Occam's razor - Knowledge

1291:, form a circle with the males on the outside and the females and young on the inside. This is an example of a behavior by the males that seems to be altruistic. The behavior is disadvantageous to them individually but beneficial to the group as a whole and was thus seen by some to support the group selection theory. Another interpretation is kin selection: if the males are protecting their offspring, they are protecting copies of their own alleles. Engaging in this behavior would be favored by individual selection if the cost to the male musk ox is less than half of the benefit received by his calf – which could easily be the case if wolves have an easier time killing calves than adult males. It could also be the case that male musk oxen would be individually less likely to be killed by wolves if they stood in a circle with their horns pointing out, regardless of whether they were protecting the females and offspring. That would be an example of regular natural selection – a phenomenon called "the selfish herd". 1061:. As a logical principle, Occam's razor would demand that scientists accept the simplest possible theoretical explanation for existing data. However, science has shown repeatedly that future data often support more complex theories than do existing data. Science prefers the simplest explanation that is consistent with the data available at a given time, but the simplest explanation may be ruled out as new data become available. That is, science is open to the possibility that future experiments might support more complex theories than demanded by current data and is more interested in designing experiments to discriminate between competing theories than favoring one theory over another based merely on philosophical principles. 1576:. Dualists state that there are two kinds of substances in the universe: physical (including the body) and spiritual, which is non-physical. In contrast, identity theorists state that everything is physical, including consciousness, and that there is nothing nonphysical. Though it is impossible to appreciate the spiritual when limiting oneself to the physical, Smart maintained that identity theory explains all phenomena by assuming only a physical reality. Subsequently, Smart has been severely criticized for his use (or misuse) of Occam's razor and ultimately retracted his advocacy of it in this context. 1256:

many posit individual selection as the mechanism that explains altruism solely in terms of the behaviors of individual organisms acting in their own self-interest (or in the interest of their genes, via kin selection). Williams was arguing against the perspective of others who propose selection at the level of the group as an evolutionary mechanism that selects for altruistic traits (e.g., D. S. Wilson & E. O. Wilson, 2007). The basis for Williams' contention is that of the two, individual selection is the more parsimonious theory. In doing so he is invoking a variant of Occam's razor known as

245:), declares: "That is better and more valuable which requires fewer, other circumstances being equal... For if one thing were demonstrated from many and another thing from fewer equally known premises, clearly that is better which is from fewer because it makes us know quickly, just as a universal demonstration is better than particular because it produces knowledge from fewer premises. Similarly in natural science, in moral science, and in metaphysics the best is that which needs no premises and the better that which needs the fewer, other circumstances being equal." 1843:). Suppose that B is the anti-Bayes procedure, which calculates what the Bayesian algorithm A based on Occam's razor will predict – and then predicts the exact opposite. Then there are just as many actual priors (including those different from the Occam's razor prior assumed by A) in which algorithm B outperforms A as priors in which the procedure A based on Occam's razor comes out on top. In particular, the NFL theorems show that the "Occam factors" Bayesian argument for Occam's razor must make ultimately arbitrary modeling assumptions. 605:

test the former interpretation would compare the track records of simple and comparatively complex explanations. If one accepts the first interpretation, the validity of Occam's razor as a tool would then have to be rejected if the more complex explanations were more often correct than the less complex ones (while the converse would lend support to its use). If the latter interpretation is accepted, the validity of Occam's razor as a tool could possibly be accepted if the simpler hypotheses led to correct conclusions more often than not.

617: 703:(1991) generalize and quantify the original formulation's "assumptions" concept as the degree to which a proposition is unnecessarily accommodating to possible observable data. They state, "A hypothesis with fewer adjustable parameters will automatically have an enhanced posterior probability, due to the fact that the predictions it makes are sharp." The use of "sharp" here is not only a tongue-in-cheek reference to the idea of a razor, but also indicates that such predictions are more 7391: 285: 2079: 7397: 7269: 2203:"Today, we think of the principle of parsimony as a heuristic device. We don't assume that the simpler theory is correct and the more complex one false. We know from experience that more often than not the theory that requires more complicated machinations is wrong. Until proved otherwise, the more complex theory competing with a simpler explanation should be put on the back burner, but not thrown onto the trash heap of history until proven false." 7259: 7403: 8060: 1333:. Cladistic parsimony is used to select as the preferred hypothesis of relationships the cladogram that requires the fewest implied character state transformations (or smallest weight, if characters are differentially weighted). Critics of the cladistic approach often observe that for some types of data, parsimony could produce the wrong results, regardless of how much data is collected (this is called statistical inconsistency, or 875: 548: 1034:: "It can scarcely be denied that the supreme goal of all theory is to make the irreducible basic elements as simple and as few as possible without having to surrender the adequate representation of a single datum of experience." An often-quoted version of this constraint (which cannot be verified as posited by Einstein himself) reduces this to "Everything should be kept as simple as possible, but not simpler." 2212:"While these two facets of simplicity are frequently conflated, it is important to treat them as distinct. One reason for doing so is that considerations of parsimony and of elegance typically pull in different directions. Postulating extra entities may allow a theory to be formulated more simply, while reducing the ontology of a theory may only be possible at the price of making it syntactically more complex." 937: 1273:, have contended that Morgan's Canon is not the simplest and most basic explanation. Dawkins argues the way evolution works is that the genes propagated in most copies end up determining the development of that particular species, i.e., natural selection turns out to select specific genes, and this is really the fundamental underlying principle that automatically gives individual and group selection as 154: 1782: 1181: 1768:, and see Dowe's "MML, hybrid Bayesian network graphical models, statistical consistency, invariance and uniqueness" both for such discussions and for (in section 4) discussions of MML and Occam's razor. For a specific example of MML as Occam's razor in the problem of decision tree induction, see Dowe and Needham's "Message Length as an Effective Ockham's Razor in Decision Tree Induction". 1943:: "If three things are not enough to verify an affirmative proposition about things, a fourth must be added and so on." Although there have been several philosophers who have formulated similar anti-razors since Chatton's time, no one anti-razor has perpetuated as notably as Chatton's anti-razor, although this could be the case of the Late Renaissance Italian motto of unknown attribution 8072: 2051: 2065: 1337:). However, this criticism is also potentially true for any type of phylogenetic inference, unless the model used to estimate the tree reflects the way that evolution actually happened. Because this information is not empirically accessible, the criticism of statistical inconsistency against parsimony holds no force. For a book-length treatment of cladistic parsimony, see 819:), we must rely on some criterion to determine which theory to use. Since it is absurd to have no logical method for settling on one hypothesis amongst an infinite number of equally data-compliant hypotheses, we should choose the simplest theory: "Either science is irrational or the principle of simplicity is a fundamental synthetic a priori truth." 1912:. The principle is represented in the dialogue by Simplicio. The telling point that Galileo presented ironically was that if one really wanted to start from a small number of entities, one could always consider the letters of the alphabet as the fundamental entities, since one could construct the whole of human knowledge out of them. 3690: 1417:; he writes that "nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is self-evident (literally, known through itself) or known by experience or proved by the authority of Sacred Scripture." Ockham believed that an explanation has no sufficient basis in reality when it does not harmonize with reason, experience, or the 410:, the theory of prediction based on observations – for example, predicting the next symbol based upon a given series of symbols. The only assumption is that the environment follows some unknown but computable probability distribution. This theory is a mathematical formalization of Occam's razor. 1064:

When scientists use the idea of parsimony, it has meaning only in a very specific context of inquiry. Several background assumptions are required for parsimony to connect with plausibility in a particular research problem. The reasonableness of parsimony in one research context may have nothing to do

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existence), when it has meaning only when embedded in a specific context (Sober 1992). If we fail to justify simplicity considerations on the basis of the context in which we use them, we may have no non-circular justification: "Just as the question 'why be rational?' may have no non-circular answer,

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Recently, American physicist Igor Mazin argued that because high-profile physics journals prefer publications offering exotic and unusual interpretations, the Occam's razor principle is being replaced by an "Inverse Occam's razor", implying that the simplest possible explanation is usually rejected.

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Occam's razor is not an embargo against the positing of any kind of entity, or a recommendation of the simplest theory come what may. Occam's razor is used to adjudicate between theories that have already passed "theoretical scrutiny" tests and are equally well-supported by evidence. Furthermore, it

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classical mechanics are equivalent. Physicists have no interest in using Occam's razor to say the other two are wrong. Likewise, there is no demand for simplicity principles to arbitrate between wave and matrix formulations of quantum mechanics. Science often does not demand arbitration or selection

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about the same prediction and both hypotheses have equal explanatory power, one should prefer the hypothesis that requires the fewest assumptions, and that this is not meant to be a way of choosing between hypotheses that make different predictions. Similarly, in science, Occam's razor is used as an

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Further, it is superfluous to suppose that what can be accounted for by a few principles has been produced by many. But it seems that everything we see in the world can be accounted for by other principles, supposing God did not exist. For all natural things can be reduced to one principle which is

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has commented on potential limitations of Occam's razor in biology. He advances the argument that because biological systems are the products of (an ongoing) natural selection, the mechanisms are not necessarily optimal in an obvious sense. He cautions: "While Ockham's razor is a useful tool in the

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among animals is based on low-level (i.e., individual) selection as opposed to high-level group selection. Altruism is defined by some evolutionary biologists (e.g., R. Alexander, 1987; W. D. Hamilton, 1964) as behavior that is beneficial to others (or to the group) at a cost to the individual, and

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It has been suggested that Occam's razor is a widely accepted example of extraevidential consideration, even though it is entirely a metaphysical assumption. Most of the time, however, Occam's razor is a conservative tool, cutting out "crazy, complicated constructions" and assuring "that hypotheses

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to represent "simplicity" by the subject. However, one could always choose a Turing machine with a simple operation that happened to construct one's entire theory and would hence score highly under the razor. This has led to two opposing camps: one that believes Occam's razor is objective, and one

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One of the problems with the original formulation of the razor is that it only applies to models with the same explanatory power (i.e., it only tells us to prefer the simplest of equally good models). A more general form of the razor can be derived from Bayesian model comparison, which is based on

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that attempts to establish patterns of relationship among biological taxa, today generally thought to reflect evolutionary history. It is also concerned with their classification. There are three primary camps in systematics: cladists, pheneticists, and evolutionary taxonomists. Cladists hold that

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Three axioms presupposed by the scientific method are realism (the existence of objective reality), the existence of natural laws, and the constancy of natural law. Rather than depend on provability of these axioms, science depends on the fact that they have not been objectively falsified. Occam's

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Even if some increases in complexity are sometimes necessary, there still remains a justified general bias toward the simpler of two competing explanations. To understand why, consider that for each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there is always an infinite number of possible, more complex,

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has used this consistency to define a "natural" Turing machine of small size as the proper basis for excluding arbitrarily complex instruction sets in the formulation of razors. Describing the program for the universal program as the "hypothesis", and the representation of the evidence as program

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criterion: we prefer simpler theories to more complex ones "because their empirical content is greater; and because they are better testable". The idea here is that a simple theory applies to more cases than a more complex one, and is thus more easily falsifiable. This is again comparing a simple

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The razor's statement that "other things being equal, simpler explanations are generally better than more complex ones" is amenable to empirical testing. Another interpretation of the razor's statement would be that "simpler hypotheses are generally better than the complex ones". The procedure to

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Karl Menger found mathematicians to be too parsimonious with regard to variables so he formulated his Law Against Miserliness, which took one of two forms: "Entities must not be reduced to the point of inadequacy" and "It is vain to do with fewer what requires more." A less serious but even more

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Any more complex theory might still possibly be true. A study of the predictive validity of Occam's razor found 32 published papers that included 97 comparisons of economic forecasts from simple and complex forecasting methods. None of the papers provided a balance of evidence that complexity of

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of the individual—an individual more sensitive to punishment should be given a proportionately lesser one, since otherwise needless pain would be inflicted. Later utilitarian writers have tended to abandon this idea, in large part due to the impracticality of determining each alleged criminal's

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Since nature works for a determinate end under the direction of a higher agent, whatever is done by nature must needs be traced back to God, as to its first cause. So also whatever is done voluntarily must also be traced back to some higher cause other than human reason or will, since these can

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or by listing idiomatic features of the language and comparing according to some agreed to scale of difficulties between idioms. Many languages once thought to be of lower complexity have evolved or later been discovered to be more complex than originally intended; so, in practice this rule is

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were responsible for the breakage, a simple explanation might be that the man did it, but ongoing ad hoc justifications (e.g., "... and that's not me breaking it on the film; they tampered with that, too") could successfully prevent complete disproof. This endless supply of elaborate competing

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One possible conclusion from mixing the concepts of Kolmogorov complexity and Occam's razor is that an ideal data compressor would also be a scientific explanation/formulation generator. Some attempts have been made to re-derive known laws from considerations of simplicity or compressibility.

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razor and parsimony support, but do not prove, these axioms of science. The general principle of science is that theories (or models) of natural law must be consistent with repeatable experimental observations. This ultimate arbiter (selection criterion) rests upon the axioms mentioned above.

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This principle goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who wrote "Nature operates in the shortest way possible." The idea of parsimony or simplicity in deciding between theories, though not the intent of the original expression of Occam's razor, has been assimilated into common culture as the

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methods for phylogeny use parsimony as they do for all likelihood tests, with hypotheses requiring fewer differing parameters (i.e., numbers or different rates of character change or different frequencies of character state transitions) being treated as null hypotheses relative to hypotheses

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than competing predictions. The model they propose balances the precision of a theory's predictions against their sharpness, preferring theories that sharply make correct predictions over theories that accommodate a wide range of other possible results. This, again, reflects the mathematical

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justification for simplicity. He now believes that simplicity considerations (and considerations of parsimony in particular) do not count unless they reflect something more fundamental. Philosophers, he suggests, may have made the error of hypostatizing simplicity (i.e., endowed it with a

3674: 1580:(1984) states that by itself Occam's razor is inconclusive regarding duality. In a similar way, Dale Jacquette (1994) stated that Occam's razor has been used in attempts to justify eliminativism and reductionism in the philosophy of mind. Eliminativism is the thesis that the ontology of 765:

once argued along the same lines as Popper, tying simplicity with "informativeness": The simplest theory is the more informative, in the sense that it requires less information to a question. He has since rejected this account of simplicity, purportedly because it fails to provide an

127:". Ockham did not invent this principle, but its fame—and its association with him—may be due to the frequency and effectiveness with which he used it. Ockham stated the principle in various ways, but the most popular version, "Entities are not to be multiplied without necessity" ( 851:

5.47321 "Occam's Razor is, of course, not an arbitrary rule nor one justified by its practical success. It simply says that unnecessary elements in a symbolism mean nothing. Signs which serve one purpose are logically equivalent; signs which serve no purpose are logically

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that "the sum of the log universal probability of the model plus the log of the probability of the data given the model should be minimized." Interpreting this as minimising the total length of a two-part message encoding model followed by data given model gives us the

1835:(NFL) theorems for inductive inference prove that Occam's razor must rely on ultimately arbitrary assumptions concerning the prior probability distribution found in our world. Specifically, suppose one is given two inductive inference algorithms, A and B, where A is a 1433:. He states: "Only faith gives us access to theological truths. The ways of God are not open to reason, for God has freely chosen to create a world and establish a way of salvation within it apart from any necessary laws that human logic or rationality can uncover." 4551:

Scott Needham and David L. Dowe (2001):" Message Length as an Effective Ockham's Razor in Decision Tree Induction." Proc. 8th International Workshop on Artificial Intelligence and Statistics (AI+STATS 2001), Key West, Florida, U.S.A., January 2001 Page(s): 253–260

797:... the simplest hypothesis proposed as an explanation of phenomena is more likely to be the true one than is any other available hypothesis, that its predictions are more likely to be true than those of any other available hypothesis, and that it is an ultimate 1030:. Although it is useful as a heuristic in developing models of reaction mechanisms, it has been shown to fail as a criterion for selecting among some selected published models. In this context, Einstein himself expressed caution when he formulated Einstein's 1357:, a close cousin of likelihood, which uses Occam's razor in the same way. The choice of the "shortest tree" relative to a not-so-short tree under any optimality criterion (smallest distance, fewest steps, or maximum likelihood) is always based on parsimony. 1985:(1873–1907). Perhaps the ultimate in anti-reductionism, "'Pataphysics seeks no less than to view each event in the universe as completely unique, subject to no laws but its own." Variations on this theme were subsequently explored by the Argentine writer 1972:

has called it: the idea being that God created the most varied and populous of possible worlds. Kant felt a need to moderate the effects of Occam's razor and thus created his own counter-razor: "The variety of beings should not rashly be diminished."

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are grounded in the science of the day", thus yielding "normal" science: models of explanation and prediction. There are, however, notable exceptions where Occam's razor turns a conservative scientist into a reluctant revolutionary. For example,

1260:: "In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes, if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development." (Morgan 1903). 1652:

and can be used to compare models that do not fit the observations equally well. These methods can sometimes optimally balance the complexity and power of a model. Generally, the exact Occam factor is intractable, but approximations such as

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4.04 "In the proposition, there must be exactly as many things distinguishable as there are in the state of affairs, which it represents. They must both possess the same logical (mathematical) multiplicity (cf. Hertz's Mechanics, on Dynamic

389:, "We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances. Therefore, to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes." In the sentence 1049:

criterion. For each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there may be an extremely large, perhaps even incomprehensible, number of possible and more complex alternatives. Since failing explanations can always be burdened with

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made this argument in the 13th century, writing, "If a thing can be done adequately by means of one, it is superfluous to do it by means of several; for we observe that nature does not employ two instruments one suffices."

84:, which translates as "Entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity", although Occam never used these exact words. Popularly, the principle is sometimes paraphrased as "The simplest explanation is usually the best one." 1881:

may be used to prioritize empirical testing between two equally plausible but unequally testable hypotheses; thereby minimizing costs and wastes while increasing chances of falsification of the simpler-to-test hypothesis.

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stated that "While Occam's razor is a useful tool in the physical sciences, it can be a very dangerous implement in biology. It is thus very rash to use simplicity and elegance as a guide in biological research."

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is a framework that incorporates the Occam's razor principle in its balance between overfitting (associated with lower bias but higher variance) and underfitting (associated with lower variance but higher bias).

674:. By definition, all assumptions introduce possibilities for error; if an assumption does not improve the accuracy of a theory, its only effect is to increase the probability that the overall theory is wrong. 1135:. At the time, however, all known waves propagated through a physical medium, and it seemed simpler to postulate the existence of a medium than to theorize about wave propagation without a medium. Likewise, 1364:

physical sciences, it can be a very dangerous implement in biology. It is thus very rash to use simplicity and elegance as a guide in biological research." This is an ontological critique of parsimony.

350:) of the Scholastics. William of Ockham himself seems to restrict the operation of this principle in matters pertaining to miracles and God's power, considering a plurality of miracles possible in the 1896:) becomes simpler, or vice versa. Quine, in a discussion on definition, referred to these two perspectives as "economy of practical expression" and "economy in grammar and vocabulary", respectively. 562:. Author of this section cites very few reliable sources, and also consistently conflates simplicity with (logical) truth. Occam's razor is not built to differentiate true hypotheses from false ones. 3416: 1997:

contrived Crabtree's Bludgeon, which states that "o set of mutually inconsistent observations can exist for which some human intellect cannot conceive a coherent explanation, however complicated."

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to "recognise the effort and time that have gone into the community’s favourite skeptical blogs, skeptical podcasts, skeptical campaigns and outstanding contributors to the skeptical cause." The

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establish God as a useful or even necessary assumption. Contrastingly some anti-theists hold firmly to the belief that assuming the existence of God introduces unnecessary complexity (e.g., the

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requiring more differing parameters. Thus, complex hypotheses must predict data much better than do simple hypotheses before researchers reject the simple hypotheses. Recent advances employ

258:(1225–1274) states that "it is superfluous to suppose that what can be accounted for by a few principles has been produced by many." Aquinas uses this principle to construct an objection to 1465:

change or fail; for all things that are changeable and capable of defect must be traced back to an immovable and self-necessary first principle, as was shown in the body of the Article.

1310:) is the determining criterion, while evolutionary taxonomists say that both genealogy and similarity count in classification (in a manner determined by the evolutionary taxonomist). 1688:

Statistical versions of Occam's razor have a more rigorous formulation than what philosophical discussions produce. In particular, they must have a specific definition of the term

1521:, stating that matter was not required by his metaphysics and was thus eliminable. One potential problem with this belief is that it's possible, given Berkeley's position, to find 4598:

Wolpert, D.H (1995), On the Bayesian "Occam Factors" Argument for Occam's Razor, in "Computational Learning Theory and Natural Learning Systems: Selecting Good Models", MIT Press

417:. Parsimony means spareness and is also referred to as the Rule of Simplicity. This is considered a strong version of Occam's razor. A variation used in medicine is called the " 435:, which he called the Principle of Economy stating: "Scientists must use the simplest means of arriving at their results and exclude everything not perceived by the senses." 1540:, appeared nowhere in Laplace's. At that, he is said to have replied, "It's because I had no need of that hypothesis." Though some points of this story illustrate Laplace's 1536:. It is said that in praising Laplace for one of his recent publications, the emperor asked how it was that the name of God, which featured so frequently in the writings of 1154:

If multiple models of natural law make exactly the same testable predictions, they are equivalent and there is no need for parsimony to choose a preferred one. For example,

1604:'s "parsimony principle" states that any punishment greater than is required to achieve its end is unjust. The concept is related but not identical to the legal concept of 5598: 4540: 4991: 4792: 3035: 4535:

David L. Dowe (2010): "MML, hybrid Bayesian network graphical models, statistical consistency, invariance and uniqueness. A formal theory of inductive inference."

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Phrases such as "It is vain to do with more what can be done with fewer" and "A plurality is not to be posited without necessity" were commonplace in 13th-century

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Instances of using Occam's razor to justify belief in less complex and more simple theories have been criticized as using the razor inappropriately. For instance

1421:. Unlike many theologians of his time, though, Ockham did not believe God could be logically proven with arguments. To Ockham, science was a matter of discovery; 452:

Prior to the 20th century, it was a commonly held belief that nature itself was simple and that simpler hypotheses about nature were thus more likely to be true.

3834:"Accurate prediction of HIV-1 drug response from the reverse transcriptase and protease amino acid sequences using sparse models created by convex optimization" 3832:

Rabinowitz, Matthew; Myers, Lance; Banjevic, Milena; Chan, Albert; Sweetkind-Singer, Joshua; Haberer, Jessica; McCann, Kelly; Wolkowicz, Roland (1 March 2006).

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radiation laws and used Occam's razor logic to formulate the quantum hypothesis, even resisting that hypothesis as it became more obvious that it was correct.

4561: 50:) is the problem-solving principle that recommends searching for explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements. It is also known as the 748:

argues that a preference for simple theories need not appeal to practical or aesthetic considerations. Our preference for simplicity may be justified by its

7305: 5047: 1640:, and using it to come up with criteria for penalizing complexity in statistical inference. Papers have suggested a connection between Occam's razor and 272:. Hence, Aquinas acknowledges the principle that today is known as Occam's razor, but prefers causal explanations to other simple explanations (cf. also 5379: 1517:(1685–1753). Berkeley was an idealist who believed that all of reality could be explained in terms of the mind alone. He invoked Occam's razor against 1450:

nature; and all voluntary things can be reduced to one principle which is human reason, or will. Therefore there is no need to suppose God's existence.

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offers a particular version of Occam's razor: "Whenever possible, substitute constructions out of known entities for inferences to unknown entities."

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method improved forecast accuracy. In the 25 papers with quantitative comparisons, complexity increased forecast errors by an average of 27 percent.

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This notion was deeply rooted in the aesthetic value that simplicity holds for human thought and the justifications presented for it often drew from

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applied to the relative ease of a programmer to obtain the power of the language, rather than the precise theoretical limits of the language.

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refers to distinguishing between two hypotheses either by "shaving away" unnecessary assumptions or cutting apart two similar conclusions.

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procedure based on the choice of some prior distribution motivated by Occam's razor (e.g., the prior might favor hypotheses with smaller

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with its reasonableness in another. It is a mistake to think that there is a single global principle that spans diverse subject matter.

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Induction: From Kolmogorov and Solomonoff to De Finetti and Back to Kolmogorov JJ McCall – Metroeconomica, 2004 – Wiley Online Library.

1143:'s idea of waves, so many favored it. In this case, as it turned out, neither the wave—nor the particle—explanation alone suffices, as 3716: 3004: 2810: 1584:

including such entities as "pain", "joy", "desire", "fear", etc., are eliminable in favor of an ontology of a completed neuroscience.

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https://web.archive.org/web/20140204001435/http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.185.709&rep=rep1&type=pdf

1939:) was a contemporary of William of Ockham who took exception to Occam's razor and Ockham's use of it. In response he devised his own 1387:. Given the phylogenetic tree, ancestral population subdivisions are inferred to be those that require the minimum amount of change. 2789:

Regula I. Causas rerum naturalium non-plures admitti debere, quam quæ & veræ sint & earum phænomenis explicandis sufficient.

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There are various papers in scholarly journals deriving formal versions of Occam's razor from probability theory, applying it in

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to use is the one that is simplest while also solving the targeted software problem. In that form the rule is often credited to

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6.363 "The procedure of induction consists in accepting as true the simplest law that can be reconciled with our experiences."

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base their belief upon grounds independent of, or prior to, reason, making Occam's razor irrelevant. This was the stance of

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and its extensions. See discussions in David L. Dowe's "Foreword re C. S. Wallace" for the subtle distinctions between the

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was considered more complex because it implied the existence of invisible particles that had not been directly detected.

963: 310:. His popular fame as a great logician rests chiefly on the maxim attributed to him and known as Occam's razor. The term 4027: 1057:

to prevent them from being falsified, simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they tend to be more

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There have also been other attempts to derive Occam's razor from probability theory, including notable attempts made by

342:(Entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity), are absent in his extant works; this particular phrasing comes from 317:

While it has been claimed that Occam's razor is not found in any of William's writings, one can cite statements such as

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the same may be true of the question 'why should simplicity be considered in evaluating the plausibility of hypotheses?

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In penal theory and the philosophy of punishment, parsimony refers specifically to taking care in the distribution of

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The origins of what has come to be known as Occam's razor are traceable to the works of earlier philosophers such as

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and chemical reactions as simple separation and rearrangements of atomic building blocks. At the time, however, the

900: 573: 9712: 9692: 4554: 1306:(shared, derived character states), pheneticists contend that overall similarity (synapomorphies and complementary 1247: 620:

Possible explanations can become needlessly complex. It might be coherent, for instance, to add the involvement of

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Geis, Gilbert; Geis, Professor Emeritus of Criminology Law and & Society Gilbert; Bienen, Leigh B. (1998).

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Swinburne, Richard (1997). Simplicity as Evidence for Truth. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Marquette University Press.

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Another contentious aspect of the razor is that a theory can become more complex in terms of its structure (or

1724:

requires approximately the same length description across different formulations, and is small compared to the

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and ultimately incorrect, alternatives. This is so because one can always burden a failing explanation with an

558: 9092: 8504: 7745: 7222: 7055: 6848: 6707: 6558: 5383: 4476:(2006). "The New AI: General & Sound & Relevant for Physics". In Goertzel, B.; Pennachin, C. (eds.). 4226: 2490:

Roger Ariew, Ockham's Razor: A Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Ockham's Principle of Parsimony, 1976

7355: 5399: 4330: 1990: 1616:. Bentham believed that true parsimony would require punishment to be individualised to take account of the 979:

to guide scientists in developing theoretical models rather than as an arbiter between published models. In

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Regula II. Ideoque effectuum naturalium ejusdem generis eædem assignandæ sunt causæ, quatenus fieri potest.

2573: 2353: 1662: 1654: 1486: 665: 373:("It is futile to do with more things that which can be done with fewer"; Thorburn, 1918, pp. 352–53; 5349:

Menger, Karl (1960). "A Counterpart of Ockham's Razor in Pure and Applied Mathematics: Ontological Uses".

3400: 1544:, more careful consideration suggests that he may instead have intended merely to illustrate the power of 220:) stated, "We consider it a good principle to explain the phenomena by the simplest hypothesis possible." 6609: 6566: 6096: 6086: 4294: 1864: 700: 637:

explanations, called saving hypotheses, cannot be technically ruled out – except by using Occam's razor.

324: 2961: 2234: 8044: 7921: 6571: 6236: 6201: 5997: 5776: 5716: 5693: 5653: 5263: 2135: 1700: 1569: 1501: 728: 527: 511: 9210: 8474: 6790: 6251: 4928: 4617: 2782:, p. 387) wrote the following two "philosophizing rules" at the beginning of part 3 of the 2011: 1953: 1949:("Even if it is not true, it is well conceived") when referred to a particularly artful explanation. 1613: 1545: 1144: 992: 374: 103:

in the development of theoretical models rather than as a rigorous arbiter between candidate models.

9383: 8578: 7548: 7370: 7345: 6908: 6838: 6659: 6424: 6353: 6348: 6047: 5555: 2695: 2591: 1721: 1329:

are branching, diagrams used to represent hypotheses of relative degree of relationship, based on

1198: 323:("Plurality must never be posited without necessity"), which occurs in his theological work on the 3552:

RA Jackson, Mechanism: An Introduction to the Study of Organic Reactions, Clarendon, Oxford, 1972.

2712: 949:(1660). Future positions of the sun, moon and other solar system bodies can be calculated using a 9702: 9626: 9205: 9173: 9033: 8790: 8668: 8102: 7322: 7105: 6820: 6760: 6752: 6449: 6444: 6231: 6216: 6081: 5589: 5235: 2635: 2015:

magazine annually awards the Ockham Awards, or simply the Ockhams, named after Occam's razor, at

1761: 1674: 1489:, with the exception that Clark never thought the leap of faith was contrary to reason (see also 996: 896: 717: 569: 495:

Occam's razor has gained strong empirical support in helping to converge on better theories (see

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3.328 "If a sign is not necessary then it is meaningless. That is the meaning of Occam's Razor."

9446: 9279: 9178: 9168: 8904: 8718: 7936: 6702: 6521: 6138: 6133: 5842: 4295:"A short introduction to Model Selection, Kolmogorov Complexity and Minimum Description Length" 2141: 1965: 1739: 1402: 1334: 1078: 1045:

or a scientific result; the preference for simplicity in the scientific method is based on the

816: 704: 514:), whereas simpler models may capture the underlying structure better and may thus have better 4776: 2746: 1405:, Occam's razor is sometimes applied to the existence of God. William of Ockham himself was a 624:

to any explanation, but Occam's razor would prevent such additions unless they were necessary.

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Other methods for inferring evolutionary relationships use parsimony in a more general way.

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performance. It is, however, often difficult to deduce which part of the data is noise (cf.

439:

widespread layman's formulation that "the simplest explanation is usually the correct one."

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Epstein, Robert (1984). "The Principle of Parsimony and Some Applications in Psychology".

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Ockham's Razor: A Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Ockham's Principle of Parsimony

4539: – (HPS Volume 7) Philosophy of Statistics, Elsevier 2010 Page(s):901–982. 2804: 1474: 1233:

Biologists or philosophers of biology use Occam's razor in either of two contexts both in

8: 9697: 9598: 9425: 9351: 9193: 9143: 9111: 9050: 9003: 8775: 8758: 8753: 8746: 8706: 8658: 8566: 8469: 8451: 8322: 7931: 7851: 7720: 7464: 7418: 7375: 7212: 6913: 6785: 6664: 6333: 6256: 6246: 6123: 6007: 6002: 5186:

Jefferys, William H.; Berger, James O. (1991). "Ockham's Razor and Bayesian Statistics".

4647: 4416: 4196: 2167: 2156: 2123: 1852: 1796: 1670: 1609: 1414: 1349: 1155: 1128: 1031: 892: 842:(If everything in the symbolism works as though a sign had meaning, then it has meaning.) 696: 565: 472: 193: 97: 88: 7775: 5537: 5271: 4923: 4408: 3798: 3478: 3230: 2928: 2867: 9489: 9329: 9324: 9314: 9254: 9200: 8968: 8958: 8732: 8701: 8688: 8499: 8484: 8441: 8401: 8327: 8278: 8095: 8064: 8019: 7978: 7973: 7866: 7700: 7680: 7610: 7489: 7469: 7202: 7160: 7070: 7035: 6810: 6775: 6677: 6619: 6581: 6576: 6412: 6402: 6206: 6178: 6128: 5919: 5879: 5621: 5572: 5462: 5366: 5039: 4845: 4827: 4518: 4481: 4420: 4394: 4357: 3784: 3604: 3596: 3396: 3272: 3263: 3099: 2942: 2914: 2879: 2853: 2288: 2120: – Medical principle that a patient's symptoms could be caused by several diseases 2117: 1928:

Occam's razor has met some opposition from people who consider it too extreme or rash.

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Occam's razor may also be recognized in the apocryphal story about an exchange between

1410: 1354: 1322: 1274: 1140: 1074: 1027: 988: 812: 709: 686: 671: 531: 484: 259: 180: 6965: 6918: 5524: 4876: 4458: 4442: 4205: 1525:

itself more in line with the razor than a God-mediated world beyond a single thinker.

9707: 9521: 9506: 9433: 9334: 9220: 9138: 9104: 9028: 8998: 8963: 8933: 8678: 8636: 8631: 8561: 8556: 8528: 8494: 8459: 8169: 8076: 7999: 7966: 7946: 7916: 7911: 7780: 7755: 7735: 7730: 7705: 7595: 7580: 7527: 7484: 7456: 7262: 7258: 7140: 7125: 6795: 6742: 6722: 6624: 6614: 6541: 6370: 6360: 6153: 5941: 5861: 5780: 5720: 5697: 5625: 5497: 5478: 5466: 5429: 5389: 5275: 5253: 5239: 5216: 5160: 5132: 5067: 5001: 4973: 4890: 4849: 4815: 4782: 4689: 4145: 4110: 4053: 3977: 3934: 3909: 3855: 3680: 3641: 3441: 3406: 3371: 3335: 3303: 3217: 3062: 3025: 2752: 2471: 2400: 2392: 2111: 2105: 2070: 2056: 1986: 1868: 1693: 1573: 1318: 1307: 1257: 1089: 1051: 1038: 1012: 1004: 940: 811:

According to Swinburne, since our choice of theory cannot be determined by data (see

790: 610: 507: 422: 295: 67: 7650: 6765: 5804:, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sir Anthony Kenny, Marilyn Adams & Richard Cross ( 5370: 5154: 5150: 4424: 3850: 3833: 3775:

Courtney, A.; Courtney, M. (2008). "Comments Regarding 'On the Nature of Science'".

3608: 3171: 2883: 2292: 693:, where he emphasizes that a prior bias in favor of simpler models is not required. 9722: 9651: 9274: 9116: 9018: 8993: 8983: 8978: 8953: 8857: 8673: 8663: 8621: 8411: 8376: 8295: 8263: 8179: 8154: 8126: 7886: 7831: 7821: 7715: 7645: 7635: 7522: 7507: 7330: 7165: 7028: 6998: 6988: 6983: 6880: 6865: 6511: 6407: 6061: 6032: 5971: 5909: 5747: 5613: 5564: 5520: 5454: 5358: 5310: 5095: 5043: 5031: 4837: 4722: 4522: 4510: 4453: 4412: 4367: 4275: 4238: 4137: 3967: 3845: 3588: 3482: 3183: 3091: 2946: 2932: 2871: 2608: 2550: 2429: 2280: 2093: 2016: 1506: 1441: 1396: 1269: 1016: 613:. Ad hoc hypotheses are justifications that prevent theories from being falsified. 418: 396: 250: 176: 158: 116: 8365: 4612: 3187: 284: 9636: 9485: 9319: 9269: 9259: 9126: 9082: 9065: 8973: 8316: 8243: 8228: 8174: 8009: 7685: 7675: 7670: 7585: 7553: 7543: 7172: 7155: 7110: 7100: 7045: 7018: 6955: 6950: 6935: 6860: 6596: 6586: 6221: 6211: 6012: 5889: 5773:

Adaptation and natural selection: A Critique of some Current Evolutionary Thought

5425: 5323: 5204: 4961: 4608: 4174: 4165: 3908:(2nd ed.). Massachusetts Institute of Technology: The MIT Press. p. 7. 3635: 3458: 3367: 3360: 2844:

Soklakov, A. N. (2002). "Occam's Razor as a formal basis for a physical theory".

2742: 2510:, vol.15, Ed. Luke Wadding, Louvain (1639), reprinted Paris: Vives, (1894) p.483a 2284: 1978: 1899: 1860: 1697: 1581: 1577: 1514: 1418: 1264: 1121: 1117: 984: 678: 519: 5197: 3874: 3736: 3255: 2322: 1867:. Complexity in this context is measured either by placing a language into the 1197:

The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of

616: 9438: 9307: 9286: 9072: 9060: 8928: 8899: 8651: 8489: 8406: 8391: 8149: 7871: 7816: 7605: 7426: 7145: 7135: 7075: 7023: 6960: 6855: 6780: 6737: 6717: 6506: 6382: 6343: 6037: 6027: 6022: 5946: 5751: 5669: 4841: 4438: 2554: 2129: 2084: 1969: 1929: 1754: 1753:, the appropriate mathematical theory of Occam's razor already exists, namely, 1704: 1678: 1601: 1597: 1565: 1436: 1330: 1303: 1202: 1085: 1046: 1000: 749: 460: 403: 255: 59: 43: 5648:

Sober, Elliott (1990). "Let's Razor Ockham's Razor". In Dudley Knowles (ed.).

4346:"Minimum description length induction, Bayesianism, and Kolmogorov complexity" 4345: 4279: 4242: 3817:

Sober, Elliott (1994). "Let's Razor Occam's Razor". In Knowles, Dudley (ed.).

2875: 1313:

It is among the cladists that Occam's razor is applied, through the method of

1084:

Appeals to simplicity were used to argue against the phenomena of meteorites,

115:

did not appear until a few centuries after William of Ockham's death in 1347.

9676: 9368: 9233: 9121: 9077: 9023: 8943: 8913: 8852: 8810: 8593: 8571: 8518: 8358: 8337: 8332: 8184: 8164: 8144: 7941: 7796: 7740: 7695: 7575: 7517: 7431: 7380: 7365: 7115: 7040: 6923: 6903: 6815: 6770: 5981: 5128: 4987: 4740: 3487: 3355: 2898: 1957: 1916: 1729: 1612:, and is a component of utilitarian approaches to punishment, as well as the 1478: 1360: 1338: 1113: 1101: 1026:, Occam's razor is often an important heuristic when developing a model of a 762: 224: 5801: 5617: 5458: 5093: 4514: 4050:

History of World Christian Movement Volume, I: Earliest Christianity to 1453

4019: 2265: 2194:"Ockham's razor does not say that the more simple a hypothesis, the better." 1677:

researchers are now employing such techniques, for instance through work on

9631: 9616: 9373: 9238: 8611: 8347: 8288: 8233: 8206: 8014: 7856: 7801: 7474: 7060: 7050: 7013: 7003: 6993: 6885: 6800: 6732: 6629: 6293: 6017: 5966: 5415: 4919: 4744: 3981: 3859: 2036: 2020: 1982: 1649: 1482: 1456: 1406: 1368: 1136: 767: 629: 468: 386: 336:

Nevertheless, the precise words sometimes attributed to William of Ockham,

264: 5314: 5035: 4070: 3513:

L. Nash, The Nature of the Natural Sciences, Boston: Little, Brown (1963).

1460:, and addresses the particular objection above with the following answer: 753:

theory to a more complex theory where both explain the data equally well.

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of the demonstration which derives from fewer postulates or hypotheses."

142: 71: 5872: 5477:. Translated by Pegis, A. C. New York: Random House. 1945. p. 129. 4399: 3276: 2858: 685:. The probabilistic (Bayesian) basis for Occam's razor is elaborated by 331:

Quaestiones et decisiones in quattuor libros Sententiarum Petri Lombardi

9656: 9646: 9553: 9528: 9481: 9228: 9133: 8825: 8741: 8736: 8416: 8386: 8134: 8039: 7861: 7512: 7340: 7008: 6805: 6727: 6712: 6501: 6471: 6434: 6392: 6387: 6318: 5956: 5576: 5362: 3288:(preprint available as "Sharpening Occam's Razor on a Bayesian Strop"). 3103: 2173: 2039:, and both lower corners feature an image of William of Ockham's face. 1593: 1426: 1383:

by observing the geographic distribution and relationships of existing

1380: 1326: 1105: 1070: 1008: 958: 650: 621: 480: 428: 307: 303: 288: 184: 134: 92: 75: 27: 9394: 7283: 4486: 4371: 4167:

Mémoires du docteur F. Antommarchi, ou les derniers momens de Napoléon

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Simplicity, Inference and Modeling: Keeping it Sophisticatedly Simple

2099: 1893: 1522: 1481:

that sometimes directly opposed reason. This is also the doctrine of

1288: 1234: 1023: 976: 351: 269: 188: 100: 8300: 5568: 4651: 3956:"Statistical consistency and phylogenetic inference: a brief review" 3462: 3095: 2596:

Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science 1100–1700

2159: – Principle that allows one to eliminate unlikely explanations 1568:

invoked Occam's razor with the aim to justify his preference of the

903:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 576:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 9641: 9621: 9573: 9558: 9496: 9456: 9356: 9163: 8847: 8815: 8727: 8722: 8601: 8546: 8479: 8436: 8201: 8190: 8059: 7956: 7926: 7620: 7479: 7446: 7217: 7207: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6634: 6481: 6397: 6365: 6278: 6270: 5961: 5936: 5904: 5899: 4832: 4726: 4362: 3637:

Popper Versus Einstein: On the Philosophical Foundations of Physics

3592: 1889: 1537: 1533: 1513:

Another application of the principle is to be found in the work of

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Phylogenetics: the theory and practice of phylogenetic systematics

3789: 3713:"Everything Should Be Made as Simple as Possible, But Not Simpler" 2919: 2027:, designed by Neil Davies and Karl Derrick, carry the upper text " 262:, an objection that he in turn answers and refutes generally (cf. 9548: 9538: 9533: 9516: 9291: 9055: 8923: 8879: 8874: 8804: 8626: 8616: 8431: 8253: 7660: 7441: 7436: 6466: 6377: 6298: 6288: 5931: 5884: 4881: 4326: 2578:

The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability before Pascal

2428:

Hoffman, Roald; Minkin, Vladimir I.; Carpenter, Barry K. (1997).

1549: 1541: 1490: 1376: 1298: 1280: 1167:

criteria between models that make the same testable predictions.

980: 972: 432: 425:'s dictum "When you hear hoofbeats, think of horses not zebras". 204: 5094:

Hoffmann, Roald; Vladimir I. Minkin; Barry K. Carpenter (1997).

3147: 9583: 9578: 9563: 9461: 9295: 9045: 8830: 8606: 8513: 8272: 7983: 7590: 6536: 6429: 6308: 5057: 3405:. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 13–31. 3082:

Becher, Erich (1905). "The Philosophical Views of Ernst Mach".

2024: 1885: 1771: 1470: 1284: 1132: 936: 670:

One justification of Occam's razor is a direct result of basic

5301:

Maurer, A. (1984). "Ockham's Razor and Chatton's Anti-Razor".

3997:

Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications (3rd edn.)

2144: – Formal information theory restatement of Occam's Razor 1629:

Marcus Hutter's universal artificial intelligence builds upon

1041:, Occam's razor is not considered an irrefutable principle of 363:("Plurality should not be posited without necessity"). In his 9302: 8869: 8820: 8798: 8551: 8536: 7811: 6313: 5866: 2966:

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition)

2033:

The Skeptic. Shaving away unnecessary assumptions since 1285.

1430: 1042: 476: 153: 8087: 5017:"Bayes not Bust! Why Simplicity is no Problem for Bayesians" 5015:

Dowe, David L.; Steve Gardner; Graham Oppy (December 2007).

5014: 3906:

Reconstructing the Past: Parsimony, Evolution, and Inference

3676:

Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson

3463:"Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?" 3140:"ad hoc hypothesis - The Skeptic's Dictionary - Skepdic.com" 1863:

since it appeared in his design guidelines for the original

1343:

Reconstructing the Past: Parsimony, Evolution, and Inference

9511: 9466: 9040: 8835: 8196: 5894: 4071:"SUMMA THEOLOGICA: The existence of God (Prima Pars, Q. 2)" 3831: 3334:] (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 121–132. 3297: 2609:"SUMMA THEOLOGICA: The existence of God (Prima Pars, Q. 2)" 2126: – General rule rejecting claims made without evidence 367:, i. 12, William of Ockham cites the principle of economy, 171:", i.e., "Plurality is not to be posited without necessity" 5553:

Smart, J. J. C. (1959). "Sensations and Brain Processes".

801:

epistemic principle that simplicity is evidence for truth.

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What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery

4877:"QED 2016 – verslag van een lang weekend tussen skeptici" 2389:

Scientific Method in Practice, Cambridge University Press

2035:" Between the texts, there is an image of a double-edged 1371:, parsimony is used to infer ancient vicariant events or 628:

For example, if a man, accused of breaking a vase, makes

163:

Commentaria oxoniensia ad IV libros magistri Sententiarus

5185: 5058:

Duda, Richard O.; Peter E. Hart; David G. Stork (2000).

4130:

Schmitt, Carl; Schwab, George; Strong, Tracy B. (2005).

1564:

In his article "Sensations and Brain Processes" (1959),

148: 5100:

Hyle: International Journal for Philosophy of Chemistry

4688:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 20–46. 4189:"Obsolescence and Immanence in Penal Theory and Policy" 2809:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2016. 2434:

Hyle: International Journal for Philosophy of Chemistry

2152:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

4589:, in "Approximation and Optimization", Springer, 57-82 3219:

Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms

2427: 691:

Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms

431:

formulated the stronger version of Occam's razor into

5511:

Rodríguez-Fernández, J. L. (1999). "Ockham's Razor".

5496:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 121–132. 5259:

Information Theory, Inference and Learning Algorithms

1131:

is more complex than transmission of light through a

5661:

Sober, Elliott (2002). Zellner; et al. (eds.).

4501:

Dowe, David L. (2008). "Foreword re C. S. Wallace".

2502:

Johannes Poncius's commentary on John Duns Scotus's

2046: 1981:, the "science of imaginary solutions" developed by 1692:, and that definition can vary. For example, in the 1631:

Solomonoff's mathematical formalization of the razor

1624: 1321:) is a method of phylogenetic inference that yields 931: 370:

Frustra fit per plura quod potest fieri per pauciora

5510: 5229: 4129: 2102: – Classification based on observable evidence 1791:

may be too technical for most readers to understand

1469:Rather than argue for the necessity of a god, some 943:'s illustration of the Copernican system, from the 346:, who described the principle as a "common axiom" ( 4642: 4640: 4261:"Minimum Message Length and Kolmogorov Complexity" 3359: 1964:(1902–1985). Leibniz's version took the form of a 1263:However, more recent biological analyses, such as 268:), and specifically, through an argument based on 4646: 4443:"A formal theory of inductive inference. Part I." 4385:Standish, Russell K (2000). "Why Occam's Razor". 3172:"Simple versus complex forecasting: The evidence" 2903:"A philosophical treatise of universal induction" 2541:Charlesworth, M. J. (1956). "Aristotle's Razor". 2019:. The Ockhams were introduced by editor-in-chief 1608:. Parsimony is a key consideration of the modern 339:Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem 81:Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem 9674: 4711:"Occam's Razor in Molecular and Systems Biology" 4225:Wallace, C. S.; Boulton, D. M. (1 August 1968). 3774: 2896: 2150: – Australian mathematician and philosopher 2108: – Ability of a theory to explain a subject 123:, gives him credit for the phrase, speaking of " 4637: 3254:Jefferys, William H.; Berger, James O. (1991). 2991: 2989: 2987: 2314: 1707:whose operations describe the basic operations 1596:in order to avoid excessive punishment. In the 1139:'s idea of light particles seemed simpler than 1116:until the reality of atoms was more evident in 413:Another technical approach to Occam's razor is 393:, Newton affirms the success of this approach. 320:Numquam ponenda est pluralitas sine necessitate 302:1287–1347) was an English Franciscan friar and 236:Commentarius in Posteriorum Analyticorum Libros 5388:(2nd ed.). London: W. Scott. p. 59. 4343: 4224: 3672: 3253: 3169: 2506:book III, dist. 34, q. 1. in John Duns Scotus 2461: 2459: 2132: – Design principle preferring simplicity 1633:to calculate the expected value of an action. 1621:relative sensitivity to specific punishments. 953:model (the earth is at the centre) or using a 9410: 8103: 7299: 5827: 5606:British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 5446:British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 5024:British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 4914: 4912: 4739: 4220: 4218: 3821:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 73–93. 3522: 3119: 3021:Everywhere The Soles of Your Feet Shall Tread 2839: 2837: 2114: – Adage to assume stupidity over malice 1944: 506:, excessively complex models are affected by 487:have become more popular among philosophers. 130:Non sunt multiplicanda entia sine necessitate 91:advocates that when presented with competing 5443:Nolan, D. (1997). "Quantitative Parsimony". 5198:Sharpening Occam's Razor on a Bayesian Strop 3994: 3160:Swinburne 1997 and Williams, Gareth T, 2008. 2984: 2540: 2498: 2496: 1772:Mathematical arguments against Occam's razor 991:, in the development and application of the 856:and on the related concept of "simplicity": 306:, an influential medieval philosopher and a 5421:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica 4956:. Champaign-Urbana, University of Illinois. 4924:"The Skeptic Magazine Awards 2011: Winners" 4763:Entium varietates non-temere esse minuendas 4607: 4472: 4227:"An Information Measure for Classification" 3872: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3563:Determination of Organic Reaction Mechanism 3249: 3247: 3061:. Mt. Vernon, VA: Mt. Vernon Book Systems. 3017: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2456: 2170: – Analogy devised by Bertrand Russell 1251:(1966) argues that the best way to explain 1145:light behaves like waves and like particles 368: 360:Pluralitas non est ponenda sine necessitate 358: 337: 333:; ed. Lugd., 1495, i, dist. 27, qu. 2, K). 318: 198: 191:(384–322 BC). Aristotle writes in his 168:Pluralitas non est ponenda sine necessitate 166: 128: 79: 9417: 9403: 8110: 8096: 7306: 7292: 5841: 5834: 5820: 4960: 4909: 4774: 4437: 4215: 3866: 3734: 3633: 3537: 2834: 2825: 2705: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2413: 2383: 2381: 2379: 1600:approach to the philosophy of punishment, 983:, parsimony was an important heuristic in 793:argues for simplicity on logical grounds: 7233:Relationship between religion and science 5710: 5385:An Introduction to Comparative Psychology 5122: 4831: 4485: 4457: 4398: 4361: 3971: 3849: 3788: 3486: 3384: 2936: 2918: 2857: 2493: 2470:. Cambridge University Press. p. 4. 1819:Learn how and when to remove this message 1803:, without removing the technical details. 1237:: the units of selection controversy and 1221:Learn how and when to remove this message 919:Learn how and when to remove this message 592:Learn how and when to remove this message 5770: 5733: 5321: 5156:Probability Theory: The Logic of Science 4874: 4743:(1929). Norman Kemp-Smith transl (ed.). 4579: 4384: 4109:. London: Black Swan. pp. 157–158. 3805: 3759: 3723: 3574: 3555: 3546: 3531: 3516: 3507: 3457: 3451: 3348: 3256:"Ockham's Razor and Bayesian Statistics" 3244: 3059:Zebra Cards: An Aid to Obscure Diagnoses 2843: 2719:. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2010. 2702:, Cambridge, MA: Harvard, Vol. 2, p. 30. 2665:. 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Boston: Pearson Education, pp. 19–33. 2741: 2735: 2410: 2376: 1846: 1764:work of Solomonoff and the MML work of 1454:In turn, Aquinas answers this with the 645:Practical considerations and pragmatism 408:theory of universal inductive inference 357:This principle is sometimes phrased as 141:in his 1639 commentary on the works of 16:Philosophical problem-solving principle 9675: 8781:Types of fiction with multiple endings 6159:Proper basis and Reformed epistemology 5491: 5414: 5377: 5348: 5300: 5252: 5145: 4592: 4567:from the original on 23 September 2015 4333:from the original on 24 December 2007. 4286: 4142:10.7208/chicago/9780226738901.001.0001 3953: 3577:"On the Method of Theoretical Physics" 3322: 3215: 3127:How to Think Straight About Psychology 3081: 2779: 2633: 2333:from the original on 25 September 2023 1952:Anti-razors have also been created by 822: 9688:Concepts in the philosophy of science 9398: 8091: 7287: 5815: 5687: 5660: 5647: 5596: 5583: 5552: 5442: 5336:from the original on 25 February 2017 5288:from the original on 17 February 2016 4986: 4951: 4936:from the original on 23 October 2017. 4813: 4708: 4680: 4537:Handbook of the Philosophy of Science 4186: 4177:, vol. 1, 1825, Paris: Barrois L'Ainé 4048:Dale T Irvin & Scott W Sunquist. 3928: 3903: 3885:from the original on 11 November 2020 3816: 3390: 3354: 3056: 2972:from the original on 24 February 2021 2959: 2953: 2660: 2580:. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 2465: 2302:from the original on 9 September 2020 2232: 1801:make it understandable to non-experts 1758:theory of optimal inductive inference 1559: 1108:and the logical positivists rejected 735: 708:relationship between key concepts in 380: 149:Formulations before William of Ockham 5663:"What is the Problem of Simplicity?" 5475:Basic Writings of St. Thomas Aquinas 5210: 5173:from the original on 24 October 2018 5053:from the original on 9 October 2022. 4918: 4897:from the original on 18 October 2017 4795:from the original on 28 October 2023 4684:(1961). "Two dogmas of empiricism". 4500: 4249: 3654:from the original on 22 January 2023 3615:from the original on 22 January 2023 3495:from the original on 21 October 2019 3419:from the original on 28 October 2023 3393:"What is the Problem of Simplicity?" 3038:from the original on 28 October 2023 2813:from the original on 26 January 2021 2700:Medieval and Early Modern Philosophy 2676: 2634:Vallee, Jacques (11 February 2013). 2364:from the original on 2 February 2023 2354:"The Tyranny of Simple Explanations" 2351: 1775: 1174: 868: 785: 541: 537: 279: 274:Correlation does not imply causation 5758:from the original on 5 October 2019 5329:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4781:. World Scientific. pp. 303–. 4585:Adam, S., and Pardalos, P. (2019), 4105:Dawkins, Richard (1 January 2007). 4030:from the original on 7 October 2019 3881:. California: Stanford University. 3743:. California: Stanford University. 3741:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3302:. springer. pp. 105, 203–204. 3298:James, Gareth; et al. (2013). 2723:from the original on 23 August 2010 2320: 2245:from the original on 5 October 2022 964:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 121:On Christian Philosophy of the Soul 13: 5127:. Engleswoods Cliffs, New Jersey: 4944: 4875:Korteweg, Leon (2 December 2016). 4749:. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 92. 4417:10.1023/B:FOPL.0000032475.18334.0e 4292: 4077:from the original on 28 April 2013 3747:from the original on 26 March 2014 3634:Mettenheim, Christoph von (1998). 3286:from the original on 4 March 2005. 2663:The linguistics Student's Handbook 2642:from the original on 31 March 2013 2615:from the original on 28 April 2013 2273:Australasian Journal of Philosophy 1715: 1703:approach, the subject must pick a 1302:classification should be based on 499:section below for some examples). 14: 9734: 9184:Third-person omniscient narrative 5795: 5690:Ockham's Razors - A User's Manual 5534:"Ockham's Razor Suggests Atheism" 5494:The Logic of Scientific Discovery 5151:"Model Comparison and Robustness" 5110:from the original on 14 July 2018 4709:Gross, Fridolin (December 2019). 4662:from the original on 1 March 2016 4625:from the original on 15 June 2022 3933:(2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 3719:from the original on 29 May 2012. 3693:from the original on 5 April 2023 3332:The Logic of Scientific Discovery 3007:from the original on 6 July 2017. 2444:from the original on 14 July 2018 2345: 2138: – Model selection principle 1720:The minimum instruction set of a 1625:Probability theory and statistics 1409:. He believed in God, and in the 1325:(more specifically, cladograms). 1127:In the same way, postulating the 932:Science and the scientific method 442: 291:illustration of William of Ockham 197:, "We may assume the superiority 8070: 8058: 7952:Stratification of emotional life 7401: 7395: 7389: 7268: 7267: 7257: 5713:Simplicity as Evidence for Truth 4856:from the original on 9 July 2023 4753:from the original on 16 May 2012 4327:"Algorithmic Information Theory" 4307:from the original on 2 June 2010 3523:de Maupertuis, P. L. M. (1744). 3194:from the original on 8 June 2020 2960:Baker, Alan (25 February 2010). 2077: 2063: 2049: 1780: 1712:that believes it is subjective. 1548:, or even simply that the fewer 1477:, who viewed belief in God as a 1248:Adaptation and Natural Selection 1179: 873: 756: 546: 377:and Kneale, 1962, p. 243.) 227:writing. Robert Grosseteste, in 4807: 4733: 4702: 4674: 4601: 4587:No-free lunch Theorem: A review 4545: 4529: 4494: 4478:Artificial General Intelligence 4466: 4431: 4378: 4337: 4319: 4259:Wallace, C. S. (1 April 1999). 4180: 4158: 4136:. University of Chicago Press. 4123: 4098: 4089: 4063: 4042: 4012: 4003: 3988: 3947: 3922: 3897: 3825: 3705: 3666: 3627: 3568: 3565:, New York: Wiley-Interscience. 3434: 3316: 3291: 3209: 3163: 3154: 3132: 3110: 3075: 3050: 3011: 2890: 2797: 2772: 2689: 2670: 2654: 2627: 2601: 2585: 2534: 2513: 2352:Ball, Philip (11 August 2016). 2206: 2197: 2188: 1587: 659: 467:Beginning in the 20th century, 354:simply because it pleases God. 8572:Conflict between good and evil 5159:. Cambridge University Press. 5096:"Ockham's Razor and Chemistry" 4387:Foundations of Physics Letters 2846:Foundations of Physics Letters 2751:. Running Press. p. 731. 2484: 2468:Ockam's Razor: A User's Manual 2430:"Ockham's Razor and Chemistry" 2257: 2235:"Who sharpened Occam's Razor?" 2226: 1923: 1659:Bayesian information criterion 830:Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 740: 133:) was formulated by the Irish 21:Occam's Razor (disambiguation) 1: 8117: 5525:10.1016/S0160-9327(99)01199-0 4459:10.1016/s0019-9958(64)90223-2 3851:10.1093/bioinformatics/btk011 3542:(in French). pp. 22–128. 3525:Mémoires de l'Académie Royale 3188:10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.03.026 2964:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 2219: 2176: – State of being simple 1933: 1851:In software development, the 975:, Occam's razor is used as a 510:(a problem also known as the 239: 232:the Posterior Analytics Books 209: 7198:Desacralization of knowledge 5771:Williams, George C. (1966). 5599:"The Principle of Parsimony" 4968:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: 4932:. Vol. 23, no. 4. 4686:From a logical point of view 3995:Brower &, Schuh (2021). 3640:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 34. 3216:MacKay, David J. C. (2003). 3176:Journal of Business Research 3125:Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). 3018:Stormy Dawn (17 July 2017). 2285:10.1080/00048402.2014.992447 2233:Barry, C. M. (27 May 2014). 2148:Newton's flaming laser sword 1946:Se non è vero, è ben trovato 1728:of most practical theories. 1663:Variational Bayesian methods 1655:Akaike information criterion 1487:presuppositional apologetics 1003:, and in the development of 666:Akaike information criterion 490: 447: 78:, it is frequently cited as 7: 7544:Theological intellectualism 6610:Best of all possible worlds 6567:Eschatological verification 6124:Fine-tuning of the universe 5736:"The Myth of Occam's Razor" 5711:Swinburne, Richard (1997). 4775:Gordon Woo (20 June 2011). 4746:The Critique of Pure Reason 4204:: 1233–1275. Archived from 3999:. Cornell University Press. 3399:; McAleer, Michael (eds.). 2527:271a33. See also Franklin, 2264:Schaffer, Jonathan (2015). 2042: 1865:Hypertext Transfer Protocol 1735:Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory 1390: 899:the claims made and adding 761:The philosopher of science 572:the claims made and adding 10: 9739: 7922:Principle of double effect 5777:Princeton University Press 5717:Marquette University Press 5694:Cambridge University Press 5654:Cambridge University Press 5650:Explanation and its Limits 5532:Schmitt, Gavin C. (2005). 5322:McDonald, William (2005). 5264:Cambridge University Press 4842:10.1038/s41567-022-01575-2 4814:Mazin, Igor (April 2022). 4024:Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3819:Explanation and Its Limits 2748:On the Shoulders of Giants 2682:A Dictionary of Philosophy 2555:10.5840/philstudies1956606 2136:Minimum description length 2096: – Dramatic principle 1991:Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius 1701:minimum description length 1570:mind-brain identity theory 1502:Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit 1394: 1317:. Cladistic parsimony (or 1170: 689:in chapter 28 of his book 663: 648: 528:minimum description length 502:In the related concept of 326:Sentences of Peter Lombard 106: 18: 9597: 9544:Parsimony (Occam's razor) 9432: 9247: 9219: 9211:Stream of unconsciousness 9154: 8898: 8789: 8742:Falling action/Catastasis 8687: 8592: 8527: 8450: 8262: 8125: 8053: 7992: 7789: 7566: 7536: 7498: 7455: 7417: 7410: 7387: 7321: 7253: 7185: 7089: 6974: 6894: 6829: 6751: 6658: 6643: 6595: 6557: 6269: 6194: 6069: 6060: 5990: 5927: 5918: 5849: 5775:. Princeton, New Jersey: 5378:Morgan, C. Lloyd (1903). 4618:World Wide Web Consortium 3929:Wiley, Edward O. (2011). 3575:Einstein, Albert (1934). 3561:Carpenter, B. K. (1984). 3527:(in French). p. 423. 2696:Crombie, Alistair Cameron 2636:"What Ockham really said" 1989:in his story/mock-essay " 1954:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 1681:or more generally on the 1614:prison abolition movement 1546:methodological naturalism 1498:arguments in favor of God 1073:interpolated between the 993:principle of least action 496: 70:, a 14th-century English 9683:Concepts in epistemology 8579:Self-fulfilling prophecy 6839:Friedrich Schleiermacher 6425:Theories about religions 6227:Inconsistent revelations 5752:10.1093/mind/XXVII.3.345 5734:Thorburn, W. M. (1918). 5715:. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: 5556:The Philosophical Review 5424:(3rd ed.). London: 5232:The Development of Logic 5196:(Preprint available as " 5123:Jacquette, Dale (1994). 5083:Journal of Mind Behavior 4966:Matter and Consciousness 4656:The Skeptic's Dictionary 3488:10.1002/andp.19053231314 3084:The Philosophical Review 3057:Sotos, John G. (2006) . 2997:"What is Occam's Razor?" 2592:Alistair Cameron Crombie 2181: 2004: 1977:extremist anti-razor is 1906:of Occam's razor in his 1722:universal Turing machine 471:justifications based on 9713:Philosophical analogies 9693:Epistemology of science 9206:Stream of consciousness 8669:Suspension of disbelief 7549:Theological voluntarism 5688:Sober, Elliott (2015). 5597:Sober, Elliott (1981). 5590:Oxford University Press 5584:Sober, Elliott (1975). 5380:"Other Minds than Ours" 5236:Oxford University Press 4816:"Inverse Occam's razor" 4778:Calculating Catastrophe 4446:Information and Control 4280:10.1093/comjnl/42.4.270 4243:10.1093/comjnl/11.2.185 4187:Tonry, Michael (2005). 3538:de Broglie, L. (1925). 3391:Sober, Elliott (2004). 3205:(subscription required) 2876:10.1023/A:1020994407185 2717:Encyclopædia Britannica 2466:Sober, Elliott (2015). 2327:Encyclopedia Britannica 1762:algorithmic probability 1675:artificial intelligence 1277:features of evolution. 997:Pierre Louis Maupertuis 864: 718:conditional probability 8747:Denouement/Catastrophe 8728:Rising action/Epitasis 8065:Catholicism portal 6703:Gaunilo of Marmoutiers 5843:Philosophy of religion 5692:. Cambridge, England: 5211:Katz, Jerrold (1998). 5147:Jaynes, Edwin Thompson 5060:Pattern Classification 4996:. New York, New York: 4613:"Principles of Design" 3904:Sober, Elliot (1998). 3395:. In Zellner, Arnold; 2661:Bauer, Laurie (2007). 2142:Minimum message length 2031:" and the lower text " 1966:principle of plenitude 1945: 1740:minimum message length 1467: 1452: 1403:philosophy of religion 1335:long branch attraction 968: 809: 729:bias–variance tradeoff 625: 512:bias–variance tradeoff 369: 359: 338: 319: 292: 199: 172: 167: 165:, showing the words: " 129: 80: 63: 52:principle of parsimony 47: 9599:Theories of deduction 9093:Utopian and dystopian 8077:Philosophy portal 7892:Infused righteousness 7238:Faith and rationality 7193:Criticism of religion 7131:Robert Merrihew Adams 7121:Nicholas Wolterstorff 6324:Divine command theory 5618:10.1093/bjps/32.2.145 5459:10.1093/bjps/48.3.329 5315:10.1484/J.MS.2.306670 5213:Realistic Rationalism 4952:Ariew, Roger (1976). 4715:Philosophy of Science 4650:(12 September 2014). 4515:10.1093/comjnl/bxm117 3581:Philosophy of Science 2806:Logical Constructions 2543:Philosophical Studies 2531:. note 44 to chap. 9. 2163:Philosophy of science 1876:Controversial aspects 1841:Kolmogorov complexity 1726:Kolmogorov complexity 1683:Free energy principle 1642:Kolmogorov complexity 1638:statistical inference 1556:is one's conclusion. 1462: 1447: 1287:, when threatened by 1283:provides an example. 1094:reverse transcriptase 946:Harmonia Macrocosmica 939: 795: 722:posterior probability 619: 415:ontological parsimony 287: 156: 8647:Narrative techniques 8427:Story within a story 8239:Supporting character 8025:Doctor of the Church 7907:Ontological argument 7228:Religious philosophy 6708:Pico della Mirandola 6673:Anselm of Canterbury 6605:Augustinian theodicy 6517:Religious skepticism 5850:Concepts in religion 5203:4 March 2005 at the 5066:. pp. 487–489. 4988:Crick, Francis H. C. 4480:. pp. 177–200. 4268:The Computer Journal 4231:The Computer Journal 3954:Brower, AVZ (2017). 3873:Paul Pojman (2009). 3735:Alan Baker (2010) . 3679:. UPNE. p. 39. 2897:Rathmanner, Samuel; 2684:. London: Pan Books. 2582:Chap 9. p. 241. 1857:programming language 1847:Software development 1667:false discovery rate 1530:Pierre-Simon Laplace 1235:evolutionary biology 714:marginal probability 655:Problem of induction 391:hypotheses non fingo 365:Summa Totius Logicae 157:Part of a page from 19:For other uses, see 9718:Razors (philosophy) 9426:Philosophical logic 9352:Political narrative 9194:Unreliable narrator 9051:Speculative fiction 8759:Nonlinear narrative 8707:Three-act structure 8567:Deal with the Devil 7852:Divine illumination 7508:Augustinian realism 7376:Theological virtues 7315:Catholic philosophy 7213:History of religion 6914:Friedrich Nietzsche 6791:Gottfried W Leibniz 6786:Nicolas Malebranche 6718:King James VI and I 5998:Abrahamic religions 5635:on 15 December 2011 5540:on 11 February 2007 5324:"Søren Kierkegaard" 5272:2003itil.book.....M 5254:MacKay, David J. C. 5036:10.1093/bjps/axm033 4962:Churchland, Paul M. 4409:2004FoPhL..17..255S 4197:Columbia Law Review 4173:14 May 2016 at the 4009:Crick 1988, p. 146. 3799:2008arXiv0812.4932C 3540:Annales de Physique 3479:1905AnP...323..639E 3397:Keuzenkamp, Hugo A. 3328:Logik der Forschung 3231:2003itil.book.....M 2929:2011Entrp..13.1076R 2868:2000math.ph...9007S 2157:Philosophical razor 1855:argues the correct 1853:rule of least power 1610:restorative justice 1574:spirit-body dualism 1415:Christian scripture 1315:cladistic parsimony 961:' first edition of 823:Ludwig Wittgenstein 697:William H. Jefferys 194:Posterior Analytics 89:philosophical razor 9490:Unity of opposites 9330:Narrative paradigm 9325:Narrative identity 9255:Dominant narrative 9201:Multiple narrators 8485:Fictional location 8328:Dramatic structure 8020:Islamic philosophy 7974:Trademark argument 7867:Formal distinction 7817:Augustinian values 7490:Analytical Thomism 7470:Christian humanism 7223:Religious language 7203:Ethics in religion 7161:William Lane Craig 7036:Charles Hartshorne 6776:Desiderius Erasmus 6678:Augustine of Hippo 6620:Inconsistent triad 6582:Apophatic theology 6577:Logical positivism 6559:Religious language 6179:Watchmaker analogy 6144:Necessary existent 5920:Conceptions of God 5880:Intelligent design 5703:978-1-107-06849--0 5675:on 8 November 2006 5363:10.1007/BF00485426 5188:American Scientist 5131:. pp. 34–36. 5125:Philosophy of Mind 5064:Wiley-Interscience 4133:Political Theology 3467:Annalen der Physik 3264:American Scientist 1751:Jürgen Schmidhuber 1560:Philosophy of mind 1355:information theory 1323:phylogenetic trees 1243:George C. Williams 1141:Christiaan Huygens 1028:reaction mechanism 989:special relativity 987:'s formulation of 969: 955:heliocentric model 884:possibly contains 817:Duhem–Quine thesis 813:Underdetermination 736:Other philosophers 710:Bayesian inference 687:David J. C. MacKay 672:probability theory 626: 557:possibly contains 532:Bayesian inference 485:probability theory 381:Later formulations 293: 181:Robert Grosseteste 173: 9670: 9669: 9522:List of fallacies 9507:Explanatory power 9434:Critical thinking 9392: 9391: 9335:Narrative therapy 8769:television series 8714:Freytag's Pyramid 8557:Moral development 8460:Alternate history 8170:False protagonist 8085: 8084: 8000:Catholic theology 7947:Seven deadly sins 7917:Peripatetic axiom 7827:Cartesian dualism 7562: 7561: 7528:Scotistic realism 7485:Neo-scholasticism 7281: 7280: 7181: 7180: 7141:Peter van Inwagen 7126:Richard Swinburne 7071:George I Mavrodes 6931:Vladimir Solovyov 6871:Søren Kierkegaard 6796:William Wollaston 6743:William of Ockham 6723:Marcion of Sinope 6625:Irenaean theodicy 6615:Euthyphro dilemma 6542:Transcendentalism 6371:Womanist theology 6361:Feminist theology 6265: 6264: 6056: 6055: 5942:Divine simplicity 5862:Euthyphro dilemma 5786:978-0-691-02615-2 5726:978-0-87462-164-8 5656:. pp. 73–94. 5503:978-84-309-0711-3 5484:978-0-87220-380-8 5435:978-1-60386-435-0 5395:978-0-89093-171-4 5303:Mediaeval Studies 5281:978-0-521-64298-9 5245:978-0-19-824183-6 5222:978-0-262-11229-1 5166:978-0-521-59271-0 5138:978-0-13-030933-4 5073:978-0-471-05669-0 5007:978-0-465-09137-9 4979:978-0-262-53050-7 4891:Stichting Skepsis 4788:978-1-84816-893-0 4695:978-0-674-32351-3 4648:Robert T. Carroll 4555:"2001 Ockham.pdf" 4372:10.1109/18.825807 4151:978-0-226-73889-5 4116:978-0-552-77331-7 4073:. Newadvent.org. 3973:10.1111/cla.12216 3940:978-0-470-90596-8 3915:978-0-262-69144-4 3777:Physics in Canada 3686:978-1-55553-360-1 3647:978-3-16-146910-7 3446:978-0-87462-164-8 3412:978-0-521-80361-8 3377:978-0-19-824407-3 3341:978-84-309-0711-3 3150:on 27 April 2009. 3068:978-0-9818193-0-3 2938:10.3390/e13061076 2758:978-0-7624-1698-1 2611:. Newadvent.org. 2405:978-0-521-01708-4 2106:Explanatory power 2071:Psychology portal 2057:Philosophy portal 2037:safety razorblade 1987:Jorge Luis Borges 1960:(1724–1804), and 1869:Chomsky hierarchy 1829: 1828: 1821: 1742:(MML) principle. 1552:one assumes, the 1475:Søren Kierkegaard 1319:maximum parsimony 1308:symplesiomorphies 1297:is the branch of 1231: 1230: 1223: 1090:continental drift 1039:scientific method 1013:Werner Heisenberg 1005:quantum mechanics 941:Andreas Cellarius 929: 928: 921: 886:original research 791:Richard Swinburne 786:Richard Swinburne 611:ad hoc hypothesis 602: 601: 594: 559:original research 538:Testing the razor 508:statistical noise 483:, and especially 423:Theodore Woodward 296:William of Ockham 280:William of Ockham 68:William of Ockham 66:). Attributed to 9730: 9652:Platonic realism 9419: 9412: 9405: 9396: 9395: 9315:Literary science 8858:Narrative poetry 8754:Linear narrative 8664:Stylistic device 8659:Show, don't tell 8622:Figure of speech 8412:Shaggy dog story 8155:Characterization 8112: 8105: 8098: 8089: 8088: 8075: 8074: 8073: 8063: 8062: 7887:Homo unius libri 7832:Cogito, ergo sum 7822:Cardinal virtues 7523:Moderate realism 7415: 7414: 7405: 7404: 7399: 7398: 7393: 7392: 7331:Cardinal virtues 7308: 7301: 7294: 7285: 7284: 7271: 7270: 7261: 7166:Ali Akbar Rashad 7029:Reinhold Niebuhr 6989:Bertrand Russell 6984:George Santayana 6881:Albrecht Ritschl 6866:Ludwig Feuerbach 6656: 6655: 6652:(by date active) 6512:Process theology 6257:Russell's teapot 6067: 6066: 6062:Existence of God 5972:Process theology 5925: 5924: 5910:Theological veto 5873:religious belief 5836: 5829: 5822: 5813: 5812: 5790: 5767: 5765: 5763: 5746:(107): 345–353. 5730: 5707: 5684: 5682: 5680: 5674: 5668:. Archived from 5667: 5657: 5644: 5642: 5640: 5634: 5628:. Archived from 5603: 5593: 5580: 5549: 5547: 5545: 5536:. Archived from 5528: 5507: 5488: 5470: 5439: 5411: 5409: 5407: 5402:on 12 April 2005 5398:. Archived from 5374: 5345: 5343: 5341: 5318: 5297: 5295: 5293: 5249: 5226: 5195: 5182: 5180: 5178: 5142: 5119: 5117: 5115: 5090: 5077: 5062:(2nd ed.). 5054: 5052: 5021: 5011: 4983: 4957: 4938: 4937: 4916: 4907: 4906: 4904: 4902: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4835: 4811: 4805: 4804: 4802: 4800: 4772: 4766: 4765: 4760: 4758: 4737: 4731: 4730: 4721:(5): 1134–1145. 4706: 4700: 4699: 4678: 4672: 4671: 4669: 4667: 4644: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4611:(4 March 2013). 4609:Berners-Lee, Tim 4605: 4599: 4596: 4590: 4583: 4577: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4566: 4559: 4549: 4543: 4533: 4527: 4526: 4503:Computer Journal 4498: 4492: 4491: 4489: 4470: 4464: 4463: 4461: 4435: 4429: 4428: 4402: 4382: 4376: 4375: 4365: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4323: 4317: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4306: 4299: 4293:Nannen, Volker. 4290: 4284: 4283: 4265: 4256: 4247: 4246: 4222: 4213: 4212: 4211:on 23 June 2006. 4210: 4193: 4184: 4178: 4162: 4156: 4155: 4127: 4121: 4120: 4107:The God delusion 4102: 4096: 4093: 4087: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4067: 4061: 4046: 4040: 4039: 4037: 4035: 4020:"William Ockham" 4016: 4010: 4007: 4001: 4000: 3992: 3986: 3985: 3975: 3951: 3945: 3944: 3926: 3920: 3919: 3901: 3895: 3894: 3892: 3890: 3870: 3864: 3863: 3853: 3829: 3823: 3822: 3814: 3803: 3802: 3792: 3772: 3757: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3732: 3721: 3720: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3670: 3664: 3663: 3661: 3659: 3631: 3625: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3572: 3566: 3559: 3553: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3535: 3529: 3528: 3520: 3514: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3490: 3459:Einstein, Albert 3455: 3449: 3438: 3432: 3428: 3426: 3424: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3365: 3352: 3346: 3345: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3295: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3260: 3251: 3242: 3241: 3239: 3224: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3203: 3201: 3199: 3182:(8): 1678–1685. 3167: 3161: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3146:. Archived from 3136: 3130: 3123: 3117: 3114: 3108: 3107: 3079: 3073: 3072: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3045: 3043: 3015: 3009: 3008: 2993: 2982: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2957: 2951: 2950: 2940: 2922: 2913:(6): 1076–1136. 2894: 2888: 2887: 2861: 2841: 2832: 2829: 2823: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2801: 2795: 2778:Primary source: 2776: 2770: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2743:Hawking, Stephen 2739: 2733: 2732: 2730: 2728: 2713:"Ockham's razor" 2709: 2703: 2693: 2687: 2685: 2674: 2668: 2666: 2658: 2652: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2605: 2599: 2598:(1953) pp. 85–86 2589: 2583: 2581: 2570: 2559: 2558: 2538: 2532: 2517: 2511: 2500: 2491: 2488: 2482: 2481: 2463: 2454: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2425: 2408: 2385: 2374: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2349: 2343: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2321:Duignan, Brian. 2318: 2312: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2301: 2270: 2261: 2255: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2239:Irish Philosophy 2230: 2213: 2210: 2204: 2201: 2195: 2192: 2168:Russell's teapot 2153: 2124:Hitchens's razor 2087: 2082: 2081: 2073: 2068: 2067: 2066: 2059: 2054: 2053: 2052: 1948: 1938: 1937: 1290–1343 1935: 1824: 1817: 1813: 1810: 1804: 1784: 1783: 1776: 1671:Laplace's method 1550:logical premises 1507:The God Delusion 1442:Summa Theologica 1425:was a matter of 1397:Existence of God 1270:The Selfish Gene 1226: 1219: 1215: 1212: 1206: 1183: 1182: 1175: 1099: 1017:Louis de Broglie 924: 917: 913: 910: 904: 901:inline citations 877: 876: 869: 807: 781: 597: 590: 586: 583: 577: 574:inline citations 550: 549: 542: 459: 397:Bertrand Russell 372: 362: 341: 322: 251:Summa Theologica 244: 243: 1217–1220 241: 219: 218: 214: 211: 202: 177:John Duns Scotus 170: 159:John Duns Scotus 132: 117:Libert Froidmont 83: 56:law of parsimony 9738: 9737: 9733: 9732: 9731: 9729: 9728: 9727: 9673: 9672: 9671: 9666: 9637:Logical atomism 9593: 9486:Socratic method 9437: 9428: 9423: 9393: 9388: 9320:Literary theory 9260:Fiction writing 9243: 9215: 9150: 8902: 8894: 8785: 8683: 8588: 8523: 8446: 8317:Deus ex machina 8258: 8244:Title character 8229:Stock character 8175:Focal character 8121: 8116: 8086: 8081: 8071: 8069: 8057: 8049: 8010:Aristotelianism 7988: 7837:Dehellenization 7785: 7558: 7554:Foundationalism 7532: 7494: 7451: 7406: 7402: 7400: 7396: 7394: 7390: 7385: 7371:Social teaching 7317: 7312: 7282: 7277: 7249: 7177: 7173:Alexander Pruss 7156:Jean-Luc Marion 7111:Alvin Plantinga 7106:Dewi Z Phillips 7093: 7091: 7085: 7056:Walter Kaufmann 7046:Frithjof Schuon 7019:Rudolf Bultmann 6976: 6970: 6966:Joseph Maréchal 6956:Pavel Florensky 6951:Sergei Bulgakov 6936:Ernst Troeltsch 6919:Harald Høffding 6896: 6890: 6861:William Whewell 6849:Georg W F Hegel 6844:Karl C F Krause 6831: 6825: 6821:Johann G Herder 6811:Baron d'Holbach 6761:Augustin Calmet 6747: 6663: 6651: 6650: 6647: 6639: 6597:Problem of evil 6591: 6587:Verificationism 6553: 6261: 6207:Atheist's Wager 6190: 6052: 5986: 5914: 5890:Problem of evil 5845: 5840: 5798: 5793: 5787: 5761: 5759: 5727: 5704: 5678: 5676: 5672: 5665: 5638: 5636: 5632: 5601: 5569:10.2307/2182164 5543: 5541: 5504: 5485: 5473: 5436: 5426:Henry Pemberton 5405: 5403: 5396: 5339: 5337: 5291: 5289: 5282: 5246: 5238:. p. 243. 5223: 5205:Wayback Machine 5176: 5174: 5167: 5139: 5113: 5111: 5074: 5050: 5019: 5008: 4980: 4947: 4945:Further reading 4942: 4941: 4917: 4910: 4900: 4898: 4873: 4869: 4859: 4857: 4812: 4808: 4798: 4796: 4789: 4773: 4769: 4756: 4754: 4738: 4734: 4707: 4703: 4696: 4679: 4675: 4665: 4663: 4652:"Occam's Razor" 4645: 4638: 4628: 4626: 4606: 4602: 4597: 4593: 4584: 4580: 4570: 4568: 4564: 4557: 4553: 4550: 4546: 4534: 4530: 4499: 4495: 4474:Schmidhuber, J. 4471: 4467: 4439:Solomonoff, Ray 4436: 4432: 4400:physics/0001020 4383: 4379: 4342: 4338: 4325: 4324: 4320: 4310: 4308: 4304: 4297: 4291: 4287: 4263: 4257: 4250: 4223: 4216: 4208: 4191: 4185: 4181: 4175:Wayback Machine 4163: 4159: 4152: 4128: 4124: 4117: 4103: 4099: 4094: 4090: 4080: 4078: 4069: 4068: 4064: 4047: 4043: 4033: 4031: 4018: 4017: 4013: 4008: 4004: 3993: 3989: 3952: 3948: 3941: 3927: 3923: 3916: 3902: 3898: 3888: 3886: 3871: 3867: 3830: 3826: 3815: 3806: 3773: 3760: 3750: 3748: 3733: 3724: 3715:. 13 May 2011. 3711: 3710: 3706: 3696: 3694: 3687: 3671: 3667: 3657: 3655: 3648: 3632: 3628: 3618: 3616: 3573: 3569: 3560: 3556: 3551: 3547: 3536: 3532: 3521: 3517: 3512: 3508: 3498: 3496: 3456: 3452: 3439: 3435: 3422: 3420: 3413: 3389: 3385: 3378: 3368:Clarendon Press 3353: 3349: 3342: 3321: 3317: 3310: 3296: 3292: 3283: 3258: 3252: 3245: 3237: 3222: 3214: 3210: 3204: 3197: 3195: 3168: 3164: 3159: 3155: 3138: 3137: 3133: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3111: 3096:10.2307/2177489 3080: 3076: 3069: 3055: 3051: 3041: 3039: 3032: 3016: 3012: 2995: 2994: 2985: 2975: 2973: 2958: 2954: 2895: 2891: 2859:math-ph/0009007 2842: 2835: 2830: 2826: 2816: 2814: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2777: 2773: 2763: 2761: 2759: 2740: 2736: 2726: 2724: 2711: 2710: 2706: 2694: 2690: 2675: 2671: 2659: 2655: 2645: 2643: 2638:. Boing Boing. 2632: 2628: 2618: 2616: 2607: 2606: 2602: 2590: 2586: 2574:Franklin, James 2571: 2562: 2539: 2535: 2518: 2514: 2504:Opus Oxoniense, 2501: 2494: 2489: 2485: 2478: 2464: 2457: 2447: 2445: 2426: 2411: 2387:Hugh G. Gauch, 2386: 2377: 2367: 2365: 2350: 2346: 2336: 2334: 2323:"Occam's Razor" 2319: 2315: 2305: 2303: 2299: 2268: 2262: 2258: 2248: 2246: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2217: 2216: 2211: 2207: 2202: 2198: 2193: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2151: 2118:Hickam's dictum 2083: 2076: 2069: 2064: 2062: 2055: 2050: 2048: 2045: 2007: 1936: 1926: 1900:Galileo Galilei 1878: 1861:Tim Berners-Lee 1849: 1825: 1814: 1808: 1805: 1797:help improve it 1794: 1785: 1781: 1774: 1718: 1716:Objective razor 1673:are used. Many 1627: 1606:proportionality 1590: 1582:folk psychology 1578:Paul Churchland 1562: 1515:George Berkeley 1504:from Dawkins's 1399: 1393: 1265:Richard Dawkins 1227: 1216: 1210: 1207: 1196: 1190:has an unclear 1184: 1180: 1173: 1122:Albert Einstein 1118:Brownian motion 1097: 985:Albert Einstein 934: 925: 914: 908: 905: 890: 878: 874: 867: 825: 808: 805: 788: 779: 759: 743: 738: 701:James O. Berger 679:Harold Jeffreys 668: 662: 657: 647: 598: 587: 581: 578: 563: 551: 547: 540: 520:model selection 493: 469:epistemological 453: 450: 445: 383: 282: 260:God's existence 242: 216: 212: 208: 200:ceteris paribus 151: 125:novacula occami 109: 64:lex parsimoniae 48:novacula Occami 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9736: 9726: 9725: 9720: 9715: 9710: 9705: 9703:Rules of thumb 9700: 9695: 9690: 9685: 9668: 9667: 9665: 9664: 9659: 9654: 9649: 9644: 9639: 9634: 9629: 9624: 9619: 9614: 9609: 9607:Constructivism 9603: 9601: 9595: 9594: 9592: 9591: 9586: 9581: 9576: 9571: 9566: 9561: 9556: 9551: 9546: 9541: 9536: 9531: 9526: 9525: 9524: 9514: 9509: 9504: 9499: 9494: 9493: 9492: 9474: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9454: 9449: 9443: 9441: 9439:informal logic 9430: 9429: 9422: 9421: 9414: 9407: 9399: 9390: 9389: 9387: 9386: 9384:Verisimilitude 9381: 9376: 9371: 9366: 9365: 9364: 9354: 9349: 9348: 9347: 9337: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9317: 9312: 9311: 9310: 9300: 9299: 9298: 9289: 9287:Parallel novel 9284: 9283: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9257: 9251: 9249: 9245: 9244: 9242: 9241: 9236: 9231: 9225: 9223: 9217: 9216: 9214: 9213: 9208: 9203: 9198: 9197: 9196: 9191: 9186: 9176: 9171: 9166: 9160: 9158: 9152: 9151: 9149: 9148: 9147: 9146: 9141: 9131: 9130: 9129: 9124: 9119: 9114: 9109: 9108: 9107: 9102: 9101: 9100: 9095: 9090: 9080: 9075: 9070: 9069: 9068: 9058: 9048: 9043: 9038: 9037: 9036: 9031: 9021: 9016: 9011: 9006: 9001: 8996: 8991: 8986: 8981: 8976: 8971: 8966: 8961: 8956: 8951: 8946: 8941: 8936: 8931: 8929:Action fiction 8921: 8916: 8910: 8908: 8896: 8895: 8893: 8892: 8887: 8882: 8877: 8872: 8867: 8866: 8865: 8855: 8850: 8845: 8844: 8843: 8838: 8833: 8828: 8823: 8813: 8808: 8801: 8795: 8793: 8787: 8786: 8784: 8783: 8778: 8773: 8772: 8771: 8766: 8756: 8751: 8750: 8749: 8744: 8739: 8730: 8725: 8711: 8710: 8709: 8704: 8693: 8691: 8685: 8684: 8682: 8681: 8676: 8671: 8666: 8661: 8656: 8655: 8654: 8644: 8639: 8634: 8629: 8624: 8619: 8614: 8609: 8604: 8598: 8596: 8590: 8589: 8587: 8586: 8581: 8576: 8575: 8574: 8569: 8559: 8554: 8549: 8544: 8539: 8533: 8531: 8525: 8524: 8522: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8510: 8509: 8508: 8507: 8497: 8492: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8456: 8454: 8448: 8447: 8445: 8444: 8439: 8434: 8429: 8424: 8419: 8414: 8409: 8407:Self-insertion 8404: 8399: 8394: 8392:Poetic justice 8389: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8369: 8362: 8355: 8350: 8345: 8340: 8335: 8330: 8325: 8320: 8313: 8308: 8303: 8298: 8293: 8292: 8291: 8281: 8276: 8268: 8266: 8260: 8259: 8257: 8256: 8251: 8246: 8241: 8236: 8231: 8226: 8221: 8216: 8215: 8214: 8209: 8204: 8194: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8152: 8150:Character flaw 8147: 8142: 8137: 8131: 8129: 8123: 8122: 8115: 8114: 8107: 8100: 8092: 8083: 8082: 8080: 8079: 8067: 8054: 8051: 8050: 8048: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7996: 7994: 7990: 7989: 7987: 7986: 7981: 7976: 7971: 7970: 7969: 7964: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7912:Pascal's wager 7909: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7879: 7874: 7872:Guardian angel 7869: 7864: 7859: 7854: 7849: 7844: 7839: 7834: 7829: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7793: 7791: 7787: 7786: 7784: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7613: 7608: 7603: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7583: 7578: 7572: 7570: 7564: 7563: 7560: 7559: 7557: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7540: 7538: 7534: 7533: 7531: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7504: 7502: 7496: 7495: 7493: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7467: 7461: 7459: 7453: 7452: 7450: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7427:Augustinianism 7423: 7421: 7412: 7408: 7407: 7388: 7386: 7384: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7336:Divine command 7333: 7327: 7325: 7319: 7318: 7311: 7310: 7303: 7296: 7288: 7279: 7278: 7276: 7275: 7265: 7254: 7251: 7250: 7248: 7247: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7189: 7187: 7186:Related topics 7183: 7182: 7179: 7178: 7176: 7175: 7169: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7146:Daniel Dennett 7143: 7138: 7136:Ravi Zacharias 7133: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7101:William L Rowe 7097: 7095: 7087: 7086: 7084: 7083: 7078: 7076:William Alston 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7032: 7031: 7026: 7024:Gabriel Marcel 7021: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6980: 6978: 6972: 6971: 6969: 6968: 6963: 6961:Ernst Cassirer 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6927: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6900: 6898: 6892: 6891: 6889: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6856:Thomas Carlyle 6852: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6835: 6833: 6827: 6826: 6824: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6781:Baruch Spinoza 6778: 6773: 6768: 6766:René Descartes 6763: 6757: 6755: 6749: 6748: 6746: 6745: 6740: 6738:Thomas Aquinas 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6669: 6667: 6653: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6638: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6601: 6599: 6593: 6592: 6590: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6563: 6561: 6555: 6554: 6552: 6551: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6507:Possibilianism 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6463: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6416: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6383:Fundamentalism 6380: 6375: 6374: 6373: 6368: 6358: 6357: 6356: 6351: 6344:Existentialism 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6275: 6273: 6267: 6266: 6263: 6262: 6260: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6237:Noncognitivism 6234: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6198: 6196: 6192: 6191: 6189: 6188: 6186:Transcendental 6183: 6182: 6181: 6176: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6154:Pascal's wager 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6105: 6104: 6099: 6089: 6084: 6082:Christological 6079: 6073: 6071: 6064: 6058: 6057: 6054: 6053: 6051: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5994: 5992: 5988: 5987: 5985: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5928: 5922: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5876: 5875: 5864: 5859: 5853: 5851: 5847: 5846: 5839: 5838: 5831: 5824: 5816: 5810: 5809: 5808:, 31 May 2007) 5802:Ockham's Razor 5797: 5796:External links 5794: 5792: 5791: 5785: 5768: 5731: 5725: 5708: 5702: 5685: 5658: 5645: 5612:(2): 145–156. 5594: 5581: 5563:(2): 141–156. 5550: 5529: 5519:(3): 121–125. 5508: 5502: 5489: 5483: 5471: 5453:(3): 329–343. 5440: 5434: 5412: 5394: 5375: 5357:(4): 415–428. 5346: 5319: 5298: 5280: 5250: 5244: 5227: 5221: 5208: 5183: 5165: 5143: 5137: 5120: 5091: 5078: 5072: 5055: 5030:(4): 709–754. 5012: 5006: 4984: 4978: 4958: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4940: 4939: 4908: 4867: 4826:(4): 367–368. 4820:Nature Physics 4806: 4787: 4767: 4732: 4727:10.1086/705474 4701: 4694: 4673: 4636: 4600: 4591: 4578: 4544: 4528: 4509:(5): 523–560. 4493: 4465: 4452:(1–22): 1964. 4430: 4393:(3): 255–266. 4377: 4356:(2): 446–464. 4336: 4318: 4285: 4274:(4): 270–283. 4248: 4237:(2): 185–194. 4214: 4179: 4157: 4150: 4122: 4115: 4097: 4095:McDonald 2005. 4088: 4062: 4041: 4011: 4002: 3987: 3966:(5): 562–567. 3946: 3939: 3921: 3914: 3896: 3865: 3844:(5): 541–549. 3838:Bioinformatics 3824: 3804: 3758: 3722: 3704: 3685: 3665: 3646: 3626: 3593:10.1086/286316 3567: 3554: 3545: 3530: 3515: 3506: 3473:(18): 639–41. 3450: 3433: 3411: 3383: 3376: 3356:Sober, Elliott 3347: 3340: 3315: 3308: 3290: 3243: 3208: 3162: 3153: 3131: 3118: 3109: 3090:(5): 535–562. 3074: 3067: 3049: 3030: 3010: 2983: 2952: 2899:Hutter, Marcus 2889: 2852:(2): 107–135. 2833: 2824: 2796: 2794: 2793: 2790: 2786:1726 edition. 2771: 2757: 2734: 2704: 2688: 2669: 2653: 2626: 2600: 2584: 2560: 2533: 2525:On the Heavens 2512: 2492: 2483: 2477:978-1107692534 2476: 2455: 2409: 2375: 2344: 2313: 2279:(4): 644–664. 2256: 2224: 2223: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2214: 2205: 2196: 2186: 2185: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2177: 2171: 2165: 2160: 2154: 2145: 2139: 2133: 2130:KISS principle 2127: 2121: 2115: 2112:Hanlon's razor 2109: 2103: 2097: 2090: 2089: 2088: 2085:Science portal 2074: 2060: 2044: 2041: 2006: 2003: 1970:Arthur Lovejoy 1930:Walter Chatton 1925: 1922: 1902:lampooned the 1877: 1874: 1848: 1845: 1827: 1826: 1788: 1786: 1779: 1773: 1770: 1717: 1714: 1705:Turing machine 1679:Occam Learning 1626: 1623: 1602:Jeremy Bentham 1589: 1586: 1566:J. J. C. Smart 1561: 1558: 1437:Thomas Aquinas 1395:Main article: 1392: 1389: 1331:synapomorphies 1304:synapomorphies 1258:Morgan's Canon 1229: 1228: 1192:citation style 1187: 1185: 1178: 1172: 1169: 1120:, as shown by 1086:ball lightning 1047:falsifiability 1001:Leonhard Euler 933: 930: 927: 926: 881: 879: 872: 866: 863: 862: 861: 854: 853: 849: 844: 843: 839: 838: 824: 821: 806:Swinburne 1997 803: 787: 784: 758: 755: 750:falsifiability 742: 739: 737: 734: 664:Main article: 661: 658: 646: 643: 600: 599: 554: 552: 545: 539: 536: 492: 489: 461:Thomas Aquinas 449: 446: 444: 443:Justifications 441: 404:Ray Solomonoff 382: 379: 348:axioma vulgare 281: 278: 256:Thomas Aquinas 150: 147: 108: 105: 36:Ockham's razor 34:(also spelled 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9735: 9724: 9721: 9719: 9716: 9714: 9711: 9709: 9706: 9704: 9701: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9691: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9680: 9678: 9663: 9660: 9658: 9655: 9653: 9650: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9618: 9615: 9613: 9610: 9608: 9605: 9604: 9602: 9600: 9596: 9590: 9587: 9585: 9582: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9572: 9570: 9567: 9565: 9562: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9552: 9550: 9547: 9545: 9542: 9540: 9537: 9535: 9532: 9530: 9527: 9523: 9520: 9519: 9518: 9515: 9513: 9510: 9508: 9505: 9503: 9500: 9498: 9495: 9491: 9487: 9483: 9480: 9479: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9444: 9442: 9440: 9435: 9431: 9427: 9420: 9415: 9413: 9408: 9406: 9401: 9400: 9397: 9385: 9382: 9380: 9377: 9375: 9372: 9370: 9369:Screenwriting 9367: 9363: 9360: 9359: 9358: 9355: 9353: 9350: 9346: 9343: 9342: 9341: 9338: 9336: 9333: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9309: 9306: 9305: 9304: 9301: 9297: 9293: 9290: 9288: 9285: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9267: 9266: 9263: 9262: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9252: 9250: 9246: 9240: 9237: 9235: 9232: 9230: 9227: 9226: 9224: 9222: 9218: 9212: 9209: 9207: 9204: 9202: 9199: 9195: 9192: 9190: 9187: 9185: 9182: 9181: 9180: 9177: 9175: 9174:Second-person 9172: 9170: 9167: 9165: 9162: 9161: 9159: 9157: 9153: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9136: 9135: 9132: 9128: 9125: 9123: 9120: 9118: 9115: 9113: 9110: 9106: 9103: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9086: 9085: 9084: 9081: 9079: 9078:Magic realism 9076: 9074: 9071: 9067: 9064: 9063: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9053: 9052: 9049: 9047: 9044: 9042: 9039: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9027: 9026: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9012: 9010: 9009:Psychological 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8989:Philosophical 8987: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8965: 8962: 8960: 8957: 8955: 8952: 8950: 8947: 8945: 8942: 8940: 8937: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8926: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8915: 8914:Autobiography 8912: 8911: 8909: 8906: 8901: 8897: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8883: 8881: 8878: 8876: 8873: 8871: 8868: 8864: 8861: 8860: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8853:Narrative art 8851: 8849: 8846: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8834: 8832: 8829: 8827: 8824: 8822: 8819: 8818: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8811:Flash fiction 8809: 8807: 8806: 8802: 8800: 8797: 8796: 8794: 8792: 8788: 8782: 8779: 8777: 8774: 8770: 8767: 8765: 8762: 8761: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8748: 8745: 8743: 8740: 8738: 8734: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8720: 8717: 8716: 8715: 8712: 8708: 8705: 8703: 8702:Act structure 8700: 8699: 8698: 8695: 8694: 8692: 8690: 8686: 8680: 8677: 8675: 8672: 8670: 8667: 8665: 8662: 8660: 8657: 8653: 8650: 8649: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8635: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8608: 8605: 8603: 8600: 8599: 8597: 8595: 8591: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8573: 8570: 8568: 8565: 8564: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8534: 8532: 8530: 8526: 8520: 8519:Worldbuilding 8517: 8515: 8512: 8506: 8503: 8502: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8487: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8457: 8455: 8453: 8449: 8443: 8440: 8438: 8435: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8375: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8367: 8366:Kishōtenketsu 8363: 8361: 8360: 8359:In medias res 8356: 8354: 8351: 8349: 8346: 8344: 8341: 8339: 8338:Foreshadowing 8336: 8334: 8333:Eucatastrophe 8331: 8329: 8326: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8318: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8302: 8299: 8297: 8296:Chekhov's gun 8294: 8290: 8287: 8286: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8274: 8270: 8269: 8267: 8265: 8261: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8240: 8237: 8235: 8232: 8230: 8227: 8225: 8222: 8220: 8217: 8213: 8210: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8199: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8192: 8188: 8186: 8185:Gothic double 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8165:Deuteragonist 8163: 8161: 8158: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8145:Character arc 8143: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8132: 8130: 8128: 8124: 8120: 8113: 8108: 8106: 8101: 8099: 8094: 8093: 8090: 8078: 8068: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8055: 8052: 8046: 8045:Phenomenology 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7997: 7995: 7991: 7985: 7982: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7972: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7959: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7942:Rota Fortunae 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7902:Occam's razor 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7882:Head of a pin 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7863: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7843: 7840: 7838: 7835: 7833: 7830: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7797:Actus Essendi 7795: 7794: 7792: 7788: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7631:Chateaubriand 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7573: 7571: 7569: 7565: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7541: 7539: 7535: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7518:Conceptualism 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7505: 7503: 7501: 7497: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7462: 7460: 7458: 7454: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7432:Scholasticism 7430: 7428: 7425: 7424: 7422: 7420: 7416: 7413: 7409: 7382: 7381:Virtue ethics 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7366:Seven virtues 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7328: 7326: 7324: 7320: 7316: 7309: 7304: 7302: 7297: 7295: 7290: 7289: 7286: 7274: 7266: 7264: 7260: 7256: 7255: 7252: 7246: 7245: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7190: 7188: 7184: 7174: 7171: 7170: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7116:Anthony Kenny 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7098: 7096: 7088: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7041:Mircea Eliade 7039: 7037: 7034: 7033: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6981: 6979: 6973: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6928: 6925: 6924:William James 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6904:Ernst Haeckel 6902: 6901: 6899: 6893: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6853: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6836: 6834: 6828: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6816:Immanuel Kant 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6771:Blaise Pascal 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6758: 6756: 6754: 6750: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6670: 6668: 6666: 6661: 6657: 6654: 6649: 6642: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6602: 6600: 6598: 6594: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6572:Language game 6570: 6568: 6565: 6564: 6562: 6560: 6556: 6550: 6549: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6447: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6400: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6363: 6362: 6359: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6346: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6276: 6274: 6272: 6268: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6242:Occam's razor 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6199: 6197: 6193: 6187: 6184: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6171: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6094: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6087:Consciousness 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6074: 6072: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6059: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5995: 5993: 5989: 5983: 5982:Unmoved mover 5980: 5978: 5977:Supreme Being 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5917: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5854: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5837: 5832: 5830: 5825: 5823: 5818: 5817: 5814: 5807: 5803: 5800: 5799: 5788: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5769: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5732: 5728: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5709: 5705: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5686: 5671: 5664: 5659: 5655: 5652:. Cambridge: 5651: 5646: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5600: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5557: 5551: 5539: 5535: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5509: 5505: 5499: 5495: 5490: 5486: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5447: 5441: 5437: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5422: 5417: 5416:Newton, Isaac 5413: 5401: 5397: 5391: 5387: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5347: 5335: 5331: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5287: 5283: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5260: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5228: 5224: 5218: 5215:. MIT Press. 5214: 5209: 5206: 5202: 5199: 5193: 5189: 5184: 5172: 5168: 5162: 5158: 5157: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5134: 5130: 5129:Prentice Hall 5126: 5121: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5079: 5075: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5056: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5018: 5013: 5009: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4950: 4949: 4935: 4931: 4930: 4925: 4921: 4920:Hyde, Deborah 4915: 4913: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4883: 4878: 4871: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4810: 4794: 4790: 4784: 4780: 4779: 4771: 4764: 4752: 4748: 4747: 4742: 4741:Immanuel Kant 4736: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4705: 4697: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4677: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4643: 4641: 4624: 4620: 4619: 4614: 4610: 4604: 4595: 4588: 4582: 4563: 4556: 4548: 4542: 4538: 4532: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4497: 4488: 4487:cs.AI/0302012 4483: 4479: 4475: 4469: 4460: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4444: 4440: 4434: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4381: 4373: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4340: 4332: 4328: 4322: 4303: 4296: 4289: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4262: 4255: 4253: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4221: 4219: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4198: 4190: 4183: 4176: 4172: 4169: 4168: 4161: 4153: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4134: 4126: 4118: 4112: 4108: 4101: 4092: 4076: 4072: 4066: 4059: 4058:9781570753961 4055: 4051: 4045: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4015: 4006: 3998: 3991: 3983: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3950: 3942: 3936: 3932: 3925: 3917: 3911: 3907: 3900: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3869: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3828: 3820: 3813: 3811: 3809: 3800: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3771: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3731: 3729: 3727: 3718: 3714: 3708: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3678: 3677: 3669: 3653: 3649: 3643: 3639: 3638: 3630: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3571: 3564: 3558: 3549: 3541: 3534: 3526: 3519: 3510: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3469:(in German). 3468: 3464: 3460: 3454: 3447: 3443: 3437: 3431: 3430:Paper as PDF. 3418: 3414: 3408: 3404: 3403: 3398: 3394: 3387: 3379: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3363: 3357: 3351: 3343: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3319: 3311: 3309:9781461471370 3305: 3301: 3294: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3265: 3257: 3250: 3248: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3221: 3220: 3212: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3166: 3157: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3135: 3128: 3122: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3078: 3070: 3064: 3060: 3053: 3037: 3033: 3031:9781480838024 3027: 3023: 3022: 3014: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2956: 2948: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2921: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2893: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2860: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2840: 2838: 2828: 2812: 2808: 2807: 2800: 2791: 2788: 2787: 2785: 2781: 2775: 2760: 2754: 2750: 2749: 2744: 2738: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2708: 2701: 2697: 2692: 2683: 2679: 2673: 2664: 2657: 2641: 2637: 2630: 2614: 2610: 2604: 2597: 2593: 2588: 2579: 2575: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2537: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2516: 2509: 2505: 2499: 2497: 2487: 2479: 2473: 2469: 2462: 2460: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2397:0-521-01708-4 2394: 2390: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2348: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2317: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2267: 2260: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2229: 2225: 2209: 2200: 2191: 2187: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2155: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2095: 2094:Chekhov's gun 2092: 2091: 2086: 2080: 2075: 2072: 2061: 2058: 2047: 2040: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2013: 2002: 1998: 1996: 1993:". Physicist 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1974: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1958:Immanuel Kant 1956:(1646–1716), 1955: 1950: 1947: 1942: 1931: 1921: 1918: 1917:Francis Crick 1913: 1911: 1910: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1895: 1891: 1888:), while its 1887: 1882: 1873: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1844: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1833:no free lunch 1823: 1820: 1812: 1809:February 2024 1802: 1798: 1792: 1789:This section 1787: 1778: 1777: 1769: 1767: 1766:Chris Wallace 1763: 1759: 1756: 1752: 1749:According to 1747: 1743: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1730:Marcus Hutter 1727: 1723: 1713: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1686: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1650:Bayes factors 1645: 1643: 1639: 1634: 1632: 1622: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1585: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1557: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1511: 1509: 1508: 1503: 1499: 1494: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1479:leap of faith 1476: 1472: 1466: 1461: 1459: 1458: 1451: 1446: 1444: 1443: 1438: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1398: 1388: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1365: 1362: 1361:Francis Crick 1358: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1339:Elliott Sober 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1311: 1309: 1305: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1276: 1272: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1259: 1254: 1250: 1249: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1225: 1222: 1214: 1204: 1200: 1194: 1193: 1188:This section 1186: 1177: 1176: 1168: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1152: 1148: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1114:atomic theory 1111: 1107: 1103: 1102:atomic theory 1095: 1091: 1087: 1082: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1066: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1054: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1020: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 966: 965: 960: 956: 952: 948: 947: 942: 938: 923: 920: 912: 902: 898: 894: 888: 887: 882:This section 880: 871: 870: 859: 858: 857: 852:meaningless." 850: 846: 845: 841: 840: 836: 835: 834: 832: 831: 820: 818: 814: 802: 800: 794: 792: 783: 776: 775: 769: 764: 763:Elliott Sober 757:Elliott Sober 754: 751: 747: 733: 730: 725: 723: 719: 715: 711: 706: 702: 698: 694: 692: 688: 684: 680: 675: 673: 667: 656: 652: 642: 638: 635: 631: 623: 618: 614: 612: 606: 596: 593: 585: 575: 571: 567: 561: 560: 555:This section 553: 544: 543: 535: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 500: 498: 488: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 465: 462: 457: 440: 436: 434: 430: 426: 424: 420: 416: 411: 409: 405: 402:Around 1960, 400: 398: 394: 392: 388: 378: 376: 371: 366: 361: 355: 353: 349: 345: 340: 334: 332: 328: 327: 321: 315: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 290: 286: 277: 275: 271: 267: 266: 261: 257: 253: 252: 246: 237: 233: 230: 229:Commentary on 226: 221: 206: 201: 196: 195: 190: 186: 183:(1175–1253), 182: 179:(1265–1308), 178: 169: 164: 160: 155: 146: 144: 140: 136: 131: 126: 122: 118: 114: 113:Occam's razor 104: 102: 99: 94: 90: 85: 82: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 41: 40:Ocham's razor 37: 33: 32:Occam's razor 29: 22: 9632:Intuitionism 9617:Fictionalism 9543: 9374:Storytelling 9189:Subjectivity 9179:Third-person 9169:First-person 8803: 8612:Comic relief 8364: 8357: 8348:Flashforward 8315: 8289:Origin story 8271: 8234:Straight man 8189: 8015:Neoplatonism 7937:Ressentiment 7932:Quinque viae 7901: 7897:Memento mori 7857:Double truth 7802:Actus primus 7568:Philosophers 7475:Cartesianism 7242: 7061:Martin Lings 7014:Emil Brunner 7004:Paul Tillich 6994:Martin Buber 6909:W K Clifford 6886:Afrikan Spir 6801:Thomas Chubb 6753:Early modern 6733:Adi Shankara 6646:Philosophers 6630:Natural evil 6546: 6522:Spiritualism 6497:Perennialism 6450:Metaphysical 6294:Antireligion 6241: 6169:Teleological 6092:Cosmological 6043:Baháʼí Faith 6008:Christianity 5967:Personal god 5805: 5772: 5760:. 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Retrieved 2238: 2228: 2208: 2199: 2190: 2032: 2028: 2021:Deborah Hyde 2010: 2008: 1999: 1983:Alfred Jarry 1979:'Pataphysics 1975: 1951: 1940: 1927: 1914: 1907: 1903: 1898: 1883: 1879: 1850: 1830: 1815: 1806: 1790: 1755:Solomonoff's 1748: 1744: 1719: 1708: 1689: 1687: 1646: 1635: 1628: 1591: 1588:Penal ethics 1563: 1527: 1512: 1505: 1495: 1483:Gordon Clark 1468: 1463: 1457:quinque viae 1455: 1453: 1448: 1440: 1435: 1400: 1369:biogeography 1366: 1359: 1347: 1342: 1314: 1312: 1293: 1279: 1268: 1262: 1246: 1245:in his book 1232: 1217: 1211:January 2023 1208: 1189: 1153: 1149: 1137:Isaac Newton 1126: 1083: 1067: 1063: 1052: 1036: 1021: 970: 962: 944: 915: 906: 883: 855: 828: 826: 810: 798: 796: 789: 772: 760: 744: 726: 695: 690: 683:E. T. Jaynes 676: 669: 660:Mathematical 639: 632:claims that 630:supernatural 627: 607: 603: 588: 582:January 2023 579: 556: 501: 494: 466: 451: 437: 427: 412: 406:founded the 401: 395: 387:Isaac Newton 384: 364: 356: 347: 335: 330: 325: 316: 311: 299: 294: 265:quinque viae 263: 249: 247: 235: 231: 228: 222: 213: AD 90 192: 174: 162: 137:philosopher 124: 120: 112: 110: 86: 55: 51: 39: 35: 31: 25: 9612:Dialetheism 9502:Explanation 9472:Credibility 9379:Tellability 9345:Metafiction 9340:Narratology 9112:Theological 9004:Pop culture 8885:Short story 8863:Epic poetry 8584:Time travel 8397:Red herring 8382:Plot device 8353:Frame story 8306:Cliffhanger 8249:Tritagonist 8224:Protagonist 8035:Rationalism 8030:Renaissance 7962:Augustinian 7847:Disputation 7842:Differentia 7807:Actus purus 7711:Malebranche 7626:Bonaventure 7361:Personalism 7356:Natural law 7351:Probabilism 7081:Antony Flew 7066:Peter Geach 6999:René Guénon 6946:Lev Shestov 6941:Rudolf Otto 6648:of religion 6487:Panentheism 6420:Inclusivism 6339:Exclusivism 6334:Esotericism 6304:Creationism 6284:Agnosticism 6252:Poor design 6247:Omnipotence 6174:Natural law 6149:Ontological 6102:Contingency 5952:Holy Spirit 5806:In Our Time 5309:: 463–475. 5292:24 February 5177:24 November 4998:Basic Books 4929:The Skeptic 4666:24 February 4571:2 September 4034:24 February 3697:10 February 3587:(2): 165 . 3144:skepdic.com 3116:Pegis 1945. 3024:. Archway. 2764:24 February 2549:: 105–112. 2519:Aristotle, 2508:Opera Omnia 2012:The Skeptic 2009:Since 2012 1995:R. V. Jones 1962:Karl Menger 1924:Anti-razors 1618:sensibility 1598:utilitarian 1519:materialism 1381:populations 1295:Systematics 1239:systematics 1160:Hamiltonian 1110:John Dalton 774:sui generis 746:Karl Popper 741:Karl Popper 634:leprechauns 622:leprechauns 504:overfitting 143:Duns Scotus 111:The phrase 72:philosopher 9698:Heuristics 9677:Categories 9657:Pragmatism 9647:Nominalism 9554:Propaganda 9529:Hypothesis 9482:Antithesis 9265:Continuity 9134:Nonfiction 9098:Underwater 8994:Picaresque 8969:Historical 8954:Epistolary 8826:Fairy tale 8737:Peripeteia 8719:Exposition 8475:Dreamworld 8417:Stereotype 8387:Plot twist 8135:Antagonist 8040:Empiricism 7862:Evil demon 7636:Chesterton 7513:Nominalism 7500:Universals 7341:Just price 7051:J L Mackie 7009:Karl Barth 6806:David Hume 6728:Maimonides 6713:Heraclitus 6502:Polytheism 6472:Nondualism 6460:Humanistic 6445:Naturalism 6435:Monotheism 6393:Henotheism 6388:Gnosticism 6319:Demonology 6202:747 gambit 6119:Experience 5957:Misotheism 5588:. Oxford: 5586:Simplicity 5234:. London: 5089:: 119–130. 4901:21 October 4833:2204.08284 4757:27 October 4363:cs/9901014 4052:, p. 434. 3960:Cladistics 3783:(3): 7–8. 3751:22 January 3658:22 January 3619:22 January 3499:21 October 3366:. Oxford: 3362:Simplicity 3198:22 January 2368:2 February 2220:References 2174:Simplicity 1941:anti-razor 1694:Kolmogorov 1690:simplicity 1594:punishment 1427:revelation 1373:migrations 1350:Likelihood 1327:Cladograms 1203:footnoting 1164:Lagrangian 1106:Ernst Mach 1071:Max Planck 1055:hypotheses 1032:Constraint 1009:Max Planck 959:Copernicus 951:geocentric 893:improve it 651:Pragmatism 649:See also: 566:improve it 516:predictive 481:pragmatism 429:Ernst Mach 344:John Punch 308:nominalist 304:theologian 289:Manuscript 225:scholastic 217: 168 215: – c. 185:Maimonides 139:John Punch 135:Franciscan 93:hypotheses 76:theologian 28:philosophy 9627:Formalism 9589:Vagueness 9569:Relevance 9564:Reasoning 9477:Dialectic 9452:Ambiguity 9156:Narration 9105:Superhero 9029:Chivalric 9014:Religious 8999:Political 8934:Adventure 8919:Biography 8841:Tall tale 8689:Structure 8674:Symbolism 8642:Narration 8542:Leitmotif 8470:Crossover 8465:Backstory 8422:Story arc 8372:MacGuffin 8343:Flashback 8284:Backstory 8160:Confidant 8140:Archenemy 8127:Character 8119:Narrative 8005:Platonism 7979:Univocity 7877:Haecceity 7756:Ratzinger 7721:Montaigne 7701:MacIntyre 7656:Dionysius 7651:Descartes 7611:Augustine 7465:Salamanca 7151:Loyal Rue 6876:Karl Marx 6698:Gaudapada 6527:Shamanism 6492:Pantheism 6477:Nontheism 6455:Religious 6440:Mysticism 6413:Christian 6403:Religious 6354:Atheistic 6349:Christian 6232:Nonbelief 6217:Free will 6033:Mormonism 5857:Afterlife 5626:120916709 5513:Endeavour 5467:229320568 5418:(2011) . 4970:MIT Press 4893:: 45–46. 4850:247832936 4799:10 August 3889:4 October 3790:0812.4932 3326:(1992) . 2920:1105.5721 2784:Principia 2100:Duck test 1894:semantics 1523:solipsism 1439:, in the 1411:authority 1407:Christian 1385:organisms 1156:Newtonian 1024:chemistry 977:heuristic 897:verifying 848:Models)." 827:From the 768:epistemic 570:verifying 534:, etc.). 491:Empirical 473:induction 448:Aesthetic 385:To quote 352:Eucharist 270:causality 189:Aristotle 119:, in his 101:heuristic 98:abductive 9708:Occamism 9642:Logicism 9622:Finitism 9574:Rhetoric 9559:Prudence 9497:Evidence 9457:Argument 9447:Analysis 9362:Glossary 9357:Rhetoric 9164:Diegesis 9144:Creative 9117:Thriller 9066:Southern 8984:Paranoid 8979:Nautical 8890:Vignette 8848:Gamebook 8816:Folklore 8723:Protasis 8602:Allegory 8547:Metaphor 8505:parallel 8500:universe 8480:Dystopia 8437:Suspense 8323:Dialogue 8311:Conflict 8219:Narrator 8191:Hamartia 7967:Irenaean 7957:Theodicy 7927:Quiddity 7790:Concepts 7716:Maritain 7686:Krasicki 7676:Gassendi 7666:Eriugena 7621:Boethius 7596:Anscombe 7586:Albertus 7480:Molinism 7447:Occamism 7419:Medieval 7346:Just war 7273:Category 7218:Religion 7208:Exegesis 6693:Boethius 6688:Averroes 6683:Avicenna 6665:medieval 6635:Theodicy 6482:Pandeism 6398:Humanism 6366:Thealogy 6309:Dharmism 6279:Acosmism 6271:Theology 6139:Morality 6134:Miracles 6013:Hinduism 6003:Buddhism 5962:Pandeism 5937:Demiurge 5905:Theodicy 5756:Archived 5679:4 August 5639:4 August 5544:15 April 5406:15 April 5371:46962297 5351:Synthese 5340:14 April 5334:Archived 5286:Archived 5256:(2003). 5201:Archived 5194:: 64–72. 5171:Archived 5149:(1994). 5114:14 April 5108:Archived 5106:: 3–28. 5048:Archived 4990:(1988). 4964:(1984). 4934:Archived 4922:(2012). 4895:Archived 4854:Archived 4793:Archived 4751:Archived 4660:Archived 4623:Archived 4562:Archived 4441:(1964). 4425:17143230 4331:Archived 4302:Archived 4171:Archived 4164:p. 282, 4081:26 March 4075:Archived 4028:Archived 3982:34649374 3883:Archived 3860:16368772 3745:Archived 3717:Archived 3691:Archived 3652:Archived 3613:Archived 3609:44787169 3493:Archived 3461:(1905). 3423:4 August 3417:Archived 3358:(1975). 3281:Archived 3277:29774559 3235:Archived 3192:Archived 3036:Archived 3005:Archived 2970:Archived 2901:(2011). 2884:14940740 2817:29 March 2811:Archived 2745:(2003). 2721:Archived 2698:(1959), 2680:(1979). 2646:26 March 2640:Archived 2619:26 March 2613:Archived 2576:(2001). 2523:189a15, 2442:Archived 2440:: 3–28. 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