families to pay retroactive fines after registration. 19: 13895: 13769: 13662: 13571: 13208: 13128: 12631: 12277: 12214: 12204: 12071: 11853: 11796: 11765: 11743:"From One Child to Two: Demographic Policies in China and their Impact on Population" 11733: 11698: 11666: 11610: 11581: 11576: 11559: 11550: 11538: 11501: 11485: 11473: 11432: 11315: 11004: 10889: 10786: 10645: 10550: 10530: 10485: 10469: 10465: 10432: 10412: 10371: 10329: 10321: 10282: 10278: 10252:

Holding up more than half the sky: Fertility control and women's empowerment in China

10051: 10004: 9996: 9936: 9928: 9889: 9843: 9701: 9659: 9651: 9595: 9587: 9546: 9528: 9491: 9479: 9471: 9451: 9436: 9424: 9235: 9190: 9182: 9131: 9127: 9085: 9081: 9038: 9022: 8946: 8900: 8695: 8592: 8582: 8522: 8456: 8413: 8323: 8243: 8181: 7968: 7892: 7849: 7798: 7748: 7698: 7694: 7415: 7387: 7367: 7326: 7297: 7235:"China's population shrinks again and could more than halve – here's what that means" 7055: 7012: 6590: 6203: 6185: 6084: 6045: 6003: 5964: 5900: 5861: 5843: 5808: 5796: 5788: 5741: 5723: 5679: 5669: 5633: 5629: 5586: 5582: 5529: 5465: 5446: 5217: 5190: 5182: 5081: 5058: 5046: 5003: 4979: 4729: 4549: 4465: 4402: 4371: 4328: 4250: 4200: 4157:

Greenhalgh, Susan. "Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's One-Child Policy".

4133:

Greenhalgh, Susan. "Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's One-Child Policy".

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elderly parents, and has also contributed to a shift in attitudes toward elder care.

483:

Social scientists involved in this discussion in the mid-1970s, including Liu Zheng (

132: 11560:"Population, Policy, and Politics: How Will History Judge China's One-Child Policy?" 11022: 11000: 10341: 10016: 9050: 8920: 8255: 8193: 7904: 7861: 7067: 4307:"Population, Policy, and Politics: How Will History Judge China's One-Child Policy?" 4097:"Population, Policy, and Politics: How Will History Judge China's One-Child Policy?" 2895: 14842: 14070: 13971: 13966: 13752: 13630: 13586: 13470: 13345: 12755: 12728: 12704: 12497: 12487: 12309: 12299: 11941: 11843: 11833: 11786: 11753: 11721: 11621: 11571: 11528: 11463: 11455: 10996: 10770: 10641: 10522: 10461: 10404: 10367: 10313: 10274: 10117: 10043: 9986: 9948: 9920: 9881: 9833: 9825: 9693: 9641: 9577: 9536: 9518: 9463: 9416: 9123: 9077: 9014: 8968:"How China's one-child policy overhauled the status and prospects of girls like me" 8890: 8882: 8657: 8512: 8502: 8444: 8403: 8225: 8163: 8130: 8096: 7956: 7929: 7884: 7839: 7810: 7788: 7738: 7690: 7359: 7039: 7002: 6994: 6900: 6493: 6193: 6177: 5892: 5851: 5835: 5780: 5731: 5715: 5625: 5578: 5521: 5426: 5372: 5302: 5174: 5036: 4721: 4581: 4457: 4323: 4246: 4196: 4110: 4066: 3905: 3833: 3825: 3669: 3653: 3619:

The Research Institute of the History and Literature of the Chinese Communist Party

3545: 3490: 3154: 3118: 3110: 2873: 2865: 2825: 2701: 2451: 2435: 2371: 2352:

Hvistendahl, Mara (17 September 2010). "Has China Outgrown The One-Child Policy?".

2306: 2205: 2076: 2050: 1797: 1484: 969: 848: 698: 596: 229: 109: 48: 11725: 11459: 11069: 10710:"China: Filmmaker Zhang Yimou fined $ 1M for breach of one-child policy - CNN.com" 10596:"PRC Family Planning: The Market Weakens Controls But Encourages Voluntary Limits" 7933: 7888: 5377: 5360: 5041: 5024: 3282:"The One Child Policy: A Moral Analysis of China's Most Extreme Population Policy" 2375: 1488:

more likely to engage in "stopping behavior", i.e., to stop having more children.

14653: 14412: 13981: 13742: 13292: 13229: 13163: 13123: 13105: 12973: 12858: 12533: 12324: 12242: 12154: 12129: 12113: 11814: 11640:"China's One-Child Policy and Multiple Caregiving: raising little suns in Xiamen" 11628: 10823: 10032:"Comparative Study of Behavioral Qualities of Only Children and Sibling Children" 9570:

The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences

8147: 7285: 6514: 3886: 2310: 2216: 2112: 1968: 1792:. Many went to Hong Kong, which is exempt from the one-child policy. Likewise, a 1459: 1441: 1083: 1038: 802: 719: 428: 199: 159: 142:

The population control program had wide-ranging social effects, particularly for

12563: 11262: 10121: 8134: 7206:"China's Population Decline Accelerates as Women Resist Pressure to Have Babies" 4461: 3657: 3398:

The Making of the Human Sciences in China: Historical and Conceptual Foundations

3114: 119:

Implementation of the policy was handled at the national level primarily by the

13986: 12613: 12282: 11757: 11064: 9681: 9582: 9565: 6288: 5489: 3703: 3362: 3218:

Birth control in China 1949–2000: Population policy and demographic development

2289: 2092: 1593: 1059: 815: 794: 767: 652: 609: 580: 257: 225: 28: 11775:"The Evolution of China's One-Child Policy and Its Effects on Family Outcomes" 10301: 9829: 9790: 9697: 9523: 9467: 8596: 8448: 8408: 8391: 7960: 7844: 7825: 7793: 7770: 7725:"The Evolution of China's One-Child Policy and Its Effects on Family Outcomes" 6998: 5430: 3494: 2549: 595:. Chinese citizens returning from abroad were allowed to have a second child. 14860: 13725: 13674: 13488: 13203: 13022: 12990: 12985: 12953: 11800: 11585: 11542: 11477: 10534: 10473: 10416: 10325: 10286: 10055: 10000: 9932: 9893: 9705: 9655: 9591: 9532: 9475: 9428: 9420: 9186: 9089: 9026: 8904: 8507: 8417: 8327: 7752: 7371: 6786: 6189: 6181: 6088: 6049: 6007: 5968: 5904: 5847: 5792: 5760: 5727: 5683: 5637: 5590: 5221: 5186: 5050: 4952: 3665: 3557: 3502: 3075: 2887: 2837: 2528:

Reproductive Realities in Modern China: Birth Control and Abortion, 1911-2021

2447: 2439: 2318: 2037: 1804: 1789: 1504:, there would be 24 million more men than women of marriageable age by 2020. 1449: 1373: 588: 342: 158:

and others of whom were adopted abroad. Over time, this skewed the country's

143: 128: 11157: 9991: 9966: 9646: 9629: 9290: 9170: 7126:"China scraps fines, will let families have as many children as they'd like" 5784: 5178: 3479:"Missile Science, Population Science: The Origins of China One-Child Policy" 3059: 2614:"China scraps fines, will let families have as many children as they'd like" 1768:

on intelligence and achievement – due to a lack of "dilution of resources".

204: 13774: 13500: 13483: 12656: 11857: 11008: 10489: 10333: 10008: 9940: 9847: 9663: 9599: 9550: 9483: 9194: 8526: 7896: 7853: 7802: 7702: 7059: 6207: 5865: 5800: 5745: 5533: 5525: 5488:

Information Office of the State council of the People’s Republic of China.

5194: 3847: 3683: 3132: 3083: 2465: 2383: 2326: 2186: 2104: 2091:

to pull out of the UNFPA during the Reagan administration, and again under

1980: 1933: 1715: 1171: 1170:

Since the 1990s, rural policy violations decreased sharply. Anthropologist

358: 261: 237: 167: 86: 11838: 10790: 10317: 9869: 9042: 8247: 8185: 7016: 5663: 4999:

Law in the People's Republic of China: Commentary, Readings, and Materials

2856:"The Great Expectations: Impact of One-Child Policy on Education of Girls" 2855: 949:

one-child policy expectations. Many young teenagers were required to read

170:, and some girls received greater familial investment in their education. 139:. Families who violated the policy faced large fines and other penalties. 14227: 13657: 13318: 13277: 13244: 13012: 13005: 12262: 12121: 11791: 11774: 10229:"Many Chinese giving birth in CNMI trying to get around one child policy" 10143: 9885: 8886: 7743: 7724: 4947: 4554: 4521: 3829: 2869: 2639: 2124: 2023: 1598: 1551:: "It is forbidden to discriminate against, abuse or abandon baby girls." 1520: 1444:

at birth in People's Republic of China, males per 100 females, 1980–2010.

1112: 647: 542: 354: 350: 265: 11593: 11468: 10542: 10526: 10504: 10424: 10408: 10386: 9908: 8912: 8895: 8870: 8335: 8311: 7379: 7363: 7347: 6096: 6072: 6057: 6033: 6015: 5991: 5976: 5952: 5438: 3510: 3478: 2878: 1905:

Please help rewrite or integrate negative information to other sections

14471: 13542: 13478: 13178: 13168: 13100: 12457: 12350: 12267: 11962: 11376: 10782: 10481: 10447: 10139:"Consultative Conference: 'The government must end the one-child rule'" 10063: 9924: 9750: 9097: 9065: 9034: 9000: 8686:

Death by Default: A Policy of Fatal Neglect in China's State Orphanages

8669: 8370:"Researchers may have 'found' many of China's 30 million missing girls" 8239: 8108: 7051: 6688: 5912: 5880: 5645: 5613: 5598: 5566: 5418: 5314: 4427:"Status of Population and Family Planning Program in China by Province" 4258: 4232: 4208: 4182: 4078: 4054: 3917: 3891:"Population Trends, Population Policy, and Population Studies in China" 3565: 3533: 3001: 2926: 2049:. A 1993 book by social scientist and anti-abortion political activist 1472: 1412: 763: 576: 217: 82: 78: 11820:

Hemminki, Elina; Wu, Zhuochun; Cao, Guiying; Viisainen, Kirsi (2005).

11517:"The Social and Sociological Consequences of China's One-Child Policy" 9965:

Cameron, L.; Erkal, N.; Gangadharan, L.; Meng, X. (22 February 2013).

8177: 6623:"Top legislature amends law to allow all couples to have two children" 6487: 6344:"Xinhua Insight: Heated discussion over loosening of one-child policy" 5143:

Choukhmane, Taha; Coeurdacier, Nicolas; Jin, Keyu (24 December 2021).

4651:

United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

3997:[The politics of one child in the People's Republic of China] 35: 13712: 13267: 13155: 12995: 12626: 10031: 8942: 6497: 2733:

Governing China's Population, From Leninist to Neoliberal Biopolitics

2041: 798: 787: 632: 520: 466: 456: 435: 424: 378: 326: 108:

under 10 million people. In 2015, the government raised the limit to

24: 11894: 10774: 10448:"China's Family Planning Policy: An Overview of Its Past and Future" 10047: 9018: 8661: 8230: 8213: 8168: 8151: 8100: 5896: 5823: 5703: 5306: 5210:"Chinese Who Violated One-Child Policy Remain Wary of Relaxed Rules" 3909: 2666:"What was China's one-child policy and why was it so controversial?" 2572: 1721:

Being excluded from the family register means they do not possess a

575:

have different policies and families whose first child suffers from

14222: 13784: 13707: 13668: 13239: 13183: 13040: 13000: 12196: 8392:"Delayed Registration and Identifying the "Missing Girls" in China" 7043: 6714: 5839: 5719: 3968: 3252: 2108: 2068: 1692: 1686: 1643: 1516: 1404: 1095: 1055: 820: 620: 330: 12082: 9868:

Feng, Xiao-Tian; Poston, Dudley L; Wang, Xiao-Tao (1 March 2014).

9066:"The One-Child Policy in Shanghai: Acceptance and Internalization" 8039:"China's 'missing women' theory likely overblown, researchers say" 7083:

The End of Children? Changing Trends in Childbearing and Childhood

5614:"The One-Child Policy in Shanghai: Acceptance and Internalization" 5567:"The One-Child Policy in Shanghai: Acceptance and Internalization" 754: 655:

of mainland China was close to 1.4 children per woman as of 2011.

349:, supported the policy, along with other senior leaders including 12234: 11603:

One Child: The Past and Future of China's Most Radical Experiment

9967:"Little Emperors: Behavioral Impacts of China's One-Child Policy" 9566:"Filial piety and psychological well-being in well older Chinese" 8779:

How China's one-child policy transformed US attitudes on adoption

8542:"China women still battling tradition, 70 years after revolution" 7290:

China's World View: Demystifying China to Prevent Global Conflict

5249:"Left in the Dark on Contraception, Young Chinese Seek Abortions" 1729:, which is "an identifying document, similar in some ways to the 1548: 783: 374: 362: 14674:

Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies

10822:. International Conference on Human Rights. 1968. Archived from 10627:"Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's One-Child Policy" 8070:"Study finds millions of China's 'missing girls' actually exist" 7771:"If Science Had Come First: A Billion Person Fable for the Ages" 7097:"China Says It Will Allow Couples to Have 3 Children, Up From 2" 6901:"Ending the One-Child Policy in China Shows Continued Imbalance" 4233:"Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's One-Child Policy" 4183:"Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's One-Child Policy" 4055:"Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's One-Child Policy" 3995:

La politique de l'enfant unique en République populaire de Chine

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The abolition having a significant benefit was uncertain, as a

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1776:

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Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 9006:Journal of Public Health Policy 8716:Chinese Orphanages: A Follow-up 7609: 7177: 6251:Levin, Dan (25 February 2014). 5558: 5540: 5201: 5158: 5136: 5110: 5099: 5074:"Film Review: One Child Nation" 5065: 5016: 4990: 4972: 4940: 4916: 4856: 4826: 4804: 4773: 4637: 4613:Qiang, Guo (28 December 2006). 4606: 4574: 4548:Hu, Huiting (18 October 2002). 4478: 4441: 4419: 4384: 4351: 4265: 4095:Feng, Wang (19 February 2013). 4024: 3993:da Silva, Pascal Rocha (2006). 3986: 3879: 3854: 3776: 3747: 3719: 3690: 3633: 3606: 3591:Chinese University of Hong Kong 3525: 3441: 3414: 3385: 3355: 3328: 3301: 3273: 3174: 3090: 2986: 2657: 2638:Meihan, Luo (13 January 2023). 2631: 2167:University of California, Davis 2045:forced to abort, usually by an 1981:insulated people from the costs 1867: 1432:Disparity in sex ratio at birth 750:Contraception and sterilization 404:environmental problems in China 95:began to be shaped by fears of 75:the country's population growth 14838:List of international rankings 14664:International Innovation Index 14587:HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate 13926:United Nations Population Fund 13541: 12890:Sexual and reproductive health 12417:Hong Kong Department of Health 11515:Cai, Yong; Feng, Wang (2021). 11210:"US State Department position" 10510:The Journal of Human Resources 10392:The Journal of Human Resources 10206:"Birth tourism on the upswing" 8966:Ren, Yuan (23 December 2013). 7984:"Sex Ratios at Birth in China" 7352:The Journal of Human Resources 7124:Cheng, Evelyn (21 July 2021). 5208:Zhao, Kiki (8 February 2016). 4278:University of California Press 3033:The Los Angeles Times Magazine 2994:"World Development Indicators" 2612:Cheng, Evelyn (21 July 2021). 2605: 2584: 2472: 2415: 2276: 2085:United Nations Population Fund 2030:According to the UK newspaper 1973:contract responsibility system 1710: 1701: 1290:2005 Population Sample Survey 907:), and having fewer children ( 676: 658:On 6 January 2010, the former 321: 312: 303: 294: 285: 276: 152:a cultural preference for sons 61: 39:Birth rate in China, 1950–2015 1: 14697:Tertiary education attainment 12652:In ancient and imperial times 11726:10.1080/10670564.2018.1542217 11714:Journal of Contemporary China 11460:10.1080/10670564.2018.1542218 11448:Journal of Contemporary China 11431:. 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Cambridge, United Kingdom: 2399:Women and China's Revolutions 2376:10.1126/science.329.5998.1458 2269: 1898:may compromise the article's 1731:American social security card 1467:Commission, there would be 30 1182: 993: 862: 208:China's population since 1950 185: 164:generation of "missing women" 14809:Percentage living in poverty 14720:Access to financial services 13314:Disorders of sex development 12766:Traditional Chinese marriage 12622:All-China Women's Federation 12529:China–Cornell–Oxford Project 12210:Traditional Chinese medicine 11413:Resources in other libraries 11126:. U.S. Department of State. 7672:Cai, Yong (September 2010). 6979:Hesketh, T; Zhu, SX (1997). 6875:"China's one-child calamity" 6658:International Business Times 5759:Peng, Xizhe (29 July 2011). 5464:. Cornell University Press. 5072:Ryan, Patrick (5 May 2023). 4890:Yardley, Jim (11 May 2008). 4712:Zhang, Angela Huyue (2024). 3727:"邓副总理会见英知名人士代表团并接受英国朋友的集体采访" 3158:(in Chinese). 7 April 2015. 3097:Potts, M. (19 August 2006). 2311:10.1126/science.358.6361.283 2067:In the past, China promoted 2047:injection of saline solution 1875: 1526: 1481:Anderson & Silver (1995) 1018: 705: 465:), and another group led by 182:and other negative effects. 7: 14347:Person-to-arable land ratio 13951:World Population Foundation 13941:World Population Conference 13854:World population milestones 13324:Reproductive system disease 12513:Water supply and sanitation 11695:University of Chicago Press 10941:The San Diego Union-Tribune 10741:Cultures of the world China 10503:Ebenstein, Avraham (2010). 10385:Ebenstein, Avraham (2010). 10122:10.1037/0033-2909.100.2.176 8999:Green, Lawrence W. (1988). 8623:University of Chicago Press 8135:10.1080/0032472031000148476 7346:Ebenstein, Avraham (2010). 6986:BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 5417:Kallgren, Joice K. (2007). 5275:University of Chicago Press 4462:10.4337/9781785368196.00016 3658:10.1136/bmj.38938.412593.80 3396:. 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(2006). 8579:Cambridge University Press 7921:Journal of Policy Modeling 7639:Sen, Amartya (June 2012). 7586:"2010年第六次全国人口普查主要数据公报（第1号" 7294:W. W. Norton & Company 7085:. 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(2011). 11607:Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 11408:Resources in your library 10820:"Proclamation of Teheran" 10446:Attane, Isabelle (2002). 9830:10.1007/s11113-009-9141-x 9698:10.1016/j.jce.2016.09.001 9524:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.787724 9468:10.1007/s10823-013-9218-1 8615:Johnson, Kay Ann (2016). 8449:10.1017/S0305741017001060 8409:10.1017/S0305741016001132 7961:10.1007/s12126-016-9261-7 7845:10.1007/s13524-017-0595-x 7824:Goodkind, Daniel (2017). 7794:10.1007/s13524-018-0661-z 7769:Goodkind, Daniel (2018). 7406:Hershatter, Gail (2019). 7317:Hershatter, Gail (2019). 6999:10.1136/bmj.314.7095.1685 6291:: BBC, 15 November 2013, 6141:Cotsen Children's Library 5668:. Boston: Mariner Books. 5431:10.1017/S0305741006000981 5365:The History of the Family 5029:The History of the Family 4590:. 14 February 1984. PBS. 4399:Stanford University Press 4391:Fong, Vanessa L. (2004). 3495:10.1017/S0305741005000184 3280:Lund, Allison C. (2020). 3027:Mann, Jim (7 June 1992). 2397:Hershatter, Gail (2019). 2238:Human population planning 1798:China's mainland passport 1607:Quality of life for women 1547:A roadside sign in rural 1294: 1189: 915: 903: 891: 776:intrauterine device (IUD) 551: 537: 531: 525: 503: 497: 491: 485: 471: 461: 369:Formulation of the policy 347:paramount leader of China 233: 162:toward men and created a 85:and defensibility from a 52: 23:A propaganda painting in 14642:Education and innovation 13738:Compulsory sterilization 13085:Gamete Cryopreservation 12931:Circumcision controversy 12911:Compulsory sterilization 12802:LGBTQ culture in Chengdu 12797:LGBTQ culture in Beijing 12746:Marriage in modern China 12719:Family planning policies 12340:Swine influenza outbreak 12140:Healthcare system reform 11896:Family planning policies 11815:Family Planning in China 11758:10.5477/cis/reis.172.141 10614:Social Sciences in China 9751: 9583:10.1093/geronb/61.5.p262 9421:10.1177/0891243202250734 9339: 9315:. 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BRILL. January 1989. 4718:Oxford University Press 4454:Edward Elgar Publishing 3754:Zubrin, Robert (2012). 3456:. Abingdon: Routledge. 3371:. Abingdon: Routledge. 2956:Bergaglio, Maristella. 2861:SSRN Electronic Journal 2012:Human rights violations 1846:sex-selective abortions 1627:Healthcare improvements 1280:Post-policy statistics 766:after the first child, 629:2008 Sichuan earthquake 612:– had no limit at all. 585:intellectual disability 196:Chinese economic reform 175:Chinese Communist Party 27:promotes the idea of a 14872:Birth control in China 14725:Development aid donors 14363:Population growth rate 13807:Zero population growth 13802:Sustainable population 13726:Malthusian catastrophe 13685:Overshoot (population) 13562:Demographic transition 13273:Genitourinary medicine 13076:In vitro fertilization 13031:Hormonal contraception 12916:Contraceptive security 12663:Good Wife, Wise Mother 12627:Female migrant workers 12335:Disease-related deaths 12295:lead poisoning scandal 12253:Cardiovascular disease 11984:Childless Hundred Days 11773:Zhang, Junsen (2017). 11423:Aird, John S. (1990). 11342:Steffensen, Jennifer. 11319:. 2010. Archived from 11186:. Inter Press Agency. 10110:Psychological Bulletin 9340:计生委新闻发言人:11%以上人口可生两个孩子 8495:Frontiers in Sociology 8018:. BBC. 12 January 2007 5879:Tien, H. Yuan (1980). 5526:10.1353/late.2004.0009 5460:White, Tyrene (2006). 4280:. p. Dust Jacket. 4001:(Report) (in French). 3613:Li, Qi (9 July 2019). 2159: 2150:sex-selective abortion 2129:US Department of State 2004:senior intellectuals. 1832:Sex-selective abortion 1809:birthright citizenship 1648: 1639:"Four-two-one" problem 1572:Transnational adoption 1552: 1454:Missing women of China 1445: 1426:sex-selective abortion 1394:Demographic transition 1385: 1197:Pre-policy statistics 771: 742: 736: 624: 400:family planning policy 340: 250:have only two children 244:million in 1949 to 940 209: 40: 32: 14912:Demographics of China 14485:Age at first marriage 14373:Net reproduction rate 14319:Population milestones 14101:Continents/subregions 14063:population statistics 13916:Population Connection 13780:Mere addition paradox 13619:Physiological density 12936:Intersex human rights 12263:Enterovirus 71 (EV71) 12187:Organ transplantation 11839:10.1186/1742-4755-2-5 11372:San Jose Mercury News 10318:10.1056/NEJMhpr051833 10083:The Los Angeles Times 10079:"The Little Emperors" 9647:10.1093/geront/gnq059 9371:People's Daily Online 9175:The Human Life Review 7785:Duke University Press 7184:www.chinadaily.com.cn 6486:Shen, Xinhua (2018). 5337:Iowa State University 3697:Xian, Quzhou (1980). 3220:. London: Routledge. 3058:Qu, H. 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New York: Viking. 2870:10.2139/ssrn.2655341 2233:Human overpopulation 1656:Impact on elder care 1513:University of Kansas 1400:total fertility rate 1154:were dismantled and 535:) and Li Guangyuan ( 384:The Limits to Growth 125:propaganda campaigns 14769:Human Poverty Index 14757:inequality-adjusted 14742:Irrigated land area 14480:Age at childbearing 14403:Past fertility rate 13795:Reproductive rights 13626:Population dynamics 13577:Population momentum 13194:Pregnancy from rape 13051:Intrauterine device 11968:Shidu (bereavement) 11680:Ling, Chai (2011). 10716:. 10 January 2014. 10655:on 29 October 2013. 10527:10.3368/jhr.45.1.87 10409:10.3368/jhr.45.1.87 10239:on 9 December 2012. 10227:Eugenio, Haidée V. 10204:Eugenio, Haidée V. 9983:2013Sci...339..953C 8973:The Daily Telegraph 8437:The China Quarterly 8396:The China Quarterly 7364:10.3368/jhr.45.1.87 6877:. 5 November 2015. 6820:. 29 October 2015. 6780:(29 October 2015). 6723:National Geographic 6717:(15 October 2015), 6523:. 29 October 2015. 6372:. 17 January 2014. 6354:on 21 January 2015. 6320:. 27 January 2015. 6229:(online ed.), 6111:"Population Policy" 5777:2011Sci...333..581P 5554:. 15 February 2020. 5513:Late Imperial China 5423:The China Quarterly 5247:Cai, Tiwen (2018). 4936:on 15 October 2007. 4358:Tien, H.Y. (1991). 3483:The China Quarterly 3192:on 24 December 2017 2974:on 15 December 2011 2368:2010Sci...329.1458H 2303:2017Sci...358..283H 2201:Shidu (bereavement) 2033:The Daily Telegraph 1999:million yuan ($ 1.2 1991:Unequal enforcement 1743:Shidu (bereavement) 1369:Fertility reduction 1281: 1198: 1121:Victoria University 1051:Wall Street Journal 980:Material incentives 841:birth control pills 716:poverty alleviation 664:12th five-year plan 593:Chinese citizenship 577:physical disability 67:population planning 14897:1980 introductions 14892:1978 introductions 14882:Population ecology 14530:Net migration rate 14510:Ethnic composition 14329:Population density 14206:Cities/urban areas 14079:Current population 14059:Lists of countries 13921:Population Matters 13636:Population pyramid 13614:Population density 13609:Population decline 13440:History of condoms 13329:Sexual dysfunction 13235:Sexual orientation 13189:Options counseling 13036:Male contraception 12959:Genetic counseling 12761:Polyandry in Tibet 12734:Three-child policy 12693:Female infanticide 12483:Population history 12473:Illegal drug trade 12170:Hospitals in China 12150:Health informatics 12046:Female infanticide 12015:Population history 11947:Three-child policy 11601:Fong, Mei (2015). 11496:. Washington, DC: 11323:on 1 November 2012 11265:on 9 October 2006. 11072:on 21 October 2007 10826:on 17 October 2007 10800:on 29 October 2013 10686:on 10 October 2008 9925:10.1007/bf02828198 9793:on 31 October 2010 8820:on 7 February 2012 8692:Human Rights Watch 8431:Cai, Yong (2017). 8123:Population Studies 7982:Wei, Chen (2005). 7877:Population Studies 7536:"第四次全国人口普查公报（第1号）" 7102:The New York Times 6960:. BBC. 31 May 2021 6729:on 31 October 2015 6633:on 10 October 2017 6627:Xinhua News Agency 6551:on 31 October 2015 6436:on 23 January 2015 6257:The New York Times 6115:Chineseposters.net 5662:Fong, Mei (2016). 5214:The New York Times 5152:tahachoukhmane.com 5078:SSRN Working Paper 4897:The New York Times 4786:The New York Times 4684:The New York Times 4491:The New York Times 4368:Praeger Publishing 4005:. pp. 22–28. 3866:CIA World Factbook 2211:Three-child policy 2163:G. William Skinner 1907:through discussion 1794:Hong Kong passport 1649: 1553: 1446: 1386: 1379:population pyramid 1302:6th Census (2010) 1287:4th Census (1990) 1279: 1210:3rd Census (1982) 1207:2nd Census (1964) 1204:1st Census (1953) 1196: 1156:decollectivization 837:morning-after pill 772: 640:affirmative action 625: 511:Natural scientists 222:Great Leap Forward 210: 102:allowed exceptions 41: 33: 14852: 14851: 14824:Wealth inequality 14819:Unemployment rate 14356:Growth indicators 14218:National capitals 14025: 14024: 13896:7 Billion Actions 13770:Population ethics 13663:Carrying capacity 13572:Population growth 13509: 13508: 13209:Teenage pregnancy 12926:Genital integrity 12856: 12855: 12852: 12851: 12561: 12560: 12356:COVID-19 pandemic 12290:Iodine deficiency 12205:Medicine in China 12080: 12079: 11672:978-0-520-25339-1 11616:978-0-544-27539-3 11507:978-1-931550-92-5 11394:Library resources 11316:All Girls Allowed 10895:978-0-15-162662-5 10881:A Mother's Ordeal 10640:(June): 163–196. 10312:(11): 1171–1176. 10151:. 16 March 2007. 10036:Child Development 9977:(6122): 953–957. 9731:on 16 August 2022 9634:The Gerontologist 9137:978-0-203-38955-3 8952:978-1-03-239508-1 8810:"China: Adoption" 8701:978-1-56432-163-3 8588:978-1-009-06478-1 8476:New Security Beat 8095:(June): 283–302, 7159:. 13 October 2023 6907:. 29 October 2021 6755:, December 2014, 6403:, February 2014, 6176:(10): 1858–1859. 5771:(6042): 581–587. 5708:The China Journal 5675:978-0-544-27539-3 5471:978-0-8014-4405-0 5339:: Westview Press. 5173:(24): 2619–2620. 4471:978-1-78536-819-6 4437:on 30 March 2012. 3652:(7564): 361–362. 3287:DePauw University 3266:978-1-9848-7828-1 2541:978-1-009-02733-5 2434:(7215): 992–994. 2362:(5998): 1458–61. 2297:(6361): 283–284. 2223:Abortion in China 1977:People's Communes 1928: 1927: 1366: 1365: 1307:Total population 1274: 1273: 1215:Total population 770:after the second" 644:ethnic minorities 642:policies towards 479:Social scientists 133:receive abortions 106:ethnic minorities 14919: 14867:One-child policy 14843:Lists by country 14554:Urban population 14495:Dependency ratio 14383:Number of deaths 14378:Number of births 14368:Natural increase 14155:Intercontinental 14052: 14045: 14038: 14029: 14028: 14015: 14014: 14003: 14002: 13972:Green Revolution 13753:Two-child policy 13748:One-child policy 13671: 13631:Population model 13587:World population 13536: 13529: 13522: 13513: 13512: 13471:Two-child policy 13466:One-child policy 13346:Gender dysphoria 12883: 12876: 12869: 12860: 12859: 12756:New Marriage Law 12729:Two-child policy 12724:One-child policy 12610: 12609: 12588: 12581: 12574: 12565: 12564: 12320:Pneumonic plague 12258:Chronic diseases 12248:Blue-ear disease 12107: 12100: 12093: 12084: 12083: 11942:Two-child policy 11937:One-child policy 11889: 11882: 11875: 11866: 11865: 11861: 11851: 11841: 11804: 11794: 11769: 11747: 11737: 11720:(117): 327–347. 11708: 11685: 11676: 11657: 11655: 11644: 11634: 11620: 11597: 11579: 11554: 11536: 11511: 11489: 11471: 11454:(117): 348–366. 11442: 11430: 11399:One-child policy 11381: 11380: 11366: 11360: 11359: 11357: 11355: 11339: 11333: 11332: 11330: 11328: 11307: 11301: 11300: 11298: 11296: 11273: 11267: 11266: 11261:. Archived from 11254: 11248: 11247: 11245: 11243: 11224: 11218: 11217: 11206: 11200: 11199: 11197: 11195: 11176: 11170: 11169: 11167: 11165: 11146: 11140: 11139: 11137: 11135: 11119: 11113: 11112: 11110: 11108: 11088: 11082: 11081: 11079: 11077: 11068:. Archived from 11055: 11049: 11048: 11046: 11044: 11038: 11027: 11019: 11013: 11012: 10984: 10978: 10977: 10975: 10973: 10955: 10951: 10945: 10944: 10933: 10927: 10926: 10924: 10922: 10906: 10900: 10899: 10875: 10869: 10868: 10866: 10864: 10842: 10836: 10835: 10833: 10831: 10816: 10810: 10809: 10807: 10805: 10799: 10793:. Archived from 10760: 10751: 10745: 10744: 10736: 10730: 10729: 10727: 10725: 10706: 10700: 10699: 10693: 10691: 10670: 10657: 10656: 10654: 10648:. Archived from 10631: 10622: 10616: 10610: 10604: 10603: 10592: 10586: 10585: 10583: 10581: 10561: 10555: 10554: 10500: 10494: 10493: 10443: 10437: 10436: 10382: 10376: 10375: 10355: 10346: 10345: 10297: 10291: 10290: 10262: 10256: 10255: 10247: 10241: 10240: 10235:. Archived from 10224: 10218: 10217: 10212:. Archived from 10201: 10195: 10194: 10192: 10190: 10185:on 29 April 2007 10171: 10165: 10164: 10162: 10160: 10135: 10126: 10125: 10105: 10099: 10098: 10096: 10094: 10074: 10068: 10067: 10027: 10021: 10020: 9994: 9962: 9953: 9952: 9904: 9898: 9897: 9865: 9852: 9851: 9841: 9809: 9803: 9802: 9800: 9798: 9789:. Archived from 9779: 9773: 9772: 9770: 9768: 9747: 9741: 9740: 9738: 9736: 9727:. Archived from 9716: 9710: 9709: 9677: 9668: 9667: 9649: 9625: 9604: 9603: 9585: 9561: 9555: 9554: 9544: 9526: 9502: 9496: 9495: 9447: 9441: 9440: 9398: 9387: 9386: 9384: 9382: 9363: 9357: 9356: 9354: 9352: 9335: 9329: 9328: 9326: 9324: 9309: 9303: 9302: 9300: 9298: 9281: 9275: 9274: 9272: 9270: 9252: 9246: 9245: 9233: 9223: 9217: 9214: 9208: 9205: 9199: 9198: 9166: 9157: 9154: 9148: 9147: 9146: 9144: 9111: 9102: 9101: 9061: 9055: 9054: 8996: 8990: 8989: 8987: 8985: 8963: 8957: 8956: 8934: 8925: 8924: 8898: 8866: 8860: 8859: 8857: 8855: 8836: 8830: 8829: 8827: 8825: 8814:www.brandeis.edu 8806: 8795: 8794: 8793: 8791: 8774: 8768: 8767: 8765: 8763: 8744: 8738: 8737: 8735: 8733: 8727: 8720: 8712: 8706: 8705: 8689: 8680: 8674: 8673: 8645: 8639: 8638: 8636: 8634: 8612: 8601: 8600: 8570: 8564: 8563: 8561: 8559: 8537: 8531: 8530: 8520: 8510: 8486: 8480: 8479: 8467: 8461: 8460: 8443:(231): 797–803. 8428: 8422: 8421: 8411: 8387: 8378: 8377: 8365: 8359: 8358: 8346: 8340: 8339: 8307: 8301: 8300: 8299: 8297: 8288:, October 2015, 8278: 8272: 8271: 8269: 8267: 8233: 8210:Also printed as 8209: 8207: 8205: 8171: 8144: 8138: 8137: 8129:(July): 211–26, 8118: 8112: 8111: 8084: 8078: 8077: 8065: 8059: 8058: 8056: 8054: 8034: 8028: 8027: 8025: 8023: 8012: 8006: 8005: 8003: 8001: 7995: 7989:. Archived from 7988: 7979: 7973: 7972: 7944: 7938: 7937: 7915: 7909: 7908: 7872: 7866: 7865: 7847: 7838:(4): 1375–1399. 7821: 7815: 7814: 7796: 7766: 7757: 7756: 7746: 7720: 7714: 7713: 7712:on 22 July 2015. 7711: 7705:. Archived from 7678: 7669: 7663: 7662: 7660: 7658: 7652: 7645: 7636: 7630: 7629: 7628:on 23 June 2016. 7627: 7616: 7607: 7601: 7600: 7598: 7596: 7582: 7576: 7575: 7573: 7571: 7557: 7551: 7550: 7548: 7546: 7532: 7526: 7525: 7523: 7521: 7507: 7501: 7500: 7498: 7496: 7482: 7476: 7475: 7473: 7471: 7457: 7451: 7450: 7448: 7446: 7432: 7426: 7425: 7403: 7392: 7391: 7343: 7337: 7336: 7314: 7308: 7307: 7292:. New York, NY: 7286:Li, David Daokui 7282: 7276: 7275: 7273: 7271: 7256: 7250: 7249: 7247: 7245: 7239:The Conversation 7230: 7221: 7220: 7218: 7216: 7201: 7195: 7194: 7192: 7190: 7175: 7169: 7168: 7166: 7164: 7149: 7143: 7142: 7140: 7138: 7121: 7115: 7114: 7112: 7110: 7093: 7087: 7086: 7078: 7072: 7071: 7027: 7021: 7020: 7010: 6993:(7095): 1685–7. 6976: 6970: 6969: 6967: 6965: 6954: 6948: 6947: 6945: 6943: 6923: 6917: 6916: 6914: 6912: 6897: 6891: 6890: 6888: 6886: 6871: 6865: 6864: 6863: 6861: 6843: 6834: 6833: 6831: 6829: 6810: 6804: 6803: 6801: 6799: 6774: 6768: 6767: 6766: 6764: 6747: 6738: 6737: 6736: 6734: 6725:, archived from 6711: 6705: 6704: 6702: 6700: 6681: 6675: 6674: 6672: 6670: 6649: 6643: 6642: 6640: 6638: 6619: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6606: 6585: 6583: 6581: 6560: 6558: 6556: 6536: 6534: 6532: 6508: 6502: 6501: 6498:10.14264/c2861a6 6483: 6477: 6476: 6474: 6472: 6463:. Archived from 6452: 6446: 6445: 6443: 6441: 6432:. Archived from 6422: 6416: 6415: 6414: 6412: 6395: 6386: 6385: 6383: 6381: 6362: 6356: 6355: 6350:. Archived from 6340: 6334: 6333: 6331: 6329: 6310: 6304: 6303: 6302: 6300: 6279: 6273: 6272: 6270: 6268: 6248: 6242: 6241: 6240: 6238: 6218: 6212: 6211: 6201: 6161: 6152: 6151: 6149: 6147: 6132: 6126: 6125: 6123: 6121: 6107: 6101: 6100: 6068: 6062: 6061: 6029: 6020: 6019: 5987: 5981: 5980: 5948: 5942: 5941: 5939: 5937: 5923: 5917: 5916: 5876: 5870: 5869: 5859: 5819: 5813: 5812: 5756: 5750: 5749: 5739: 5699: 5688: 5687: 5659: 5650: 5649: 5609: 5603: 5602: 5562: 5556: 5555: 5544: 5538: 5537: 5507: 5498: 5497: 5485: 5476: 5475: 5457: 5451: 5450: 5425:(189): 190–192. 5414: 5405: 5404: 5396: 5387: 5386: 5380: 5356: 5341: 5340: 5328: 5319: 5318: 5288: 5279: 5278: 5266: 5253: 5252: 5244: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5205: 5199: 5198: 5162: 5156: 5155: 5149: 5140: 5134: 5133: 5131: 5129: 5114: 5108: 5103: 5097: 5096: 5094: 5092: 5069: 5063: 5062: 5044: 5020: 5014: 5013: 4994: 4988: 4987: 4976: 4970: 4969: 4967: 4965: 4944: 4938: 4937: 4920: 4914: 4913: 4911: 4909: 4887: 4881: 4880: 4878: 4876: 4860: 4854: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4830: 4824: 4823: 4821: 4819: 4808: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4797: 4777: 4771: 4770: 4768: 4766: 4746: 4740: 4739: 4709: 4700: 4699: 4697: 4695: 4675: 4666: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4649:(rev ed.), 4641: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4578: 4572: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4525:. 11 July 2007. 4513: 4507: 4506: 4504: 4502: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4433:. Archived from 4423: 4417: 4416: 4388: 4382: 4381: 4365: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4338: 4331: 4311: 4302: 4293: 4292: 4288: 4282: 4281: 4269: 4263: 4262: 4228: 4213: 4212: 4178: 4167: 4166: 4154: 4145: 4144: 4130: 4121: 4120: 4118: 4092: 4083: 4082: 4050: 4041: 4040: 4028: 4022: 4021: 4019: 4017: 4011: 4000: 3990: 3984: 3983: 3982: 3980: 3955: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3926: 3895: 3887:Coale, Ansley J. 3883: 3877: 3876: 3874: 3872: 3858: 3852: 3851: 3841: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3799: 3797: 3780: 3774: 3773: 3769:978-1-59403476-3 3760:The New Atlantis 3751: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3723: 3717: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3694: 3688: 3687: 3677: 3637: 3631: 3630: 3628: 3626: 3610: 3604: 3603: 3601: 3599: 3581: 3570: 3569: 3529: 3523: 3522: 3489:(182): 253–276. 3474: 3468: 3467: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3418: 3412: 3411: 3389: 3383: 3382: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3332: 3326: 3325: 3305: 3299: 3298: 3296: 3294: 3277: 3271: 3270: 3249: 3232: 3231: 3213: 3202: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3188:. Archived from 3178: 3172: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3155:Fudan University 3146: 3137: 3136: 3126: 3109:(7564): 361–62. 3094: 3088: 3087: 3055: 3049: 3048: 3046: 3044: 3024: 3018: 3017: 3015: 3013: 2990: 2984: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2973: 2967:. Archived from 2965:Global Geografia 2962: 2953: 2944: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2917: 2900: 2899: 2881: 2851: 2842: 2841: 2809: 2800: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2780: 2769: 2768: 2767:on 21 July 2011. 2756: 2747: 2746: 2728: 2719: 2718: 2716: 2714: 2692: 2683: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2661: 2655: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2635: 2629: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2588: 2582: 2581: 2563: 2554: 2553: 2523: 2496: 2495: 2493: 2491: 2476: 2470: 2469: 2459: 2419: 2413: 2412: 2394: 2388: 2387: 2349: 2338: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2280: 2263: 2260: 2206:Two-child policy 2189: 2184: 2183: 2182: 2144: 2077:informed consent 2051:Steven W. Mosher 2002: 1998: 1959: 1946: 1941: 1923: 1920: 1914: 1888: 1887: 1880: 1863: 1861:Yang'er Fang Lao 1728: 1712: 1703: 1498: 1494: 1470: 1297: 1296: 1282: 1278: 1199: 1195: 1192: 1191: 1127:Public responses 1084:forced abortions 1065: 1013: 989: 967: 954: 940: 918: 917: 912: 906: 905: 900: 894: 893: 888: 881: 872: 849:sexual education 818:, also known as 745: 739: 733: 699:One Child Nation 671:two-child policy 597:Sichuan province 554: 553: 540: 539: 534: 533: 528: 527: 506: 505: 500: 499: 494: 493: 489:), Wu Cangping ( 488: 487: 474: 473: 464: 463: 396: 323: 314: 305: 296: 287: 278: 247: 243: 235: 63: 54: 45:one-child policy 14927: 14926: 14922: 14921: 14920: 14918: 14917: 14916: 14857: 14856: 14853: 14848: 14847: 14828: 14784:Income equality 14737:Employment rate 14706: 14654:Education Index 14637: 14632:Body mass index 14563: 14465: 14413:Life expectancy 14407: 14351: 14337:Current density 14323: 14237:Past and future 14232: 14201: 14150: 14095: 14065: 14056: 14026: 14021: 13991: 13955: 13889: 13887: 13880: 13832: 13811: 13760:Overconsumption 13743:Family planning 13700: 13694: 13667: 13651: 13648: 13640: 13602: 13599: 13591: 13545: 13540: 13510: 13505: 13454: 13423: 13396:United Kingdom 13350: 13302: 13293:Sexual medicine 13254: 13230:Gender identity 13218: 13164:Maternal health 13150: 13110: 13106:fertility fraud 13067: 13060: 13017: 12968: 12942: 12892: 12887: 12857: 12848: 12822:same-sex unions 12770: 12699: 12601: 12592: 12562: 12557: 12550: 12534:The China Study 12517: 12441: 12375: 12368:Omicron variant 12243:Avian influenza 12229: 12191: 12182:Medical schools 12155:Barefoot doctor 12116: 12114:Health in China 12111: 12081: 12076: 12055: 12024: 11993: 11972: 11951: 11923: 11899: 11893: 11811: 11745: 11705: 11673: 11656:on 24 May 2012. 11653: 11642: 11617: 11508: 11492: 11439: 11419: 11418: 11417: 11402: 11401: 11397: 11390: 11388:Further reading 11385: 11384: 11367: 11363: 11353: 11351: 11340: 11336: 11326: 11324: 11309: 11308: 11304: 11294: 11292: 11274: 11270: 11255: 11251: 11241: 11239: 11226: 11225: 11221: 11208: 11207: 11203: 11193: 11191: 11177: 11173: 11163: 11161: 11148: 11147: 11143: 11133: 11131: 11120: 11116: 11106: 11104: 11089: 11085: 11075: 11073: 11056: 11052: 11042: 11040: 11036: 11025: 11021: 11020: 11016: 10985: 10981: 10971: 10969: 10956: 10953: 10952: 10948: 10935: 10934: 10930: 10920: 10918: 10917:on 12 June 2008 10907: 10903: 10896: 10876: 10872: 10862: 10860: 10843: 10839: 10829: 10827: 10818: 10817: 10813: 10803: 10801: 10797: 10775:10.2307/2939211 10758: 10752: 10748: 10737: 10733: 10723: 10721: 10708: 10707: 10703: 10689: 10687: 10672: 10671: 10660: 10652: 10629: 10623: 10619: 10611: 10607: 10594: 10593: 10589: 10579: 10577: 10570:Telegraph.co.uk 10562: 10558: 10501: 10497: 10444: 10440: 10383: 10379: 10356: 10349: 10298: 10294: 10263: 10259: 10248: 10244: 10225: 10221: 10216:on 16 May 2012. 10202: 10198: 10188: 10186: 10173: 10172: 10168: 10158: 10156: 10137: 10136: 10129: 10106: 10102: 10092: 10090: 10075: 10071: 10048:10.2307/1130591 10028: 10024: 9963: 9956: 9905: 9901: 9866: 9855: 9810: 9806: 9796: 9794: 9781: 9780: 9776: 9766: 9764: 9759:(in Japanese). 9753: 9749: 9748: 9744: 9734: 9732: 9717: 9713: 9678: 9671: 9626: 9607: 9576:(5): P262–269. 9562: 9558: 9503: 9499: 9448: 9444: 9399: 9390: 9380: 9378: 9365: 9364: 9360: 9350: 9348: 9341: 9337: 9336: 9332: 9322: 9320: 9311: 9310: 9306: 9296: 9294: 9287: 9283: 9282: 9278: 9268: 9266: 9265:on 18 July 2011 9259: 9253: 9249: 9242: 9224: 9220: 9215: 9211: 9206: 9202: 9167: 9160: 9155: 9151: 9142: 9140: 9138: 9112: 9105: 9062: 9058: 9019:10.2307/3343010 8997: 8993: 8983: 8981: 8964: 8960: 8953: 8935: 8928: 8867: 8863: 8853: 8851: 8838: 8837: 8833: 8823: 8821: 8808: 8807: 8798: 8789: 8787: 8776: 8775: 8771: 8761: 8759: 8746: 8745: 8741: 8731: 8729: 8725: 8718: 8714: 8713: 8709: 8702: 8682: 8681: 8677: 8662:10.2307/1972351 8646: 8642: 8632: 8630: 8613: 8604: 8589: 8571: 8567: 8557: 8555: 8538: 8534: 8487: 8483: 8468: 8464: 8429: 8425: 8388: 8381: 8374:Washington Post 8366: 8362: 8347: 8343: 8308: 8304: 8295: 8293: 8280: 8279: 8275: 8265: 8263: 8231:10.2307/2061752 8203: 8201: 8169:10.2307/2061752 8148:Coale, Ansley J 8145: 8141: 8119: 8115: 8101:10.2307/2938438 8085: 8081: 8066: 8062: 8052: 8050: 8035: 8031: 8021: 8019: 8014: 8013: 8009: 7999: 7997: 7996:on 18 July 2006 7993: 7986: 7980: 7976: 7945: 7941: 7916: 7912: 7873: 7869: 7822: 7818: 7767: 7760: 7721: 7717: 7709: 7676: 7670: 7666: 7656: 7654: 7650: 7643: 7637: 7633: 7625: 7614: 7608: 7604: 7594: 7592: 7584: 7583: 7579: 7569: 7567: 7559: 7558: 7554: 7544: 7542: 7534: 7533: 7529: 7519: 7517: 7509: 7508: 7504: 7494: 7492: 7484: 7483: 7479: 7469: 7467: 7459: 7458: 7454: 7444: 7442: 7434: 7433: 7429: 7422: 7404: 7395: 7344: 7340: 7333: 7315: 7311: 7304: 7283: 7279: 7269: 7267: 7257: 7253: 7243: 7241: 7231: 7224: 7214: 7212: 7202: 7198: 7188: 7186: 7176: 7172: 7162: 7160: 7151: 7150: 7146: 7136: 7134: 7122: 7118: 7108: 7106: 7095: 7094: 7090: 7079: 7075: 7028: 7024: 6977: 6973: 6963: 6961: 6956: 6955: 6951: 6941: 6939: 6924: 6920: 6910: 6908: 6899: 6898: 6894: 6884: 6882: 6873: 6872: 6868: 6859: 6857: 6844: 6837: 6827: 6825: 6818:www.amnesty.org 6812: 6811: 6807: 6797: 6795: 6775: 6771: 6762: 6760: 6749: 6748: 6741: 6732: 6730: 6712: 6708: 6698: 6696: 6683: 6682: 6678: 6668: 6666: 6651: 6650: 6646: 6636: 6634: 6621: 6620: 6616: 6604: 6602: 6579: 6577: 6554: 6552: 6539: 6530: 6528: 6513: 6510:News coverage: 6509: 6505: 6484: 6480: 6470: 6468: 6453: 6449: 6439: 6437: 6424: 6423: 6419: 6410: 6408: 6397: 6396: 6389: 6379: 6377: 6364: 6363: 6359: 6342: 6341: 6337: 6327: 6325: 6312: 6311: 6307: 6298: 6296: 6281: 6280: 6276: 6266: 6264: 6249: 6245: 6236: 6234: 6219: 6215: 6162: 6155: 6145: 6143: 6133: 6129: 6119: 6117: 6109: 6108: 6104: 6069: 6065: 6030: 6023: 5988: 5984: 5949: 5945: 5935: 5933: 5931:thediplomat.com 5925: 5924: 5920: 5897:10.2307/2947873 5877: 5873: 5820: 5816: 5757: 5753: 5700: 5691: 5676: 5660: 5653: 5610: 5606: 5563: 5559: 5546: 5545: 5541: 5508: 5501: 5486: 5479: 5472: 5458: 5454: 5415: 5408: 5397: 5390: 5357: 5344: 5329: 5322: 5307:10.2307/2807944 5289: 5282: 5267: 5256: 5245: 5236: 5226: 5224: 5206: 5202: 5163: 5159: 5147: 5141: 5137: 5127: 5125: 5116: 5115: 5111: 5104: 5100: 5090: 5088: 5070: 5066: 5021: 5017: 5010: 4996: 4995: 4991: 4978: 4977: 4973: 4963: 4961: 4946: 4945: 4941: 4922: 4921: 4917: 4907: 4905: 4888: 4884: 4874: 4872: 4867:. Shanghaiist. 4861: 4857: 4847: 4845: 4838:Morning Edition 4832: 4831: 4827: 4817: 4815: 4810: 4809: 4805: 4795: 4793: 4778: 4774: 4764: 4762: 4747: 4743: 4736: 4710: 4703: 4693: 4691: 4676: 4669: 4660: 4658: 4643: 4642: 4638: 4628: 4626: 4611: 4607: 4597: 4595: 4580: 4579: 4575: 4565: 4563: 4546: 4542: 4532: 4530: 4515: 4514: 4510: 4500: 4498: 4483: 4479: 4472: 4446: 4442: 4425: 4424: 4420: 4409: 4401:. p. 179. 4389: 4385: 4378: 4356: 4352: 4342: 4340: 4336: 4309: 4303: 4296: 4289: 4285: 4270: 4266: 4229: 4216: 4179: 4170: 4155: 4148: 4131: 4124: 4093: 4086: 4051: 4044: 4029: 4025: 4015: 4013: 4009: 3998: 3991: 3987: 3978: 3976: 3957: 3956: 3941: 3930: 3928: 3924: 3910:10.2307/1972766 3893: 3884: 3880: 3870: 3868: 3860: 3859: 3855: 3808: 3804: 3795: 3793: 3782: 3781: 3777: 3770: 3752: 3748: 3738: 3736: 3725: 3724: 3720: 3710: 3708: 3695: 3691: 3638: 3634: 3624: 3622: 3611: 3607: 3597: 3595: 3582: 3573: 3530: 3526: 3475: 3471: 3464: 3446: 3442: 3435: 3419: 3415: 3408: 3390: 3386: 3379: 3365:(26 May 2021). 3363:Weber, Isabella 3360: 3356: 3349: 3333: 3329: 3322: 3306: 3302: 3292: 3290: 3278: 3274: 3267: 3250: 3235: 3228: 3214: 3205: 3195: 3193: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3165: 3163: 3148: 3147: 3140: 3095: 3091: 3056: 3052: 3042: 3040: 3025: 3021: 3011: 3009: 3004:. 1 July 2009. 2992: 2991: 2987: 2977: 2975: 2971: 2960: 2954: 2947: 2937: 2935: 2918: 2903: 2852: 2845: 2810: 2803: 2793: 2791: 2781: 2772: 2757: 2750: 2743: 2729: 2722: 2712: 2710: 2693: 2686: 2676: 2674: 2662: 2658: 2648: 2646: 2636: 2632: 2622: 2620: 2610: 2606: 2589: 2585: 2564: 2557: 2542: 2524: 2499: 2489: 2487: 2478: 2477: 2473: 2420: 2416: 2409: 2395: 2391: 2350: 2341: 2331: 2329: 2281: 2277: 2272: 2267: 2266: 2261: 2257: 2252: 2247: 2217:The Dying Rooms 2185: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2161:Anthropologist 2142: 2121: 2113:family planning 2020: 2014: 2000: 1996: 1993: 1969:Yale University 1957: 1944: 1939: 1936: 1924: 1918: 1915: 1904: 1893:This article's 1889: 1885: 1878: 1870: 1834: 1786: 1745: 1739: 1689: 1683: 1658: 1641: 1629: 1609: 1594:multiple births 1590: 1574: 1541: 1529: 1496: 1492: 1468: 1456: 1434: 1396: 1371: 1295:2005年全国1%人口抽样调查 1185: 1180: 1151: 1149:Rural responses 1138: 1136:Urban responses 1129: 1063: 1027: 1021: 1011: 996: 982: 970:New Year prints 865: 857: 816:blister beetles 803:family planning 752: 720:social mobility 708: 679: 561: 513: 481: 449: 429:economic growth 412: 394: 371: 245: 241: 202: 200:Boluan Fanzheng 188: 17: 12: 11: 5: 14925: 14915: 14914: 14909: 14904: 14899: 14894: 14889: 14884: 14879: 14874: 14869: 14850: 14849: 14846: 14845: 14840: 14834: 14833: 14830: 14829: 14827: 14826: 14821: 14816: 14811: 14806: 14801: 14796: 14791: 14786: 14781: 14776: 14771: 14766: 14765: 14764: 14759: 14754: 14744: 14739: 14734: 14733: 14732: 14722: 14716: 14714: 14708: 14707: 14705: 14704: 14699: 14694: 14688: 14682: 14676: 14671: 14666: 14661: 14656: 14651: 14645: 14643: 14639: 14638: 14636: 14635: 14629: 14624: 14619: 14614: 14609: 14604: 14599: 14594: 14589: 14584: 14579: 14573: 14571: 14565: 14564: 14562: 14561: 14556: 14551: 14546: 14537: 14532: 14527: 14522: 14517: 14512: 14507: 14502: 14497: 14492: 14487: 14482: 14476: 14474: 14467: 14466: 14464: 14463: 14458: 14453: 14448: 14443: 14438: 14433: 14428: 14423: 14417: 14415: 14409: 14408: 14406: 14405: 14400: 14398:Fertility rate 14395: 14393:Mortality rate 14390: 14385: 14380: 14375: 14370: 14365: 14359: 14357: 14353: 14352: 14350: 14349: 14344: 14339: 14333: 14331: 14325: 14324: 14322: 14321: 14316: 14311: 14306: 14301: 14296: 14291: 14286: 14281: 14276: 14271: 14266: 14261: 14256: 14251: 14246: 14240: 14238: 14234: 14233: 14231: 14230: 14225: 14220: 14215: 14209: 14207: 14203: 14202: 14200: 14199: 14194: 14189: 14184: 14182:European Union 14179: 14174: 14169: 14164: 14158: 14156: 14152: 14151: 14149: 14148: 14143: 14138: 14137: 14136: 14126: 14121: 14116: 14111: 14105: 14103: 14097: 14096: 14094: 14093: 14088: 14087: 14086: 14084:United Nations 14075: 14073: 14067: 14066: 14055: 14054: 14047: 14040: 14032: 14023: 14022: 14020: 14019: 14009: 13996: 13993: 13992: 13990: 13989: 13987:Sustainability 13984: 13979: 13974: 13969: 13963: 13961: 13960:Related topics 13957: 13956: 13954: 13953: 13948: 13943: 13938: 13933: 13928: 13923: 13918: 13913: 13908: 13903: 13898: 13892: 13890: 13885: 13882: 13881: 13879: 13878: 13873: 13872: 13871: 13866: 13861: 13851: 13849:Largest cities 13846: 13840: 13838: 13834: 13833: 13831: 13830: 13825: 13819: 13817: 13813: 13812: 13810: 13809: 13804: 13799: 13798: 13797: 13792: 13787: 13782: 13777: 13767: 13762: 13757: 13756: 13755: 13750: 13745: 13740: 13730: 13729: 13728: 13718: 13710: 13704: 13702: 13696: 13695: 13693: 13692: 13687: 13682: 13677: 13672: 13669:I = P × A × T 13665: 13660: 13654: 13652: 13645: 13642: 13641: 13639: 13638: 13633: 13628: 13623: 13622: 13621: 13611: 13605: 13603: 13596: 13593: 13592: 13590: 13589: 13584: 13579: 13574: 13569: 13564: 13559: 13553: 13551: 13547: 13546: 13539: 13538: 13531: 13524: 13516: 13507: 13506: 13504: 13503: 13498: 13497: 13496: 13491: 13486: 13481: 13473: 13468: 13462: 13460: 13456: 13455: 13453: 13452: 13447: 13442: 13437: 13431: 13429: 13425: 13424: 13422: 13421: 13420: 13419: 13414: 13412:teen pregnancy 13404: 13403: 13402: 13394: 13389: 13384: 13379: 13374: 13369: 13364: 13358: 13356: 13352: 13351: 13349: 13348: 13343: 13342: 13341: 13331: 13326: 13321: 13316: 13310: 13308: 13304: 13303: 13301: 13300: 13295: 13290: 13285: 13280: 13275: 13270: 13264: 13262: 13256: 13255: 13253: 13252: 13247: 13242: 13237: 13232: 13226: 13224: 13220: 13219: 13217: 13216: 13211: 13206: 13201: 13196: 13191: 13186: 13181: 13176: 13171: 13166: 13160: 13158: 13152: 13151: 13149: 13148: 13147: 13146: 13138: 13137: 13136: 13126: 13120: 13118: 13112: 13111: 13109: 13108: 13103: 13098: 13097: 13096: 13091: 13083: 13078: 13072: 13070: 13062: 13061: 13059: 13058: 13053: 13048: 13043: 13038: 13033: 13027: 13025: 13019: 13018: 13016: 13015: 13010: 13009: 13008: 13003: 12993: 12988: 12978: 12976: 12970: 12969: 12967: 12966: 12961: 12956: 12950: 12948: 12944: 12943: 12941: 12940: 12939: 12938: 12933: 12923: 12918: 12913: 12908: 12902: 12900: 12894: 12893: 12886: 12885: 12878: 12871: 12863: 12854: 12853: 12850: 12849: 12847: 12846: 12841: 12840: 12839: 12834: 12829: 12824: 12814: 12809: 12804: 12799: 12794: 12789: 12784: 12778: 12776: 12772: 12771: 12769: 12768: 12763: 12758: 12753: 12751:Naked marriage 12748: 12743: 12741:Ghost marriage 12738: 12737: 12736: 12731: 12726: 12716: 12710: 12708: 12701: 12700: 12698: 12697: 12696: 12695: 12688:Son preference 12685: 12680: 12675: 12674: 12673: 12666: 12659: 12649: 12644: 12639: 12634: 12629: 12624: 12618: 12616: 12607: 12603: 12602: 12597:and gender in 12591: 12590: 12583: 12576: 12568: 12559: 12558: 12555: 12552: 12551: 12549: 12548: 12543: 12538: 12525: 12523: 12519: 12518: 12516: 12515: 12510: 12505: 12500: 12495: 12490: 12485: 12480: 12475: 12470: 12465: 12460: 12455: 12449: 12447: 12443: 12442: 12440: 12439: 12434: 12429: 12421: 12413: 12408: 12407: 12406: 12401: 12396: 12385: 12383: 12377: 12376: 12374: 12373: 12372: 12371: 12365: 12359: 12348: 12342: 12337: 12332: 12327: 12322: 12317: 12312: 12307: 12302: 12297: 12292: 12287: 12286: 12285: 12283:Plasma Economy 12275: 12270: 12265: 12260: 12255: 12250: 12245: 12239: 12237: 12231: 12230: 12228: 12227: 12222: 12217: 12212: 12207: 12201: 12199: 12193: 12192: 12190: 12189: 12184: 12179: 12178: 12177: 12175:Classification 12167: 12162: 12157: 12152: 12147: 12145:Women's health 12142: 12137: 12132: 12126: 12124: 12118: 12117: 12110: 12109: 12102: 12095: 12087: 12078: 12077: 12075: 12074: 12069: 12063: 12061: 12057: 12056: 12054: 12053: 12048: 12043: 12041:Son preference 12038: 12032: 12030: 12026: 12025: 12023: 12022: 12017: 12012: 12007: 12001: 11999: 11995: 11994: 11992: 11991: 11986: 11980: 11978: 11974: 11973: 11971: 11970: 11965: 11959: 11957: 11953: 11952: 11950: 11949: 11944: 11939: 11933: 11931: 11925: 11924: 11922: 11921: 11907: 11905: 11901: 11900: 11892: 11891: 11884: 11877: 11869: 11863: 11862: 11817: 11810: 11809:External links 11807: 11806: 11805: 11785:(1): 141–160. 11770: 11738: 11709: 11704:978-0226352510 11703: 11686: 11677: 11671: 11658: 11635: 11624: 11615: 11598: 11555: 11527:(1): 587–606. 11512: 11506: 11490: 11443: 11437: 11416: 11415: 11410: 11404: 11403: 11392: 11391: 11389: 11386: 11383: 11382: 11361: 11334: 11302: 11268: 11249: 11219: 11201: 11171: 11160:on 9 July 2014 11141: 11114: 11083: 11065:CATO Institute 11050: 11014: 10995:(11): 1802–9. 10979: 10946: 10928: 10901: 10894: 10870: 10837: 10811: 10746: 10731: 10701: 10658: 10617: 10605: 10587: 10556: 10495: 10438: 10377: 10347: 10292: 10273:(2): 259–281. 10257: 10242: 10233:Saipan Tribune 10219: 10210:Saipan Tribune 10196: 10179:Shanghai Daily 10166: 10127: 10116:(2): 176–189. 10100: 10085:. p. 16. 10069: 10022: 9954: 9919:(3): 260–264. 9899: 9853: 9824:(3): 297–317. 9804: 9774: 9752:黒核子～一人っ子政策の大失敗 9742: 9711: 9692:(2): 287–303. 9669: 9605: 9556: 9497: 9442: 9415:(2): 209–229. 9388: 9358: 9330: 9304: 9293:on 7 July 2011 9276: 9247: 9241:978-0262640640 9240: 9218: 9209: 9200: 9158: 9149: 9136: 9103: 9056: 8991: 8958: 8951: 8926: 8881:(3): 467–476. 8861: 8831: 8796: 8769: 8748:"Adam Pertman" 8739: 8707: 8700: 8675: 8640: 8602: 8587: 8581:. p. 37. 8565: 8532: 8481: 8462: 8423: 8379: 8360: 8341: 8302: 8273: 8162:(4): 421–450. 8139: 8113: 8079: 8060: 8029: 8007: 7974: 7955:(4): 350–365. 7939: 7910: 7883:(3): 269–273. 7867: 7816: 7758: 7737:(1): 141–160. 7715: 7664: 7631: 7610:Sen, Amartya. 7602: 7577: 7552: 7527: 7502: 7477: 7452: 7427: 7420: 7393: 7338: 7331: 7309: 7303:978-0393292398 7302: 7277: 7251: 7222: 7196: 7170: 7144: 7116: 7088: 7073: 7044:10.1086/495630 7038:(3): 847–886. 7022: 6971: 6949: 6918: 6892: 6866: 6835: 6805: 6769: 6739: 6706: 6676: 6644: 6614: 6612: 6611: 6586: 6561: 6537: 6503: 6478: 6447: 6417: 6387: 6357: 6335: 6305: 6274: 6243: 6213: 6153: 6127: 6102: 6083:(2): 237–255. 6063: 6021: 5982: 5943: 5918: 5871: 5840:10.1086/681664 5814: 5751: 5720:10.1086/681664 5689: 5674: 5651: 5604: 5557: 5539: 5499: 5477: 5470: 5452: 5406: 5403:. China Daily. 5388: 5371:(4): 551–577. 5342: 5320: 5280: 5254: 5234: 5200: 5157: 5135: 5109: 5098: 5064: 5035:(4): 551–577. 5015: 5008: 4989: 4971: 4956:. 5 May 2011. 4939: 4915: 4882: 4855: 4825: 4803: 4772: 4755:The Australian 4741: 4734: 4701: 4667: 4657:on 6 July 2008 4636: 4605: 4573: 4540: 4508: 4477: 4470: 4440: 4418: 4407: 4383: 4376: 4350: 4294: 4283: 4264: 4245:(2): 168–169. 4214: 4168: 4146: 4122: 4084: 4042: 4023: 3985: 3939: 3889:(March 1981). 3878: 3853: 3802: 3775: 3768: 3746: 3732:People's Daily 3718: 3704:Beijing Review 3689: 3632: 3605: 3571: 3544:(2): 163–196. 3524: 3469: 3462: 3440: 3433: 3413: 3406: 3384: 3377: 3354: 3347: 3327: 3320: 3300: 3272: 3265: 3233: 3226: 3203: 3173: 3138: 3089: 3050: 3019: 2985: 2945: 2901: 2843: 2824:(2): 163–196. 2801: 2770: 2748: 2741: 2720: 2684: 2656: 2630: 2604: 2583: 2576:(in Turkish). 2555: 2540: 2497: 2471: 2414: 2407: 2389: 2339: 2290:ScienceInsider 2274: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2264: 2254: 2253: 2251: 2248: 2246: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2198: 2192: 2191: 2190: 2174: 2171: 2120: 2117: 2093:George W. Bush 2013: 2010: 1992: 1989: 1935: 1932: 1926: 1925: 1892: 1890: 1883: 1877: 1874: 1869: 1866: 1833: 1830: 1785: 1782: 1738: 1735: 1682: 1679: 1657: 1654: 1640: 1637: 1628: 1625: 1608: 1605: 1589: 1586: 1573: 1570: 1540: 1537: 1528: 1525: 1495:million and 36 1464:mainland China 1433: 1430: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1363: 1357: 1351: 1345: 1341: 1340: 1334: 1328: 1322: 1318: 1317: 1316:1,370,536,875 1314: 1313:1,306,280,000 1311: 1310:1,160,017,381 1308: 1304: 1303: 1300: 1288: 1285: 1272: 1271: 1265: 1259: 1253: 1249: 1248: 1242: 1236: 1230: 1226: 1225: 1224:1,031,882,511 1222: 1219: 1216: 1212: 1211: 1208: 1205: 1202: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1150: 1147: 1137: 1134: 1128: 1125: 1060:United Nations 1020: 1017: 995: 992: 981: 978: 864: 861: 856: 853: 795:tubal ligation 768:tubal ligation 762:, reading "an 751: 748: 707: 704: 678: 675: 653:fertility rate 581:mental illness 560: 557: 517:control theory 512: 509: 480: 477: 448: 445: 411: 408: 370: 367: 258:overpopulation 226:Mother Heroine 187: 184: 135:, and undergo 97:overpopulation 69:initiative in 62:yī hái zhèngcè 29:nuclear family 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14924: 14913: 14910: 14908: 14905: 14903: 14900: 14898: 14895: 14893: 14890: 14888: 14885: 14883: 14880: 14878: 14875: 14873: 14870: 14868: 14865: 14864: 14862: 14855: 14844: 14841: 14839: 14836: 14835: 14831: 14825: 14822: 14820: 14817: 14815: 14814:Public sector 14812: 14810: 14807: 14805: 14802: 14800: 14797: 14795: 14792: 14790: 14787: 14785: 14782: 14780: 14777: 14775: 14772: 14770: 14767: 14763: 14760: 14758: 14755: 14753: 14750: 14749: 14748: 14745: 14743: 14740: 14738: 14735: 14731: 14728: 14727: 14726: 14723: 14721: 14718: 14717: 14715: 14713: 14709: 14703: 14700: 14698: 14695: 14692: 14689: 14686: 14683: 14680: 14677: 14675: 14672: 14670: 14669:Literacy rate 14667: 14665: 14662: 14660: 14657: 14655: 14652: 14650: 14647: 14646: 14644: 14640: 14633: 14630: 14628: 14625: 14623: 14620: 14618: 14615: 14613: 14610: 14608: 14605: 14603: 14600: 14598: 14595: 14593: 14590: 14588: 14585: 14583: 14580: 14578: 14575: 14574: 14572: 14570: 14566: 14560: 14557: 14555: 14552: 14550: 14547: 14545: 14541: 14538: 14536: 14533: 14531: 14528: 14526: 14523: 14521: 14518: 14516: 14513: 14511: 14508: 14506: 14503: 14501: 14498: 14496: 14493: 14491: 14490:Age structure 14488: 14486: 14483: 14481: 14478: 14477: 14475: 14473: 14468: 14462: 14459: 14457: 14456:world regions 14454: 14452: 14451:South America 14449: 14447: 14444: 14442: 14441:North America 14439: 14437: 14434: 14432: 14429: 14427: 14424: 14422: 14419: 14418: 14416: 14414: 14410: 14404: 14401: 14399: 14396: 14394: 14391: 14389: 14386: 14384: 14381: 14379: 14376: 14374: 14371: 14369: 14366: 14364: 14361: 14360: 14358: 14354: 14348: 14345: 14343: 14340: 14338: 14335: 14334: 14332: 14330: 14326: 14320: 14317: 14315: 14312: 14310: 14307: 14305: 14302: 14300: 14297: 14295: 14292: 14290: 14287: 14285: 14282: 14280: 14277: 14275: 14272: 14270: 14267: 14265: 14262: 14260: 14257: 14255: 14252: 14250: 14247: 14245: 14242: 14241: 14239: 14235: 14229: 14228:Megalopolises 14226: 14224: 14221: 14219: 14216: 14214: 14211: 14210: 14208: 14204: 14198: 14195: 14193: 14192:Latin America 14190: 14188: 14185: 14183: 14180: 14178: 14175: 14173: 14170: 14168: 14165: 14163: 14160: 14159: 14157: 14153: 14147: 14146:South America 14144: 14142: 14139: 14135: 14132: 14131: 14130: 14129:North America 14127: 14125: 14122: 14120: 14117: 14115: 14112: 14110: 14107: 14106: 14104: 14102: 14098: 14092: 14089: 14085: 14082: 14081: 14080: 14077: 14076: 14074: 14072: 14068: 14064: 14060: 14053: 14048: 14046: 14041: 14039: 14034: 14033: 14030: 14018: 14010: 14008: 14007: 13998: 13997: 13994: 13988: 13985: 13983: 13980: 13978: 13975: 13973: 13970: 13968: 13967:Bennett's law 13965: 13964: 13962: 13958: 13952: 13949: 13947: 13944: 13942: 13939: 13937: 13934: 13932: 13929: 13927: 13924: 13922: 13919: 13917: 13914: 13912: 13909: 13907: 13904: 13902: 13899: 13897: 13894: 13893: 13891: 13888:organizations 13883: 13877: 13874: 13870: 13867: 13865: 13862: 13860: 13857: 13856: 13855: 13852: 13850: 13847: 13845: 13842: 13841: 13839: 13835: 13829: 13826: 13824: 13821: 13820: 13818: 13814: 13808: 13805: 13803: 13800: 13796: 13793: 13791: 13788: 13786: 13783: 13781: 13778: 13776: 13773: 13772: 13771: 13768: 13766: 13763: 13761: 13758: 13754: 13751: 13749: 13746: 13744: 13741: 13739: 13736: 13735: 13734: 13731: 13727: 13724: 13723: 13722: 13719: 13717: 13715: 13711: 13709: 13706: 13705: 13703: 13697: 13691: 13688: 13686: 13683: 13681: 13678: 13676: 13675:Kaya identity 13673: 13670: 13666: 13664: 13661: 13659: 13656: 13655: 13653: 13650: 13643: 13637: 13634: 13632: 13629: 13627: 13624: 13620: 13617: 13616: 13615: 13612: 13610: 13607: 13606: 13604: 13601: 13594: 13588: 13585: 13583: 13580: 13578: 13575: 13573: 13570: 13568: 13565: 13563: 13560: 13558: 13555: 13554: 13552: 13548: 13544: 13537: 13532: 13530: 13525: 13523: 13518: 13517: 13514: 13502: 13499: 13495: 13492: 13490: 13489:child benefit 13487: 13485: 13482: 13480: 13477: 13476: 13474: 13472: 13469: 13467: 13464: 13463: 13461: 13457: 13451: 13448: 13446: 13443: 13441: 13438: 13436: 13433: 13432: 13430: 13426: 13418: 13417:birth control 13415: 13413: 13410: 13409: 13408: 13407:United States 13405: 13401: 13398: 13397: 13395: 13393: 13390: 13388: 13385: 13383: 13380: 13378: 13375: 13373: 13370: 13368: 13365: 13363: 13360: 13359: 13357: 13353: 13347: 13344: 13340: 13337: 13336: 13335: 13332: 13330: 13327: 13325: 13322: 13320: 13317: 13315: 13312: 13311: 13309: 13305: 13299: 13296: 13294: 13291: 13289: 13286: 13284: 13281: 13279: 13276: 13274: 13271: 13269: 13266: 13265: 13263: 13261: 13257: 13251: 13248: 13246: 13243: 13241: 13238: 13236: 13233: 13231: 13228: 13227: 13225: 13221: 13215: 13212: 13210: 13207: 13205: 13204:Prenatal care 13202: 13200: 13197: 13195: 13192: 13190: 13187: 13185: 13182: 13180: 13177: 13175: 13172: 13170: 13167: 13165: 13162: 13161: 13159: 13157: 13153: 13145: 13142: 13141: 13139: 13135: 13132: 13131: 13130: 13127: 13125: 13122: 13121: 13119: 13117: 13113: 13107: 13104: 13102: 13099: 13095: 13092: 13090: 13087: 13086: 13084: 13082: 13079: 13077: 13074: 13073: 13071: 13069: 13063: 13057: 13056:Sterilization 13054: 13052: 13049: 13047: 13044: 13042: 13039: 13037: 13034: 13032: 13029: 13028: 13026: 13024: 13023:Contraception 13020: 13014: 13011: 13007: 13004: 13002: 12999: 12998: 12997: 12994: 12992: 12991:Birth spacing 12989: 12987: 12986:childlessness 12983: 12982:Childfreeness 12980: 12979: 12977: 12975: 12971: 12965: 12962: 12960: 12957: 12955: 12954:Sex education 12952: 12951: 12949: 12945: 12937: 12934: 12932: 12929: 12928: 12927: 12924: 12922: 12919: 12917: 12914: 12912: 12909: 12907: 12904: 12903: 12901: 12899: 12895: 12891: 12884: 12879: 12877: 12872: 12870: 12865: 12864: 12861: 12845: 12842: 12838: 12835: 12833: 12830: 12828: 12825: 12823: 12820: 12819: 12818: 12815: 12813: 12810: 12808: 12805: 12803: 12800: 12798: 12795: 12793: 12790: 12788: 12787:Homosexuality 12785: 12783: 12780: 12779: 12777: 12773: 12767: 12764: 12762: 12759: 12757: 12754: 12752: 12749: 12747: 12744: 12742: 12739: 12735: 12732: 12730: 12727: 12725: 12722: 12721: 12720: 12717: 12715: 12712: 12711: 12709: 12706: 12702: 12694: 12691: 12690: 12689: 12686: 12684: 12681: 12679: 12678:Missing women 12676: 12671: 12667: 12664: 12660: 12658: 12655: 12654: 12653: 12650: 12648: 12645: 12643: 12640: 12638: 12635: 12633: 12630: 12628: 12625: 12623: 12620: 12619: 12617: 12615: 12611: 12608: 12604: 12600: 12596: 12589: 12584: 12582: 12577: 12575: 12570: 12569: 12566: 12553: 12547: 12544: 12542: 12539: 12537: 12535: 12530: 12527: 12526: 12524: 12520: 12514: 12511: 12509: 12506: 12504: 12503:Vegetarianism 12501: 12499: 12496: 12494: 12491: 12489: 12486: 12484: 12481: 12479: 12476: 12474: 12471: 12469: 12466: 12464: 12461: 12459: 12456: 12454: 12451: 12450: 12448: 12444: 12438: 12435: 12433: 12430: 12427: 12426: 12422: 12419: 12418: 12414: 12412: 12409: 12405: 12402: 12400: 12397: 12395: 12392: 12391: 12390: 12387: 12386: 12384: 12382: 12378: 12369: 12366: 12363: 12362:Delta variant 12360: 12357: 12354: 12353: 12352: 12349: 12346: 12345:SARS pandemic 12343: 12341: 12338: 12336: 12333: 12331: 12328: 12326: 12323: 12321: 12318: 12316: 12313: 12311: 12308: 12306: 12305:Mental health 12303: 12301: 12298: 12296: 12293: 12291: 12288: 12284: 12281: 12280: 12279: 12276: 12274: 12271: 12269: 12266: 12264: 12261: 12259: 12256: 12254: 12251: 12249: 12246: 12244: 12241: 12240: 12238: 12236: 12232: 12226: 12225:Biotechnology 12223: 12221: 12218: 12216: 12213: 12211: 12208: 12206: 12203: 12202: 12200: 12198: 12194: 12188: 12185: 12183: 12180: 12176: 12173: 12172: 12171: 12168: 12166: 12163: 12161: 12158: 12156: 12153: 12151: 12148: 12146: 12143: 12141: 12138: 12136: 12133: 12131: 12128: 12127: 12125: 12123: 12119: 12115: 12108: 12103: 12101: 12096: 12094: 12089: 12088: 12085: 12073: 12070: 12068: 12065: 12064: 12062: 12058: 12052: 12051:Missing women 12049: 12047: 12044: 12042: 12039: 12037: 12034: 12033: 12031: 12027: 12021: 12018: 12016: 12013: 12011: 12008: 12006: 12003: 12002: 12000: 11996: 11990: 11987: 11985: 11982: 11981: 11979: 11975: 11969: 11966: 11964: 11961: 11960: 11958: 11954: 11948: 11945: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11935: 11934: 11932: 11930: 11926: 11920: 11916: 11912: 11909: 11908: 11906: 11902: 11897: 11890: 11885: 11883: 11878: 11876: 11871: 11870: 11867: 11859: 11855: 11850: 11845: 11840: 11835: 11831: 11827: 11826:Reprod Health 11823: 11818: 11816: 11813: 11812: 11802: 11798: 11793: 11788: 11784: 11780: 11776: 11771: 11767: 11763: 11759: 11755: 11751: 11744: 11739: 11735: 11731: 11727: 11723: 11719: 11715: 11710: 11706: 11700: 11696: 11692: 11687: 11683: 11678: 11674: 11668: 11664: 11659: 11652: 11648: 11641: 11636: 11632: 11631: 11625: 11623: 11618: 11612: 11608: 11604: 11599: 11595: 11591: 11587: 11583: 11578: 11573: 11569: 11565: 11561: 11556: 11552: 11548: 11544: 11540: 11535: 11530: 11526: 11522: 11518: 11513: 11509: 11503: 11499: 11495: 11491: 11487: 11483: 11479: 11475: 11470: 11465: 11461: 11457: 11453: 11449: 11444: 11440: 11438:9780844737034 11434: 11429: 11428: 11421: 11420: 11414: 11411: 11409: 11406: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11378: 11374: 11373: 11365: 11349: 11345: 11338: 11322: 11318: 11317: 11312: 11306: 11290: 11286: 11282: 11278: 11277:Mosher, Steve 11272: 11264: 11260: 11253: 11237: 11233: 11229: 11223: 11215: 11211: 11205: 11189: 11185: 11182: 11175: 11159: 11155: 11151: 11145: 11129: 11125: 11118: 11102: 11098: 11097:The Telegraph 11094: 11087: 11071: 11067: 11066: 11061: 11054: 11035: 11031: 11024: 11018: 11010: 11006: 11002: 10998: 10994: 10990: 10983: 10967: 10963: 10959: 10950: 10942: 10938: 10932: 10916: 10912: 10905: 10897: 10891: 10887: 10883: 10882: 10874: 10858: 10854: 10853: 10852:The Telegraph 10848: 10841: 10825: 10821: 10815: 10796: 10792: 10788: 10784: 10780: 10776: 10772: 10768: 10764: 10757: 10750: 10742: 10735: 10719: 10715: 10711: 10705: 10698: 10685: 10681: 10680: 10675: 10669: 10667: 10665: 10663: 10651: 10647: 10643: 10639: 10635: 10628: 10621: 10615: 10609: 10601: 10597: 10591: 10575: 10571: 10567: 10560: 10552: 10548: 10544: 10540: 10536: 10532: 10528: 10524: 10520: 10516: 10512: 10511: 10506: 10499: 10491: 10487: 10483: 10479: 10475: 10471: 10467: 10463: 10459: 10455: 10454: 10449: 10442: 10434: 10430: 10426: 10422: 10418: 10414: 10410: 10406: 10402: 10398: 10394: 10393: 10388: 10381: 10373: 10369: 10366:(2): 259–81. 10365: 10361: 10354: 10352: 10343: 10339: 10335: 10331: 10327: 10323: 10319: 10315: 10311: 10307: 10303: 10296: 10288: 10284: 10280: 10276: 10272: 10268: 10261: 10253: 10246: 10238: 10234: 10230: 10223: 10215: 10211: 10207: 10200: 10184: 10180: 10176: 10170: 10154: 10150: 10146: 10145: 10140: 10134: 10132: 10123: 10119: 10115: 10111: 10104: 10088: 10084: 10080: 10073: 10065: 10061: 10057: 10053: 10049: 10045: 10041: 10037: 10033: 10026: 10018: 10014: 10010: 10006: 10002: 9998: 9993: 9988: 9984: 9980: 9976: 9972: 9968: 9961: 9959: 9950: 9946: 9942: 9938: 9934: 9930: 9926: 9922: 9918: 9914: 9910: 9903: 9895: 9891: 9887: 9883: 9879: 9875: 9871: 9864: 9862: 9860: 9858: 9849: 9845: 9840: 9835: 9831: 9827: 9823: 9819: 9815: 9808: 9792: 9788: 9784: 9778: 9762: 9758: 9754: 9746: 9730: 9726: 9722: 9715: 9707: 9703: 9699: 9695: 9691: 9687: 9683: 9676: 9674: 9665: 9661: 9657: 9653: 9648: 9643: 9639: 9635: 9631: 9624: 9622: 9620: 9618: 9616: 9614: 9612: 9610: 9601: 9597: 9593: 9589: 9584: 9579: 9575: 9571: 9567: 9560: 9552: 9548: 9543: 9538: 9534: 9530: 9525: 9520: 9516: 9512: 9508: 9501: 9493: 9489: 9485: 9481: 9477: 9473: 9469: 9465: 9461: 9457: 9453: 9446: 9438: 9434: 9430: 9426: 9422: 9418: 9414: 9410: 9409: 9404: 9397: 9395: 9393: 9376: 9372: 9368: 9362: 9346: 9342: 9334: 9318: 9314: 9308: 9292: 9288: 9286:四二一"家庭真的是问题吗？ 9280: 9264: 9260: 9258:"四二一"家庭，路在何方？ 9251: 9243: 9237: 9232: 9231: 9222: 9213: 9204: 9196: 9192: 9188: 9184: 9181:(1): 76–101. 9180: 9176: 9172: 9165: 9163: 9153: 9139: 9133: 9129: 9125: 9121: 9117: 9110: 9108: 9099: 9095: 9091: 9087: 9083: 9079: 9075: 9071: 9067: 9060: 9052: 9048: 9044: 9040: 9036: 9032: 9028: 9024: 9020: 9016: 9012: 9008: 9007: 9002: 8995: 8979: 8975: 8974: 8969: 8962: 8954: 8948: 8944: 8940: 8933: 8931: 8922: 8918: 8914: 8910: 8906: 8902: 8897: 8892: 8888: 8884: 8880: 8876: 8872: 8865: 8849: 8845: 8841: 8835: 8819: 8815: 8811: 8805: 8803: 8801: 8785: 8781: 8780: 8773: 8757: 8753: 8749: 8743: 8724: 8717: 8711: 8703: 8697: 8693: 8688: 8687: 8679: 8671: 8667: 8663: 8659: 8655: 8651: 8644: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8619: 8611: 8609: 8607: 8598: 8594: 8590: 8584: 8580: 8576: 8569: 8553: 8549: 8548: 8543: 8536: 8528: 8524: 8519: 8514: 8509: 8504: 8501:(6): 756364. 8500: 8496: 8492: 8485: 8477: 8473: 8466: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8442: 8438: 8434: 8427: 8419: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8402:: 1018–1038. 8401: 8397: 8393: 8386: 8384: 8375: 8371: 8364: 8356: 8352: 8345: 8337: 8333: 8329: 8325: 8321: 8317: 8313: 8306: 8291: 8287: 8286:Beijing today 8283: 8277: 8261: 8257: 8253: 8249: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8232: 8227: 8224:(3): 459–79. 8223: 8219: 8215: 8199: 8195: 8191: 8187: 8183: 8179: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8161: 8157: 8153: 8149: 8143: 8136: 8132: 8128: 8124: 8117: 8110: 8106: 8102: 8098: 8094: 8090: 8083: 8075: 8071: 8064: 8048: 8044: 8040: 8033: 8017: 8011: 7992: 7985: 7978: 7970: 7966: 7962: 7958: 7954: 7950: 7943: 7935: 7931: 7927: 7923: 7922: 7914: 7906: 7902: 7898: 7894: 7890: 7886: 7882: 7878: 7871: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7837: 7833: 7832: 7827: 7820: 7812: 7808: 7804: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7786: 7782: 7778: 7777: 7772: 7765: 7763: 7754: 7750: 7745: 7740: 7736: 7732: 7731: 7726: 7719: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7689:(3): 419–40. 7688: 7684: 7683: 7675: 7668: 7649: 7642: 7635: 7624: 7620: 7613: 7606: 7591: 7587: 7581: 7566: 7562: 7556: 7541: 7537: 7531: 7516: 7512: 7511:"第三次全国人口普查公报" 7506: 7491: 7487: 7486:"第二次全国人口普查数据" 7481: 7466: 7462: 7461:"第一次全国人口普查公报" 7456: 7441: 7437: 7431: 7423: 7421:9781442215689 7417: 7413: 7409: 7402: 7400: 7398: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7361: 7358:(1): 87–115. 7357: 7353: 7349: 7342: 7334: 7332:9781442215689 7328: 7324: 7320: 7313: 7305: 7299: 7295: 7291: 7287: 7281: 7266: 7262: 7255: 7240: 7236: 7229: 7227: 7211: 7207: 7200: 7185: 7181: 7174: 7158: 7154: 7148: 7133: 7132: 7127: 7120: 7105:. 31 May 2021 7104: 7103: 7098: 7092: 7084: 7077: 7069: 7065: 7061: 7057: 7053: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7033: 7026: 7018: 7014: 7009: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6987: 6982: 6975: 6959: 6953: 6937: 6933: 6929: 6922: 6906: 6902: 6896: 6880: 6876: 6870: 6855: 6851: 6850: 6842: 6840: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6809: 6793: 6789: 6788: 6787:The Raw Story 6783: 6779: 6773: 6758: 6754: 6753: 6746: 6744: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6710: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6680: 6664: 6660: 6659: 6654: 6648: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6618: 6600: 6596: 6592: 6587: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6562: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6526: 6522: 6521: 6516: 6512: 6511: 6507: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6490: 6482: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6451: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6421: 6406: 6402: 6401: 6394: 6392: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6361: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6339: 6323: 6319: 6318:The Economist 6315: 6309: 6294: 6290: 6286: 6285: 6278: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6247: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6217: 6209: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6160: 6158: 6142: 6138: 6131: 6116: 6112: 6106: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6067: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6028: 6026: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5986: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5947: 5932: 5928: 5922: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5875: 5867: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5828:China Journal 5825: 5818: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5755: 5747: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5698: 5696: 5694: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5671: 5667: 5666: 5658: 5656: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5608: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5561: 5553: 5549: 5543: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5520:(2): 97–165. 5519: 5515: 5514: 5506: 5504: 5495: 5491: 5484: 5482: 5473: 5467: 5463: 5456: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5413: 5411: 5402: 5395: 5393: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5355: 5353: 5351: 5349: 5347: 5338: 5334: 5327: 5325: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5304: 5300: 5296: 5295: 5287: 5285: 5276: 5272: 5265: 5263: 5261: 5259: 5251:. Sixth Tone. 5250: 5243: 5241: 5239: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5204: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5161: 5153: 5146: 5139: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5107: 5102: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5068: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5019: 5011: 5009:9780792300557 5005: 5001: 5000: 4993: 4985: 4981: 4975: 4959: 4955: 4954: 4953:The Economist 4949: 4943: 4935: 4931: 4930: 4925: 4919: 4903: 4899: 4898: 4893: 4886: 4870: 4866: 4859: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4829: 4813: 4807: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4776: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4745: 4737: 4735:9780197682258 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4708: 4706: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4674: 4672: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4647: 4640: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4609: 4593: 4589: 4588: 4583: 4577: 4561: 4557: 4556: 4551: 4544: 4528: 4524: 4523: 4518: 4512: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4481: 4473: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4444: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4422: 4414: 4410: 4408:9780804753302 4404: 4400: 4396: 4395: 4387: 4379: 4377:9780275938246 4373: 4369: 4364: 4363: 4354: 4335: 4330: 4325: 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Retrieved 2294: 2288: 2278: 2258: 2215: 2187:China portal 2160: 2155: 2147: 2136: 2122: 2111:and provide 2105:Barack Obama 2082: 2066: 2062:Feng Jianmei 2055: 2031: 2029: 2021: 2006: 1994: 1985: 1962: 1950: 1937: 1929: 1916: 1897: 1871: 1868:Savings rate 1856: 1835: 1802: 1787: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1720: 1709: 1691: 1690: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1650: 1633: 1630: 1621: 1613: 1610: 1597: 1591: 1582: 1575: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1533: 1530: 1510: 1506: 1490: 1477: 1457: 1419: 1417: 1397: 1360: 1359:652,872,280 1354: 1353:633,190,000 1348: 1347:548,732,579 1337: 1336:686,852,572 1331: 1330:673,090,000 1325: 1324:584,949,922 1291: 1275: 1268: 1267:488,741,919 1262: 1261:338,064,748 1256: 1255:276,652,422 1245: 1244:519,433,369 1239: 1238:356,517,011 1233: 1232:297,553,518 1221:723,070,269 1218:601,938,035 1186: 1172:Yan Yunxiang 1169: 1165: 1152: 1143: 1139: 1130: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1093: 1073: 1049: 1047: 1035:two children 1028: 1005: 997: 983: 974: 961: 957: 952:Renkou Jiayu 947: 943: 933: 929: 925: 921: 875: 866: 858: 834: 830: 819: 808: 792: 773: 725: 713: 709: 697: 695: 691: 680: 668: 657: 637: 626: 606: 602: 573:disabilities 570: 566: 562: 547: 514: 482: 450: 441: 433: 417: 413: 399: 388: 382: 372: 359:Felix Greene 341: 336: 320: 302: 284: 270: 262:Club of Rome 254: 238:Soviet Union 215: 211: 172: 168:childrearing 141: 118: 110:two children 91: 87:human rights 79:single child 60: 44: 42: 14197:Middle East 13699:Society and 13658:Biocapacity 13387:Philippines 13319:Infertility 13278:Gynaecology 13245:Transgender 13013:Sperm theft 13006:foster care 12844:Transgender 12468:Food safety 12463:Environment 12458:Dust storms 12273:Hepatitis B 11570:: 115–129. 11327:12 February 11295:12 February 11285:The Interim 11242:7 September 10690:11 November 10144:Asianews.it 9640:(1): 3–16. 9381:26 November 8984:18 February 8854:11 November 8844:China Daily 8621:. Chicago: 8053:15 December 7787:: 743–768. 6828:30 November 6752:China daily 6699:29 December 6669:27 December 6637:27 December 6580:17 December 6471:10 December 6461:Xinhua News 6430:China daily 6400:China daily 6267:26 February 5834:: 144–159. 5714:: 144–159. 5301:: 137–158. 4964:25 February 4908:20 November 4619:China Daily 4555:China Daily 4522:China Daily 4109:: 115–129. 3871:10 December 3584:Yang, Min. 3394:"Economics" 3186:China Daily 2978:22 December 2713:15 November 2480:"中华人民共和国宪法" 2125:infanticide 2024:human right 1836:Due to the 1599:China Daily 1521:infanticide 1113:China Daily 987:baojian fei 938:Wan Xi Shao 879:Wan Xi Shao 870:Wan Xi Shao 677:Enforcement 543:cybernetics 355:Li Xiannian 351:Hua Guofeng 266:Sierra Club 83:birth rates 14861:Categories 14752:by country 14544:Irreligion 14525:Median age 14388:Birth rate 14223:Megacities 14167:Arab world 14114:Antarctica 13886:Events and 13701:population 13647:Population 13598:Population 13543:Population 13479:baby bonus 13475:Financial 13355:By country 13179:childbirth 13169:Obstetrics 13101:Sperm bank 12707:and family 12637:Healthcare 12381:Government 12351:SARS-CoV-2 12268:Fujian flu 12122:Healthcare 11998:Population 11963:Only child 11904:Commission 11194:28 October 11164:24 January 11154:UNFPA News 11099:. 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